Classical (Administrative) School of Management

Formed between 1920 and 1950.

The founder of this school is Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925), French mining engineer, outstanding practical manager, one of the founders of management theory.

In contrast to the school of scientific management, representatives of the classical school considered the organization as a whole and began to develop approaches to improving management from the standpoint of organizational integrity. The classical school is often referred to as administrative precisely because its representatives held high administrative positions in various organizations. So, Fayol, who is called the father of management, for 30 years (1888-1918) was the manager of the large French mining and metallurgical concern Comambo. When he took over, the concern was on the verge of collapse. By the time Fayol retired (1918), the concern had become one of the largest, efficiently operating enterprises, which contributed to strengthening the defense capability of France during the First World War.

Fayol prioritized the management process itself, which he viewed as an administrative function designed to assist administrative staff in achieving the goals of the organization. This point of view is stated, in particular, in the main work of the scientist "General and Industrial Management", written in 1916.

The conceptual basis of Fayol's research distinguishes two organisms in any enterprise: material and social. The first includes labor itself, means of labor and objects of labor in their totality, under the second - the relationship of people in the labor process. These relationships became the actual subject of Fayol's study. He made attempts to substantiate the necessity and possibility of creating a special science of people management as part of the general doctrine of enterprise management.

Administration, according to A. Fayol, is the basis of management, which includes six main groups of management operations (according to | 2 |):

• - technical and technological (production, manufacturing, processing);
• - commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);
• - financial (attraction of capitals and effective management of them);
• - security (protection of property and individuals);
• - accounting (inventory, balance sheets, production costs, statistics);
• - administrative (foresight, organization, command, coordination and control).

Fayol identified the management of these operations as general management, and focused on administrative operations, the essence of which is personnel management. He put forward recommendations on the use of sanctions as the main method of managerial influence.

The researcher considered technical, commercial, financial and other operations only as an object of influence of an administrative function that has an integrating basis.

Management theory according to A. Fayol (in his terminology - administration) is a set of rules, techniques, principles aimed at improving the efficiency of entrepreneurial activity, rational use of enterprise resources in their entirety.

Fayol's 14 management principles (that is, fundamental or universal rules) have enriched world science. At the same time, his main contribution to the theory of management is that he presented management as a universal process and formulated the principles of effective management. In particular, he argued that all the activities of an enterprise aimed at increasing efficiency and success can be divided into the above six groups, or areas.

In any business, regardless of its scale, according to Fayol, these six areas (groups) of activity are always present. Not the last place among them is occupied by the sixth group, i.e. actual management. It was for her that he formulated his principles and functions.

Fayol's management principles are as follows.

• 1. Division of labor implies an expansion of specialization, which inevitably leads to an increase in the qualifications of performers, and, consequently, to an increase in production volumes and product quality. Specialization allows you to reduce the number of goals to which the attention and efforts of employees should be directed.
• 2. Under power and responsibility employee, it is understood that, exercising his right to give orders and instructions, to grant and transfer powers, he simultaneously assumes responsibility.
• 3. Discipline means following the agreements reached between the enterprise and employees. Discipline is provided by many factors, including fair sanctions.
• 4. unity of command assumes that the executor, in order to avoid conflicts in the execution of orders, must obey only one boss.
• 5. Unity of direction implies that people employed in the same areas of activity obey the same goals and act on the same plans.
• 6. Subordination of individual interests to common ones is that the manager must ensure the subordination of the interests of employees to the interests of the enterprise. The predominance of the goals of subordinates over the goals of the enterprise is unacceptable.
• 7. Staff remuneration: fair pay for work is an important incentive to work (although Fayol stressed that there is no perfect incentive system).
• 8. Centralization and decentralization - this principle is to ensure an acceptable proportion between centralization and decentralization, which can change depending on specific conditions. Of particular importance is the determination of the measure that can provide the best results.
• 9. Scalar chain represents a hierarchical dependence, and hence the subordination of the heads of the enterprise at various levels (from top to bottom). At the same time, the necessary acceptability between the number of management levels and the number of subordinates to one leader must be observed.
• 10. Order implies the observance of both material and social order. The first of them minimizes the loss of working time and ensures the rational use of materials. The second is the effective organization of labor.
• 11. Principle justice should accompany the relationship between managers and employees.
• 12. Workplace stability. The success of any activity is due to the presence of stable management personnel. A mediocre but constantly working leader is preferable to a talented manager who does not value his workplace.
• 13. Principle initiatives means that all employees of the organization should be given opportunities to be active, able to search, and to be independent.
• 14. corporate spirit. Harmonious relations of the organization's personnel form a favorable corporate environment. Fayol wrote: "Real talent is needed to coordinate efforts, to encourage enthusiasm, to use the opportunities of each worker and to reward each according to his merits without forcing possible envy and disruption of harmonious relations."

Max Weber was a famous German sociologist. Most of his works, written at the beginning of the 19th century, were devoted to the development of the theory of power structures and described organizational activity on the basis of power relations. He developed a type of ideal organization which he called the bureaucracy. The ideal organization he imagined was characterized by a clear division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, specific rules and regulations, and impersonal management through a clear definition of job responsibilities. Weber recognized that in real practice such an "ideal bureaucracy" does not exist and that it is rather a selective model of the real world. His theory about work and how work can be done in large teams is based on this model. This theory has determined the structural construction of many modern large organizations. The ideal bureaucracy according to Weber has the following characteristics | 8|.

• 1. Division of labor. Work tasks are broken down into simple, routine and well-defined tasks.
• 2. Hierarchy of power. Departments and positions are combined into a hierarchical structure in which the work of each employee holding a lower position is managed and controlled by a higher employee.
• 3. formal selection. All members of the organization must be selected on the basis of their qualifications, as determined by an examination, or according to their experience and training.
• 4. Formal rules and procedures. To ensure uniformity and regulate the actions of employees, managers must strictly adhere to formal organizational rules.
• 5. Impartiality. The rules must be followed by everyone, and accordingly the methods of control must be applied to all employees equally, without personal preferences.
• 6. Career orientation. Managers are officers (not owners of the business units they manage). They receive a fixed salary and move up the corporate ladder within their organization. Therefore, it is extremely important to create conditions for career growth for the manager.

According to Weber's definition, the basic concepts of bureaucracy largely coincide with the concepts of the scientific organization of management. Both of these concepts emphasize rationality, predictability, impartiality, technical competence, and authoritarianism. Weber's work, unlike Taylor's, was not so obvious practical in nature, but the "ideal type" of organization he developed is still suitable today for describing many really functioning organizations.

Administrative School of Management.

Fayol, Weber

The goal is to create universal principles of management. Considers the issues of improving the organization as a whole, in contrast to the school of scientific management, which studied individual production operations. In many ways, this difference was determined by the personality of the school developers. Taylor began his career as a worker. Henri Fayol, credited with originating the administrative school of management and called the father of management, ran a large coal mining company. The goal of the administrative (classical) school was to create universal principles of governance. Practically all scientific directions of management were engaged in the development of general principles of management. However, the development of the principles of management of the administrative (classical) school of management has become most widespread. 14 principles of management formulated by Henri Fayol: 1. Division of labor. 2. Authority and responsibility. 3. Discipline. 4. Unity of command. 5. Unity of direction. 6. Subordination of personal interests to the general. 7. Remuneration of personnel. 8. Centralization. 9. Scalar chain. 10. Order. 11. Fairness (a combination of kindness and Justice). 12. Stability of the workplace for staff.13. Initiative (developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation).14. corporate spirit.

These principles cover two main aspects. One of them was the development of a rational system for managing the organization, in particular, determining the best way to divide the organization into divisions or work groups. The main contribution of the administrative school to management theory is that it considered management as a universal process, consisting of several interrelated functions, such as planning and organization. The second category of classical principles concerned the structure of the organization and the management of workers. An example is the principle of unity of command, according to which a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him alone.

Put forward functional features: planning, organization, order, coordination, control.

The main contribution is the consideration of management as a process consisting of interrelated functions, in the presentation of the basic principles of management, as well as in the development of the concept of "personnel management". The classical school laid the foundation for world management science.

Ideal bureaucracy according to Weber: 1 Division of labor, 2 hierarchy of power, 3 formal selection, 4 formal rules and procedures, 5 impartiality, 6 career orientation.

Stages of development of stress. Stress management.

In any managed org-tion of the noun-t of the situation, the Cat can in one way or another deny. affect people by causing a feeling of stress. The founder of the theory of stress Hans Selye.

Stress arises due to the impact of stressors on the body.

Stress is the body's reaction to exposure, a violation of its corresponding state of the nervous system.

Stress: psychological and physiological. Psychological: informational and emotional. information: with overload and underload.

Stress can be caused by factors related to the work or activities of the organization (organizational factors: Overload, Role conflict, Uninteresting work, Poor working conditions) and events in the individual's personal life (personal factors: death, marriage, retirement, pregnancy).

Stages of development of a stressful state in humans : increase in tension; actually stress; decrease in internal tension.

Stressful conditions significantly affect human activity. In some people, there is an increase in activity, mobilization of forces, and an increase in the efficiency of activity. This is the so-called “lion stress”. Danger, as it were, spurs a person on, makes him act boldly and courageously. On the other hand, stress can cause disorganization of activity, a sharp decrease in its effectiveness, passivity and general inhibition (“rabbit stress”).

All sources of stress can be conditionally divided into three large groups: - external factors (increased economic and political instability in society, inflation, increased unemployment); - factors that depend on the organization; - factors that depend on the employee himself. Organizational Factors: - the nature of the work performed; - fuzzy distribution of roles; - relationships in the team; - organizational structure; - management style. Factors that depend on the employee himself - these are personal problems, as well as specific qualities and character traits of the workers themselves.

Stress management can be carried out both at the level of the organization and at the level of the employee. Stress management at the organizational level can be carried out in the following interrelated areas: - selection and placement of personnel; - setting specific and feasible tasks; - designing work; - interaction and group decision-making; - health improvement programs for employees. Stress management at the worker level. Not only the society and the organization must take care to reduce potential sources of stress - a lot depends on the employee himself. Recommendations: - the ability to properly allocate your time; - sports and physical exercises; - mastery of training skills, self-hypnosis techniques and other relaxation methods.

Group development stages.

1. Formation. The formative stage occurs when team members first meet each other, get to know the project they will be working on, discuss the goals of the project, and begin to think about what role they will play in the project team. During the initial stage of team development, it is important for the team leader to be very clear about the goals and give clear directions for the project.

Stage 2: Stormy

At this stage, group members compete with each other for status and for approval of their ideas. They have different opinions about what should be done and how it should be done, which causes conflicts within the group. As they progress through this stage, under the guidance of a team leader, they learn to solve problems collaboratively, work independently, and work together.

The team leader must be able to ensure that group members learn to listen to each other and respect other people's ideas, even if they are very different from their own.

This stage will come to an end when the members of the group begin to better accept each other and learn to work together for the benefit of the project.

Stage 3: Settlement

When a group enters the settlement stage, it begins to work more effectively as a group. Team members are no longer focused on their personal goals, but focused on developing a way to work together (processes and procedures). They respect each other's opinions and value their differences. At this stage, the group has already agreed on its group rules for working together. Group members begin to trust each other and actively seek help and information from each other. At this stage, the team leader may not be as closely involved in decision making and problem solving as the team members now work better together and can take on more responsibility in these areas.

Stage 5: Closing

At the closing stage, the project ends and the members of the group leave in different directions. At this stage, the group is viewed from the point of view of the well-being of the group, and not from the point of view of managing the group through the original four stages of its development.

The team leader should ensure that the team has time to celebrate the success of the project and capture best practices for future reference.

10. Main sources of influence. Types and strategies of influence.

It is possible to induce and motivate people only by influencing them in a certain way or influencing them. Power is the ability to influence the behavior of people. Influence is “any behavior of one individual that makes a change in behavior, attitudes, feelings, etc. another individual." means of influence m. b. very different: from a request to a knife (the threat of dismissal.)

One person can also influence another with the help of ideas alone. K. Marx In order to make his leadership and influence effective, the leader must develop and apply power.

"Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely." Most people associate power with violence, force and aggression. But power is by no means an obligatory component of power. POWER is the ability to influence the behavior of others.

To lead, you need to influence, and to influence, it is necessary. have a basis of power.

Influence and power depend on the person on the cat. is influenced by the situation and the abilities of the leader. No one can influence all people in all situations.

Two groups of sources of power: those with a personal basis and organizational. 1 group incl. trace sources of power:

1 Expert-manager's ability to influence the behavior of subordinates due to training, level of education, availability of special knowledge.

2 The power of example, (reference). The leader influences subordinates due to attractiveness, the presence of charisma.

3 The right to power. It is the only one when an organization is just being formed, Everyone in charge uses this right to power within their abilities.

4 The power of information. The ability to access the necessary information and the ability to use it to influence subordinates.

5 The need for power, the desire to have influence on others, the desire to help.

2 group incl trace power sources:

1 decision making. manifests itself to the extent that the bearer of this power can influence a specific decision throughout the entire period of its adoption

2 reward. Used to reinforce the right to power

3 coercion. subordinates follow instructions because they are afraid of being punished.

4 power resources. based on the importance of obtaining a particular resource.

5 power ties. is based on the ability of an individual to influence other people through their perceived association of this individual with influential people both in the organization and outside it.

5 main forms of power:

1. Power based on coercion. The performer believes that the manager can punish him in such a way that this will interfere with the satisfaction of his urgent need. Power through fear, through coercion, fear creates images of violence, cruelty through fear, but is not the goal.

2. Power based on reward. The performer does not resist this influence, since in exchange for doing what the leader wants, he hopes to receive a reward; he believes that the manager will be able to meet his urgent need. However, in practice, the manager cannot always reward his employees, since each organization has limited resources.

3. Expert power. The performer takes it on faith that the manager has special knowledge about a given project or problem solving and will be able to meet his needs. In this case, the influence is considered reasonable because the performer makes a conscious decision to obey.

4. The power of example, or charisma(the concept was introduced by M. Weber). This power is based on the personal qualities or abilities of the leader. The personal properties of the leader are so attractive to the performer that he wants to be the same. The main characteristics of charismatic personalities:

energy exchange (it seems that the leader radiates energy and charges others with it);

impressive appearance (the leader is physically attractive);

independence of character;

good rhetorical skills (ability to speak and ability to interpersonal communication);

lack of arrogance or selfishness;

decent and confident demeanor (ability to control the situation).

7. Legitimate (or traditional) authority. The performer believes that the leader has the right to give orders that he must carry out. He carries out these orders because he hopes that obedience will lead to the satisfaction of his needs. Therefore, legal authority is often called traditional. Leaders, in turn, enjoy this power, as they are delegated the authority to manage others. Moreover, the ability to encourage and punish strengthens the authority of the leader to give orders.

There are also two other forms of influence that can encourage the performer to actively cooperate: belief and participation.

Belief is an effective way of conveying your point of view. It, like rational faith, is based on the power of example and the power of an expert. The only difference is that the performer is fully aware of what he is doing and why.

Influencing through participation (attraction) employees in management, the manager does not make special efforts to impose his will or opinion on the performers. He only guides their efforts and promotes the free exchange of information. Influence is successful because people work better for the goal that was formulated with their participation.

Behavioral Approach

The behavioral approach has created the basis for classifying leadership styles or behavioral styles. According to the behavioral approach, effectiveness is determined not by the personal qualities of the leader, but rather by his manner of behavior in relation to his subordinates (autocratic style, democratic style). However, summarizing the results of studies using this approach, a group of authors argues that "there is no one "optimal" leadership style." It is very likely that the effectiveness of the style depends on the nature of the particular situation, and when the situation changes, the corresponding style also changes.

Douglas McGregor, a well-known leadership scholar, called the prerequisites of an autocratic leader in relation to employees as Theory “X”. According to Theory X:

people initially do not like to work and avoid work whenever possible;

people have no ambition, and they try to get rid of responsibility;

most of all people want security;

to force people to work, it is necessary to use coercion, control and the threat of punishment.

The ideas of a democratic leader about employees are different from those of an autocratic leader. McGregor called them the "Y" theory:

If conditions are favorable, people will not only take responsibility, they will strive for it; people use self-management and self-control;

inclusion is a function of the reward associated with the achievement of the goal;

The ability to creatively solve problems is common.

Organizations dominated by a democratic style are characterized by a high degree of decentralization of powers. Subordinates take an active part in decision-making and enjoy wide freedom in carrying out tasks. Rather than exercise tight control over subordinates in the course of their work, the grass-roots manager usually waits until the work is completed to the end in order to evaluate it. The leader acts as a liaison.

Levin's research

Perhaps the earliest study on the effectiveness of leadership styles was by Kurt Lewin and his colleagues. In his famous study, Lewin found that authoritarian leadership got more work done than democratic leadership. However, on the other side of the scale were low motivation, less originality, less friendliness in groups, lack of groupthink, more aggressiveness towards both the leader and other members of the group, more suppressed anxiety and, at the same time, more dependent and submissive behavior.

Likert describes leaders (4systems) belonging to system 1 as exploitative-authoritarian. These leaders have the characteristics of an autocrat.

The leaders of system 3, called advisory, show considerable, but not complete, trust in their subordinates. There is two-way communication and some degree of trust between supervisors and subordinates.

System 4 implies group decisions and participation of workers in decision making. According to Likert, she is the most effective. These leaders have complete trust in their subordinates.

The concept, developed at Ohio State University, was modified and popularized by Blake and Mouton, who built a grid (chart) that included 5 basic leadership styles. The vertical axis of this chart ranks “concern for people” on a scale of 1 to 9. The horizontal axis ranks “concern for production” also on a scale of 1 to 9. Leadership style is determined by both of these criteria. Blake and Mouton describe the middle and four extreme positions of the grid as: 1. 1. - fear of poverty. It takes only minimal effort on the part of the manager to achieve a quality of work that will avoid dismissal. 1. 9. - rest house. The leader focuses on good, warm human relationships, but cares little about task performance. 9. 1. - authority - submission. The manager is very concerned about the efficiency of the work performed, but pays little attention to the morale of subordinates. 5. 5. - organization. The leader achieves an acceptable quality of performance of tasks, finding a balance of efficiency and good morale.

9. 9. - team. Through increased attention to subordinates and efficiency, the leader ensures that subordinates consciously join the goals of the organization. This ensures both high morale and high efficiency. Blake and Mouton proceeded from the fact that the most effective leadership style - the optimal style - was the behavior of the leader in position 9.9. In their opinion, such a leader combines a high degree of attention to his subordinates and the same attention to performance. They also realized that there are many activities where it is difficult to clearly and unambiguously identify leadership style, but believed that professional training and a conscious attitude towards goals allows all leaders to approach the 9.9 style, thereby increasing their efficiency.

situational approach(25 question)

Work design.

Job design is the process of creating both a formal and an informal specification of the performance of a task assigned to an employee, including the expected interpersonal relationships and the interdependence of this task with other tasks solved both inside and outside the organization. Planning including work analysis, description of its content, requirements for it and its environment. To describe the work, a system of parameters is used, including scale (number of operations that the cat must perform), complexity (the degree of independence in decision-making and the degree of ownership of the process), work relationships. Functional analysis of work including a description of: 1) what the employee does in relation to other workers and other jobs; 2) what methods and operations should be used; 3) what machines and equipment should be used; 4) what product is produced in the end.

Work design models. Construction of work: including the definition of operations, methods, time and place of work, indicators of its implementation, the relationship between man and machine (changes in the number of work scales). Expansion of the scale of work: the number of operations and tasks performed by an employee is expanding. The goal is to increase the attractiveness of work by adding work functions. Disadvantages: some see it as a mere addition of work. Dissatisfaction with the decrease in automatism and ease of work, a decrease in free time. It is necessary to pay more attention to the speed of the individual, and not the machine. Job rotation: moving a worker from one job to another. It has an effect as a method of staff training, it is ineffective if all operations in the company are equally uninteresting. Enrichment of work: the addition to the work performed by the individual of functions and tasks that allow increasing the responsibility of the performer for planning, organizing, monitoring and evaluating his work. Refers to job complexity and work relationships. The key elements of the model are: establishing relationships with the consumer, planning by the individual of his own work, the employee is the owner of the work process, the employee receives information about the results of the work, the study of the new is included in the work, the work contains elements of uniqueness. sociotechnical system. The same as enrichment, but the powers are delegated to the working group as a whole, and not to each individual separately - optimization of the relationship between technical (technological parameters, type of production process, physical work, complexity, raw materials, time factor) and social ( individual and group influence, organizational culture, leadership and management) systems. Their connection occurs through moderators: roles for performing work (setting patterns of expected behavior), goals (combining people's desires with technical capabilities), skills and abilities.

A managerial decision is the result of a specific managerial activity of management. Decision making is the basis of management. Development and decision-making is a creative process in the activities of managers at any level, including:

development and goal setting;

studying the problem on the basis of the information received;

selection and justification of criteria for efficiency (effectiveness) and possible consequences of the decision;

discussion with specialists of various options for solving the problem (task); selection and formulation of the optimal solution; decision-making;

specification of the decision for its executors.

Management technology considers a management decision as a process consisting of three stages: decision preparation: decision making; solution implementation.

At the stage of preparing a managerial decision, an economic analysis of the situation is carried out at the micro and macro levels, including the search, collection and processing of information, as well as problems that need to be addressed are identified and formed.

At the stage of decision-making, the development and evaluation of alternative solutions and courses of action, carried out on the basis of multivariate calculations; the criteria for choosing the optimal solution are selected; choosing and making the best decision.

At the decision implementation stage, measures are taken to specify the decision and bring it to the executors, monitor the progress of its implementation, make the necessary adjustments and evaluate the result obtained from the implementation of the decision. Each management decision has its own specific result, so the goal of management activity is to find such forms, methods, means and tools that could help achieve the optimal result in specific conditions and circumstances.

Factors influencing the process of making managerial decisions. 1. Personal assessments of the manager (contain subjective ranking of importance, quality or benefit);

Certainty (the hand knows exactly the result of each of the alternative choices)

Risk (the result of the decisions taken is not defined, but the probability of each result is known)

Uncertainty (impossible to estimate the probability of potential RNS);

Time and the changing environment - the course of time causes a change in the situation). 3. Informational restrictions. 4. Behavioral restrictions (psychological factors and personality traits). 5. Negative consequences (winning in one is almost always achieved at the expense of the other. Decision in favor of higher quality products - increased costs. Installing an automatic production line - reducing total costs, firing loyal workers). 6. Interdependence of decisions (single an important decision may require hundreds of smaller decisions).

School of Scientific Management

The creators of the school of scientific management proceeded from the fact that, using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, it is possible to improve most manual labor operations and achieve their more efficient implementation.

The main principles of the school of scientific management:

Rational organization of labor - involves the replacement of traditional methods of work with a number of rules formed on the basis of work analysis, and the subsequent correct placement of workers and their training in optimal working methods.

Development of the formal structure of the organization.

Determination of measures for cooperation between the manager and the worker, i.e., the separation of executive and managerial functions.

The founders of the school of scientific management are:

F. W. Taylor;

Frank and Lily Gilbert;

Henry Gantt.

Taylor developed and implemented a complex system of organizational measures:

timing;

instructional cards;

methods of retraining workers;

planning office;

collection of social information.

He attached considerable importance to the leadership style, the correct system of disciplinary sanctions and labor incentives. Labor in his system is the main source of efficiency. A key element of this approach was that people who produced more were rewarded more.

Scientific management is most closely associated with the work of Frank and Lilia Gilbert, who were primarily concerned with the study of physical work in production processes and explored the ability to increase output by reducing effort spent on their production.

Gilberts studied work operations using movie cameras in combination with a microchronometer. Then, with the help of freeze frames, they analyzed the elements of operations, changed the structure of work operations in order to eliminate unnecessary, unproductive movements, and sought to increase work efficiency.

F. Gilbert's studies on the rationalization of workers' labor provided a threefold increase in labor productivity.

L. Gilbert laid the foundation for the field of management, which is now called "personnel management". She explored issues such as recruitment, placement and training. Scientific management did not neglect the human factor.

An important contribution of this school was systematic use of incentives in order to interest workers in increasing productivity and production volume.

G. Ford, mechanic and entrepreneur, organizer of mass production of automobiles in the United States, was the successor of Taylor's teachings and implemented his theoretical provisions in practice.

G. Ford's principles of production organization: replacement of manual work with machine work; maximum division of labor; specialization; arrangement of equipment along the technological process; mechanization of transport works; regulated rhythm of production.

The ideas laid down by the school of scientific management were developed and applied to the management of organizations in general, primarily by representatives of the administrative school of management.

54. The effectiveness of the group's work (contextual and internal factors).

Group efficiency- this is the degree to which the group realizes its goals, how close the group is to achieving them. Overall performance in real organizations is difficult to measure, and many managers have difficulty evaluating performance because the methods for evaluating performance are based on measuring characteristics that cannot be quantified.

Group performance is influenced by a number of factors: gender, age, training, size and composition of the group, group norms (which tell members of the group what behavior and results are expected of them), group like-mindedness (the suppression by an individual of his views so as not to enter into contradiction with other members of the group), cohesion of the group (a measure of the attraction of group members to each other), conflict, etc.

The group will be able to more or less effectively achieve its goals, depending on the influence of the following factors: size, composition, group norms, cohesion, conflict, status and functional role of its members. SIZE. According to Ralph K. Davis, the ideal group should consist of 3-9 people. Keith Davis, a modern theorist who has devoted many years to the study of groups, tends to share his opinion. He believes that the preferred number of group members is 5 people. Studies show that actually 5 to 8 people come to meetings in a group. COMPOSITION. The composition here refers to the degree of similarity of personalities and points of view, the approaches that they show when solving problems. An important reason for putting a question to the group's decision is the use of different positions to find the optimal solution. GROUP RULES. As was revealed by the first researchers of groups in labor collectives, the norms adopted by the group have a strong influence on the behavior of the individual and on the direction in which the group will work: to achieve the goals of the organization or to resist them. Norms are designed to tell group members what behavior and work is expected of them. Norms have such a strong influence because only by conforming their actions to these norms can an individual count on belonging to a group, its recognition and support. COHESION. Group cohesion is a measure of the attraction of group members to each other and to the group. A highly cohesive group is a group whose members are strongly attracted to each other and see themselves as similar. Since a cohesive group works well as a team, a high level of cohesion can increase the effectiveness of the entire organization if the goals of both are consistent with each other. Highly cohesive groups tend to have fewer communication problems, and those that do are less severe than others.

55. Types of teams in the organization. Decision-making methods.

Organizations have resorted to teams in order to improve quality, increase productivity, improve customer service and the performance of their employees. The teams are not the same. They differ greatly in the degree of their autonomy and the nature of management by the organization.

Let's consider 4 types of teams from the point of view of distribution of powers and management of group activity processes.

Teams managed by the manager.
The most traditional is the manager-led team. In manager-led teams, the manager acts as a leader and is responsible for setting the goals, methods for achieving them, and the operation of the team. The teams themselves are responsible only for the actual performance of the work assigned to them. Management is responsible for monitoring and managing business processes, selecting team members, and interacting with the organization. Examples of teams managed by a manager are sports and military teams. A team managed by a manager, as a rule, has a dedicated leader who occupies a high position in the hierarchy and devotes his entire working day to the team. Teams managed by a manager are characterized by the maximum level of control over their members and the work they do; they allow the manager to exercise control over the processes and products of the team. In addition, they can be effective in the sense that this leader actually sets goals and objectives that must be met.

Self-managed teams.
In a self-managing or self-regulating team, the manager or leader defines the main goal of the team, but the team enjoys the freedom to choose methods to achieve this goal. An example would be a management task team. Self-managed teams improve productivity, quality, resource savings and employee morale.

Purposeful or self-projecting teams.
Purposeful (self-directing) or self-projecting (self-designing) teams themselves determine their tasks or methods and methods for achieving them. Focused teams offer maximum potential for innovation, increase commitment and motivation, and provide opportunities for organizational learning and change.
Focused teams can be ideal for complex, ill-defined problems and tasks with a high degree of uncertainty, as well as for next-generation product planning.

Self-organizing work team
Self-organizing teams and boards of directors are usually responsible for completing a task by managing their activities, creating a group and organizational context. They take on the maximum degree of control and responsibility.

Decision-making methods. The decision is the choice of the most acceptable alternative from the possible variety of options. The purpose of the decision-making process is to ensure movement towards the intended goal of the organization.

There are 2 vectors of the direction of the decision-making process: long-term planning (strategy) - what to do ?, and current planning (tactics) - how to do? - organization, motivation, coordination, regulation, control. In reality, the boundary between these two components of the decision-making process is rather arbitrary, it becomes more pronounced, the larger the organization is.

Decision-making methods can be divided into 3 main types:

1. Intuition. Intuitive decision - a choice made only on the basis of sensation, insight.

2. Common sense. This is a choice based on already existing knowledge or in accordance with accumulated experience.

3. A rational decision is one that is based on an analytical process and is often independent of prior experience.

Again - in reality, the decision-making process is often a combination of the above 3 types.

56. Types of management activities.

Management is a complex intellectual activity of a person that requires special knowledge and experience. Management functions- these are the types of management activities that provide the formation of ways to influence the activities of the organization. To date, the functions of management include: planning, organization, motivation, control, regulation.

57. The external environment of the organization and forecasting its development. The role of the external environment in the decision-making process.

In general, the external environment of an organization can be characterized as the totality of factors that influence the activities of an organization, namely: consumers, competitors, government agencies, suppliers, financial institutions, sources of labor resources, as well as science, culture, the state of society and natural phenomena.

The origin of the theory of personnel management within the framework of the classical school of management. Principles of Scientific Management Frederick Taylor.

History of formation and development of management

The evolution of the theory of personnel management. The origin of the theory of personnel management within the framework of the classical school of management. Principles of scientific management F. Taylor. Administrative School of Management. A. Fayol as the founder of the administrative school. School of "human" relations and its importance for the development of the theory of personnel management. School of Organizational Behavior. The theory of bureaucracy by M. Weber. Personnel management and human resource management. Management thought in the second half of the 20th century. System approach (the concept of an open organization, subsystems and boundaries of the organization). Two styles of personnel management and their main features. Characteristics of personnel management. Personnel management systems in Japan and the USA.

To date, four major approaches are known that have made a significant contribution to the development of the theory and practice of management (Fig. The approach from the standpoint of identifying different schools in management actually includes four different approaches. Here, management is considered from four different points of view. These are schools of scientific management , administrative management, human relations and behavioral sciences, as well as management sciences, or quantitative methods.

The process approach considers management as a continuous series of interrelated management functions. The systems approach emphasizes that managers should view the organization as a set of interdependent elements, such as people, structure, tasks and technology, which are focused on achieving different goals in a changing external environment. The situational approach focuses on the fact that the suitability of various management methods is determined by the situation. Because there are so many factors, both in the organization itself and in the environment, there is no single “best” way to manage an organization. The most effective method in a particular situation is the method that best suits the situation.

The first attempts at a theoretical generalization of the accumulated experience were a response to the needs of development in the conditions of the industrial revolution. The mechanization of production processes, the development of infrastructure (railway transport, telegraph and telephone communications) contributed to the growth in the size of enterprises. In a situation of unsaturated markets, the key factor in the success of the operation of the enterprise was sales volumes and affordability. Giant enterprises experienced an urgent need for a rational organization of labor and production, for a clear and interconnected work of departments and services. That is why the management of powerful corporations focused on large-capacity markets, from the standpoint of the efficient distribution and use of resources, including human resources, has become the main problem of management at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.

In the first half of the twentieth century, four distinct schools of managerial thought developed. Chronologically, they can be listed in the following order: School of Scientific Management, School of Administration, School of Psychology and Human Relations, and School of Management Science (or Quantitative School). The most staunch adherents of each of these directions believed at one time that they had managed to find the key to the most effective achievement of the goals of the organization. More recent research and unsuccessful attempts to apply the theoretical findings of schools in practice have shown that many answers to management questions were only partially correct in limited situations. And yet, each of these schools has made significant and tangible contributions to the field. Even the most progressive modern organizations still use certain concepts and techniques that have arisen within these schools.

Scientific management (1885-1920) Classical school of management

Scientific management is most closely associated with the work of F.W. Taylor, Frank and Lily Gilbreth and Henry Gantt.

The first major step towards considering management as a management science was made by an American engineer F. Taylor (1856-1915), who spearheaded the scientific management movement.

Frederick Winslow Taylor was born into a lawyer's family with deep cultural traditions; traveling around Europe, he was educated in France and Germany, then at the F. Exter Academy, New Hampshire, in 1874 he graduated from Harvard Law College, but due to deterioration of his eyesight, he could not continue his education.

He joined the Midvale Steel Works as a worker, quickly rose through the ranks to shop foreman, and later became the company's chief engineer. After that, he worked for the Bethlehem Steel Works, then became engaged in consulting activities and dissemination of his ideas. F. Taylor issued patents for about 100 of his inventions and rationalizations.

From 1890 to 1893, Taylor, general manager of the Manufacture Investment Company, Philadelphia, owner of paper presses in Maine and Wisconsin, set up his own management consulting business, the first in management history.

From 1898 to 1901 he was a consultant to the Bethlehem Steel Company, pc. Pennsylvania. In 1906, Taylor became president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1911 established the Society for the Promotion of Scientific Management (later it became known as the Taylor Society)

The area of ​​professional interests was the problem of increasing labor productivity in the organization. Taylor first published his views on management in an article entitled "The Piece Rate System" which he read at the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1895.

- "Factory management", 1903

- "Principles of Scientific Management", 1911

In them, scientific management was developed in four main areas: labor rationing; the role of managers; selection and training of personnel; reward and incentive.

They formulated methods for the scientific organization of labor based on the analysis of working time and work movements, standardization of methods and tools of labor. Taylor, for example, meticulously measured the amount of iron ore and coal that a person could lift on shovels of various sizes. and how long does each one take?

The effectiveness of joint work in the organization was considered from the standpoint of time and movement. The division of work into autonomous, fully programmable elements and their subsequent optimal integration into a single whole are prerequisites that, in accordance with the concept of the scientific management school, form a high-performance organization.

Taylor argued that management is a true science based on certain laws, rules and principles. Their correct use allows to solve the problem of labor productivity growth. If people are selected on a scientific basis, trained in progressive methods, energized with various incentives, and combined work and person, then it is possible to obtain an aggregate productivity that exceeds the contribution made by the individual labor force.

His main merit is that he:

Developed the methodological foundations of labor rationing;

Standardized work operations;

Introduced into practice scientific approaches to the selection and placement of personnel;

Developed methods to stimulate the work of workers;

Achieved recognition that work and responsibility are divided between workers and managers almost equally.

1 . The authors of the theory of "scientific management" believed that using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, it is possible to improve many manual labor operations, achieving their more efficient implementation (analysis of the content of the work and definition of its components).

2 . Accounting for the human factor. An important contribution was the systematic use of incentives with the aim of increasing the interest of workers in increasing labor productivity and production volumes. It also provided for the possibility of necessary rest and inevitable interruptions in production. This gave the management the opportunity to set production standards and pay extra to those who exceeded the established minimum.

3 . Scientific management also advocated separating the managerial functions of thinking and planning from the physical execution of work. Taylor and his contemporaries recognized that management work is a specialty and that an organization would benefit if each group of employees focused on what they did best. Previously, workers planned their work themselves.

4 . Thanks to the concept of scientific management, management has become widely recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, managers, practitioners and scientists saw that the methods and approaches used in science and technology can be effectively used in the practice of achieving the goals of the enterprise.

Henri Fayol, credited with originating the school and sometimes referred to as the father of management, ran a large French coal mining company. Dindall Urwick was a management consultant in England. James D. Mooney, who co-wrote with A. K. Reilly, worked under Alfred P. Sloan at General Motors. Consequently, their main concern was efficiency in the broader sense of the word - in relation to the work of the entire organization.

Authors who have written about scientific management have mainly devoted their research to what is called production management. They were engaged in improving efficiency at a level below the managerial level. With the advent of the administrative school, specialists began to constantly develop approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole.

Classicalists, like those who wrote about scientific management, did not care much about the social aspects of management. Moreover, their work was largely based on personal observation rather than based on scientific methodology. The "classics" tried to look at organizations from a broader perspective, trying to identify common characteristics and patterns of organizations. The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of government. At the same time, she proceeded from the idea that following these principles will undoubtedly lead the organization to success.

These principles touched on two main aspects. One of them was the development of a rational organization management system. In defining the basic functions of a business, the classical theorists were confident that they could determine the best way to divide an organization into divisions or work teams. Traditionally, such functions were finance, production and marketing. Closely connected with this was the definition of the main functions of management.

Fayol was born in 1841 in a suburb of Istanbul, Turkey, where his father oversaw the construction of a bridge across the Golden Horn. In 1847 his family returned home to France. After graduating in 1860 from the Mining School of Saint-Etienne, he got a job in a mining company. Compagnie de Commentry-Fourchambeau-Decazeville, in which from 1888 to 1918 he served as head. In 1916, just a few years after Taylor published his theory of the scientific organization of work, Fayol published "General and industrial management"

Fayol's main contribution to control theory was that he considered management as a universal process, which implements the five original functions. According to him, "to manage means to predict and plan, organize, dispose, coordinate and control."

The second category of classical principles concerned the structure of the organization and the management of workers. An example is the principle of unity of command, according to which a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him alone.

Let's take a quick look 14 principles of management Henri Fayol, many of them are still practically useful, despite the changes that have taken place since Fayol first formulated them.

1. Division of labor . Specialization is the natural order of things. The purpose of the division of labor is to do more and better work with the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and effort must be directed.

2. Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders, and responsibility is its opposite. Where authority is given, there responsibility arises.

3. Discipline. Discipline involves obedience and respect for the agreements reached between the firm and its employees. Establishing these agreements binding the firm and employees from which disciplinary formalities arise must remain one of the main tasks of industry leaders. Discipline also implies fair application of sanctions.

4. Unity of command. An employee should receive orders from only one immediate superior.

5. Unity of direction . Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader.

6 Subordination of personal interests to the general . The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of a company or a larger organization.

7. Staff remuneration . In order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must receive a fair wage for their service.

8. Centralization. Like the division of labor, centralization is the natural order of things. However, the appropriate degree of centralization will vary depending on specific conditions. Therefore, the question arises about the correct proportion between centralization and decentralization. It is a problem of determining the measure that will provide the best possible results.

9. Scalar chain. A scalar chain is a series of people in leadership positions, starting from the person occupying the highest position in this chain, down to the bottom manager. It would be a mistake to abandon a hierarchical system without a definite need for it, and it would be an even greater mistake to maintain this hierarchy when it is detrimental to business interests.

10. Order. A place for everything and everything in its place.

11. Justice. Justice is a combination of kindness and justice.

12. Stability workplace for staff. High employee turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization. A mediocre manager who holds on to his position is certainly preferable to an outstanding, talented manager who leaves quickly and does not hold on to his position.

13. Initiative. Initiative means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation. This gives the organization strength and energy.

14. corporate spirit. Union is strength. And it is the result of the harmony of the staff.

School of "human" relations and its significance for the development of the theory of personnel management (1930-1950)

In the 1930s, it gradually gains strength, and then becomes the dominant direction in the sociology of organizations - “human relations”, or “humanistic challenge”. The name itself indicates that it was an alternative to the "classical theory". The main contribution to the development of this direction was made by E. Mayo, D. MacGregor, A. Maslow and others. The founder of this direction is Elton Mayo ( 1880-1948). It all started with the famous Hawthorne experiments, which took place at the Western Electric Company (near Chicago) in 1927-1932.

In the course of five years of experiments, scientists from Harvard University proved that labor productivity influence not only and not so much technical and economic as socio-psychological factors:.

Supporters of the "classical" theory believed that the effectiveness of management is determined by the formal management structure, coordination and detailed control, strict observance of discipline, the amount of individual remuneration, narrow specialization of tasks, one-man command, authoritarian methods of management, the correct selection of personnel and tools, the conformity of people to the structure. Their opponents proved otherwise: management efficiency is determined by the informal structure and, above all, by a small group , interaction of people and general control, self-discipline and opportunities for creative growth, collective reward, rejection of narrow specialization and unity of command, democratic leadership style, conformity of structure to people, and not vice versa.

F. Roethlisberger, E. Mayo's colleague in the Hawthorne experiments, believed that industry is as much a social phenomenon as it is an economic one. Industrial civilization will not be able to survive unless it develops a new understanding of the role of human motivation and people's behavior in the organization, different from the proposed "classical" theory. The industrial society, E. Mayo echoed him, depersonalizes people, it is necessary to return their originality, natural customs and traditional values ​​to them. This can be achieved if we re-build production for a person. The task of management is to limit the huge formal structures, these bureaucratic monsters chasing material efficiency, from below and somehow curb the informal organization built on the principles of human solidarity and humanism.

Distinctive features of the theory of "human relations":

Combining formal and informal power structures

Narrow specialization

Wide participation of ordinary people in management

Introduction of new forms of work organization that increase motivation and job satisfaction

Exaggeration of the role of the small group and solidarity.

The supporters of this approach, despite the differences between them, were unanimous in one thing: a rigid hierarchy of subordination, formalization of organizational processes are incompatible with human nature. From here - the search for new organizational structures, new forms of work and new methods of employee motivation. The most active search was led by A. Maslow, D. McGregor, F. Herzberg, R. Likert. A. Maslow's hierarchical theory of needs opened a new page in the study of motivation and behavior of people in an organization.

The motives of people's actions, Maslow suggests, are mainly not economic forces, as the supporters and followers of the school of scientific management believed, but various needs, which can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with money.

Based on these findings, the researchers of the psychological school believed that if management takes more care of their employees, then the level of employee satisfaction should increase, which will lead to increased productivity. They recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective action by immediate supervisors, consultation with workers, and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work.

School of "organizational behavior"

The development of sciences such as psychology and sociology and the improvement of research methods after the Second World War made the study of behavior in the workplace more strictly scientific. Among the most important figures of the later period in the development of the behavioral-behaviorist direction, one can mention, first of all, Chris Argyris, Rensis Likert, Douglas McGregor and Frederick Herzberg. These and other researchers have studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, organizational structure, communication in organizations, leadership, changing the content of work and the quality of working life.

The Behavioral Science School has departed significantly from the Human Relations School, which focused primarily on methods of establishing interpersonal relationships. The new approach sought to assist the worker to a greater extent in understanding his own capabilities through the application of the concepts of the behavioral sciences to the construction and management of organizations. In the most general terms, the main goal of this school was improving the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.

The behavioral approach became so popular that it almost completely covered the entire field of management in the 60s. Like earlier schools, this approach advocated a "single best way" to solve managerial problems. His main postulate was that the correct application of the science of behavior will always increase the efficiency of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole.

So, in spite of many important positive results, the behaviorist approach sometimes failed in situations that differed from those investigated by its adherents.

The founder of the administrative school of management is the French mining engineer, manager-practitioner A. Fayol, who created the "theory of administration". The goal of the administrative school was to create universal principles of management as the basic rules that determine the construction and functioning of the management system. Fayol formulated 14 principles of management in relation to the activities of the top management:

• 1) division of labor, specialization necessary for the efficient use of labor, in relation to all types of labor;
• 2) power and responsibility are interconnected;
• 3) discipline is respect for agreements designed to ensure obedience, diligence, outward display of respect;
• 4) unity of command ensures unity of point of view, unity of action and unity of command, therefore it tends to prevail;
• 5) unity of leadership: activities pursuing the same goal must have one leader;
• 6) subordination of private interests to common ones: the interests of an employee or a group of employees should not be placed above the interests of the enterprise;
• 7) remuneration: methods of stimulating labor must be fair and deliver the greatest possible satisfaction;
• 8) centralization - the degree of concentration or dispersal of power;
• 9) scalar chain - a chain of chiefs from the highest to the lowest rank;
• 10) order - everything has its place;
• 11) justice - loyalty and devotion of the staff should be ensured by the respectful and fair attitude of the administration towards subordinates;
• 12) initiative - thinking and implementing the plan; employees must take the initiative;
• 13) the stability of the workplace for staff - excessive staff turnover is also a consequence of poor management;
• 14) corporate spirit - the principle of "strength in unity".

Fayol identified six groups of operations in management: technical, commercial, financial, insurance, accounting, administrative. Depending on this, he developed the functions of management: planning, organizing, motivating, controlling, coordinating.

Planning - this is a management function that determines the goals of the activity, the means necessary for this, methods that are effective in specific conditions. The main place in planning is given to the development of a program of action. To develop a program of action, it is necessary, according to Fayol, to know: the resources of the enterprise, the leading directions of the development of the enterprise, possible changes in external conditions.

Organization - forming the structure of the facility and providing everything necessary for its normal operation: personnel, materials, equipment, etc.

Motivation - activation of employees and encouragement to work effectively to achieve the goals formulated in the plans, with the help of economic and moral incentives.

Control - quantitative and qualitative evaluation and accounting of the results of work. Control is an element of feedback.

Coordination - achieving consistency in the work of all parts of the system by establishing rational connections.

Fayol's merit lies in the fact that he divided all management functions into general, related to any field of activity, and specific, related directly to the management of an industrial enterprise.

A. Fayol's followers are L. Urvik, L. Gyulik, J. Mooney, G. Church, M. Weber. So, L. Urvik developed the principles of building a formal organization. These include: conformity of people to the structure; the creation of special and "general" headquarters, where the task of the special headquarters is to develop recommendations for the head of the organization, and the task of the "general" headquarters is to prepare and transmit orders from the head, control current work and assist the head in coordinating the activities of staff specialists: comparability of rights and responsibilities; control range; specialization, where its three types are distinguished - on the basis of the goal, type of consumer, certainty.

M. Weber paid special attention to the study of the problem of leadership and power structure in an organization. He distinguished three types of organization: charismatic, traditional, ideal (bureaucratic) - and formulated the principles of building an "ideal organization":

• all activities of the organization are divided into the simplest elementary operations, the implementation of which is formally assigned to individual links;
• each leader is endowed with formally fixed power, authority, rights that operate within the organization;
• clear rules, instructions, standards are developed that determine the work procedure and responsibility of each member of the organization;
• the leader must be fair in relation to his subordinates;
• the organization must have a personnel policy that provides incentives for the activities of its members;
• The organization must have a clear system of control.

Weber believed that the organization is a closed, rigid model corresponding to the stage of machine production, however, he did not consider the entire organization as a whole, but only some of its elements. This is the narrowness of his approach to the analysis of the activities of the organization.

G. Church tried to develop the basics of managing any manufacturing enterprise, who divided the entire production process into a number of functions necessary to achieve the ultimate goal - the production of a product. He presented production as a synthesis of design, equipment, management, accounting and operation. G. Church attached particular importance to analysis and synthesis, which he called the "main tools" of management.

The definition of the concept of organization as one of the forms of bringing people together to achieve a common goal was given by researchers J. Mooney and A. Reilly.

On the basis of the developments of A. Fayol and his followers, the classical school of management was formed (Fig. 2.3.).

Rice. 2.3.

This school of management is based on four principles:

• 1) a clear functional division of labor;
• 2) transmission of commands and orders from top to bottom;
• 3) unity of management;
• 4) compliance with the control range.

The classical school of management was created under the conditions of an authoritarian style of leadership, to which the existing management structures and regulated procedures for performing work were subordinated.

In 1930-1950. in the West, the neoclassical school, or "school of human relations" (Fig. 2.4), has also become widespread.

Rice. 2.4.

The founders of this school used the achievements of psychology and sociology in management. One of the shortcomings of the classical school was that its representatives did not fully realize the role and importance of the human factor, which is the main element of the effectiveness of the organization. The first attempt to apply psychological analysis to the practical problems of production was made as early as the 19th century. Professor G. Münsterberg, who created the world's first school of industrial psychologists and became one of the founders of psychotechnics. Munsterberg formulated the basic principles according to which people should be selected for leadership positions. They proposed two methods for identifying the required qualities in a candidate: observation and test. Later M. P. Follet studied socio-psychological relations in small groups. She put forward the idea of ​​harmony between labor and capital, which could be achieved with the right motivation and taking into account the interests of all stakeholders.

A major role in the development of the theory of human relations in application to management was played by the psychologist E. Mayo, who believed that it is the human factor that plays a special role in production. Under the "human factor" in this school understand the individual, group, team, society included in the management system.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. a new direction in psychology arose - behaviorism, whose representatives were R. Likert, D. McGregor, A. Maslow. Their research contributed to the emergence of a special managerial function - "personnel management".

At the current level of development of management science, it is generally accepted that it is the human factor that determines the competitiveness and efficiency of an organization, therefore, in recent years, human costs have been considered not as costs, but as company assets that must be properly used. The essence of the system of human relations in the organization is characterized by the commandments (norms, prescriptions, rules of a social and moral nature) of the manager.

Management as a modern management system for a company, an enterprise operating in a market economy, involves the creation of the conditions necessary for their effective functioning and development of production and economic activities (Fig. 2.5). The formation of the modern school of management is also associated with the emergence of cybernetics and operations research methods applied to the operational problems of the organization.

Rice. 2.5.

We are talking about such a management system (principles, structure, methods, organizational structure), which is generated by the objective necessity and laws of market economic relations associated with the orientation of the company to the needs of the market and the needs of individual consumers.

Features of modern management lie in its focus on ensuring rational management of the economy at the level of a firm, an enterprise in conditions of scarcity of resources, the need to achieve high end results with minimal costs, and optimal adaptation to market conditions.

A management system that meets such requirements, the logic and laws of socio-economic development, must be flexible and efficient.

• Cit. on: Meskon Μ. x. Fundamentals of management: Per. from English. / M. X. Mescon, M. Albert, F. Hedouri. M.: Delo, 2009.
• Meskon Μ. x. Decree. op.
• There.
• Meskon Μ. x. Decree. op.

Features of the administrative school.

Representatives of the classical (1920-1950) school, namely - A. Fayol, L. Urwick, J. Mooney, have had direct experience as senior executives in a large business. Their main concern was efficiency in relation to the work of the entire organization. The "classics" (whose work was largely based on personal observations rather than scientific methodology) tried to look at organizations from a broader perspective, trying to identify common characteristics and patterns of organizations.

The aim of the school was to create universal management principles which will undoubtedly lead the organization to success.

These principles were related to two aspects. One of them was development of a rational organization management system . By defining the core functions of a business as finance, manufacturing, and marketing, the Classics were confident that they could determine the best way to divide an organization into divisions or groups. Fayol considered control How a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions.

A. Fayol formulated 14 principles of management:

• division of labor . The purpose of division is to produce work that is larger in volume and better in quality for the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and efforts must be directed;
• powers and responsibilities . Authority gives the right to give an order, responsibility is its opposite;
• discipline . Assumes obedience and respect for the agreements reached between the organization and its employees. Discipline provides for the fair application of sanctions;
• unity of command . An employee should receive orders from only one immediate supervisor;
• unity of direction . Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader;
• subordination of personal interests to the general . The interests of one employee should not prevail over the interests of the company;
• staff remuneration . In order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must receive a fair salary;
• centralization . It is necessary to ensure the most correct balance between centralization and decentralization, depending on specific conditions;
• scalar chain , that is, a number of persons in leadership positions, starting from the person occupying the highest position - down to the head of the grassroots. One should not abandon the hierarchical system unnecessarily, but maintaining a hierarchy is harmful when it is detrimental to business;
• order . A place for everything, and everything in its place;
• justice - a combination of kindness and justice;
• workplace stability for staff . High staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization;
• initiative . Means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation;
• corporate spirit . Union is strength, and it is the result of staff harmony.