Romanesque style (from lat. romanus - Roman) - an artistic style that dominated Western Europe (and also affected some countries of Eastern Europe) in the X-XII centuries (in a number of places - in the XIII century), one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art. Most fully expressed in architecture.
France
Conques (Aveyron), view of the village and the church of Sainte Foy
Périgueux (Dordogne), view of the Saint-Front church, OK. 1120
Perigueux, Saint Front church
Tournus (Saône-et-Loire), abbey church of Saint Philibert. After 1020
Angouleme (Charentes), Saint Pierre Cathedral. Started ok. 1120 - 1130
Angouleme (Charentes), Saint Pierre Cathedral.
Montmajour (Bouches-du-Rhone), Sainte-Croix chapel
Sainte Croix in Montmajour
Saint Nectaire (Puis-de-Dome), a monastery church. Started ok. 1080
Toulouse (Haute Garonne), Saint Sernin. 1080 - mid-12th century
The term "Romanesque style" appeared at the beginning of the 19th century, when the connection between the architecture of the 11th-12th centuries and ancient Roman architecture was established (in particular, the use of semicircular arches, vaults). In general, the term is conditional and reflects only one, not the main, side of art. However, it has come into common use. The main type of art of the Romanesque style is architecture, mainly church (stone temple, monastic complexes). Style characteristic Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconic exterior decoration - the building has always carefully blended into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially solid and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-in-depth portals. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of the monastery or castle is the tower - donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.
Spain and Portugal
Castle Loarre (Huesca), XI - XIII century.
Loarre Castle
Loarre Castle. Spain
Salamanca, Old Cathedral. Until the middle of the XII century. - the beginning of the XIII century. Spain
Sant Pere de Rodes (Gerona)
Sant Pere de Rodes
Sant Pere de Rodes. Spain
Coimbra (Portugal), cathedral. Construction started ca. 1140, consecrated 1180
Coimbra Cathedral.
Tomar (Portugal), temple church, late 12th century.
Tomar, temple church
Tomar.Portugal
Fromista (Palencia), San Martin. Before 1066 - after 1100
Sahagun (Leon), San Tirso. 12th century The tower was reconstructed after 1949.
Zamora Cathedral. 1151 - 1171
Features of the architecture of the Romanesque cathedral: The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space. An increase in the choir or the eastern altar part of the temple. An increase in the height of the temple. Replacement of the coffered (cassette) ceiling with stone vaults. The vaults were of 2 types: box and cross. Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns. The main motive of the interior is semicircular arches. The severity of the Romanesque cathedral “oppresses” the space. The rational simplicity of the structure, composed of individual square cells - grass.
Germany
Speyer, Cathedral of St. Maria und St. Stefan. 1027 - 1061
Speyer
Speyer
Worms, St. Peter's Cathedral.
Soest, collegiate church of St. Patroclus. OK. 1200
Cologne, St. Mary im Capitol. 1040 - 1049.
Cologne, St. Pantaleon. End of the 10th century
Mainz, Cathedral of St. Martin and St. Stefan. 1081 - 1137
Maria Lach. Church of the Benedictine monastery. Finished in 1156 and 1177.
Paderborn, St. Mary's Cathedral, St. Liborius und St. Kilian. Approx. 1220
Limburg an der Lahn, Cathedral. former collegiate and parish church of St. Georg und St. Nicholas. 1215 - 1235
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Parliament building in Vienna. This is the most recognizable landmark of the city and a magnificent architectural structure. It was built in the eighteenth century according to the design of Theophil Hansen. The parliament building occupies a vast area, which houses the chambers of the Soviets, huge living rooms and halls, bars, libraries and meeting rooms. On both sides of the main entrance to the building, you can see statues of ancient gods. The entire parliament building covers an area of 13,000 square meters. Thousands of tourists visit this landmark of Vienna every day.
Old Town Hall in Prague. This is one of the most beautiful and ancient buildings in Europe. The complex consists of several buildings and is located on the old town square. The main highlight of the town hall is the astronomical clock. The tower, 70 meters high, was built in the fourteenth century by order of King John of Luxembourg. City council meetings were held here and the most important people of the city gathered. Later, several extensions in the Gothic style were made to the tower. The final version of the town hall was designed and completed at the end of the nineteenth century. Now the complex includes five buildings that are used for ceremonial events. The attraction of the town hall can also be considered a large meeting room, which has retained its original appearance from the fifteenth century.
Photo: Old Town Hall in Prague
Vienna State Opera. It is the world center of opera culture. One of the most famous theaters in the world was opened many centuries ago and became the main entertainment in the life of the Austrian nobility. Some of the best architects in Europe were invited to erect the opera building and develop an architectural project. The building was built over eight years, and the first production at the State Opera was Mozart's Don Giovanni. In the majestic building, you can feel the pulse of the era, which is reminiscent of the history of Austria.
Photo: Vienna State Opera
Brandenburg Gate in Berlin. The architectural monument, installed on Paris Square in Berlin, is a symbol of Germany. The facade of the gate was decorated by Johann Schadow. When Napoleon's army captured Berlin, the chariot was dismantled and transported to France, but after the defeat of the French in the war, the chariot was returned back. In 1961, Berlin was divided by a wall into eastern and western parts, and the wall itself passed through the Brandenburg Gate. The Berlin authorities closed the passage through them for several years. In 1989, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, the gates were reopened. A little later they were restored.
Photo: Brandenburg Gate in Berlin
Colosseum in Rome. This amphitheater is a historical monument of Roman architecture. There were always various rumors about the construction of the Colosseum, historians admired it, films were made about it. At first, there was a lake on the site of the Colosseum, but by order of Vespasian it was filled up, and it was decided to build an amphitheater in its place. For eight years, imprisoned slaves were engaged in its construction, and the best artists, engineers, architects and decorators worked on the project. Construction ended in 80 AD. It is said that the celebration in honor of the opening of the Colosseum lasted a hundred days, and during this time hundreds of gladiators and animals died. The Colosseum itself reaches a height of 57 meters and is an ellipse 188 meters long!
St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest. This is the largest Catholic church in Hungary, which is located on the east side of the Danube in Budapest. The cathedral was built in honor of the first king of Hungary. Istvan did a lot for the people of Hungary to accept Christianity. The relics of St. Stephen are kept in the basilica, which are considered the main shrine of the cathedral. The construction of the most beautiful basilica began in 1851 and continued until 1905. Now this cathedral is considered one of the tallest buildings in Budapest. Its height is 96 meters. In addition, the largest bell in Hungary can be found in the cathedral, weighing up to nine tons. If you take the elevator, you can find yourself on one of the best viewing platforms in Hungary, from where a picturesque panorama of the whole city opens.
Photo: St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest
European architecture of the 15th - early 19th centuries
Italian Renaissance and Baroque architecture
In the XIII-XIV centuries. the cities of Northern Italy become the gates of lively maritime trade, depriving Byzantium of the role of an intermediary between Europe and the exotic East. The accumulation of money capital and the development of capitalist production contribute to the rapid formation of bourgeois relations, which are already cramped within the framework of feudalism. A new, bourgeois culture is being created, which has chosen ancient culture as its model; its ideals receive a new life, which gave the name to this powerful social movement - the Renaissance, i.e. Renaissance. The powerful pathos of citizenship, rationalism, the overthrow of church mysticism gave rise to such titans as Dante and Petrarch, Michelangelo Buonarroti and Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas More and Campanella. In architecture, the Renaissance manifested itself by the beginning of the 15th century. Architects are returning to clear logical order systems. Architecture acquires a secular and life-affirming character. Lancet Gothic vaults and arches give way to cylindrical and cross vaults, vaulted structures. Ancient samples are carefully studied, the theory of architecture is being developed. The preceding Gothic had prepared a high level of building technology, especially lifting mechanisms. The process of development of architecture in Italy XV-XVII centuries. conditionally divided into four main stages: Early Renaissance - from 1420 to the end of the 15th century; High Renaissance - the end of the 15th - the first quarter of the 16th century, the Late Renaissance - the 16th century, the baroque period - the 17th century.
Early Renaissance architecture
The beginning of the Renaissance in architecture is associated with Florence, which reached by the 15th century. extraordinary economic growth. Here, in 1420, the construction of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore began (Fig. 1, F1 - 23). The work was entrusted to Filippo Brunellechi, who managed to convince the city council of the correctness of his competitive proposal. In 1434, the octahedral lancet dome, 42 m in diameter, was almost completed. It was built without scaffolding - the workers worked in the cavity between the two shells of the dome, only its upper part was erected with the help of suspended scaffolding. The lantern above it, also designed by Brunelleschi, was completed in 1467. With the completion of construction, the height of the building reached 114 m. The chapel was the first experience of work on centric buildings in Renaissance architecture. In 1444, according to the project of Brunelleschi, a large city building was completed - the Educational House (a shelter for orphans). The portico of the Orphanage is interesting as the first example of a combination of columns bearing arches with a large order of framing pilasters. Brunelleschi also built the Pazzi Chapel (1443), one of the finest works of the early Renaissance. The building of the chapel, completed with a dome on a low drum, opens to the viewer with a light Corinthian portico with a wide arch. In the second half of the XV century. many palaces of the city nobility are being built in Florence. Michelozzo in 1452 completes the construction of the Medici Palace (Fig. 2); in the same year, according to the project of Alberti, the construction of the Rucellai Palace was completed, Benedetto da Maiano and Simon Polayola (Kronaka) erected the Palazzo Strozzi. Despite certain differences, these palaces have a common spatial solution scheme: a high three-story building, the premises of which are grouped around the central courtyard, framed by arched galleries. The main artistic motif is a wall decorated with rustication or decorated with a warrant with majestic openings and horizontal rods corresponding to the divisions of the floors. The structure was crowned with a powerful cornice. The walls were made in brickwork, sometimes with concrete filling, and faced with stone. For interfloor ceilings, in addition to vaults, wooden beam structures were used. The arched completions of the windows are replaced by horizontal lintels. Great work on the study of the ancient heritage and the development of the theoretical foundations of architecture was carried out by Leon Batista Alberti (works on the theory of painting and sculpture, Ten Books on Architecture). The largest works of Alberti as a practice are, in addition to the Rucellai Palace, the restructuring of the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence (1480), where volutes, which were widely used in Baroque architecture, were used for the first time in the composition of the facade, the Church of Sant'Andrea in Mantua, the facade of which was solved by superimposing two order systems. Alberti's work is characterized by the active use of the patterns of order divisions of the facade, the development of the idea of a large order covering several tiers of the building. At the end of the XV century. the scope of construction is reduced. The Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453, cut off Italy from the East that traded with it. The country's economy is in decline. Humanism is losing its militant character, art is seen as a means of escape from real life to the idyll, elegance and sophistication are valued in architecture. Venice, in contrast to the restrained architecture of Florence, is characterized by an attractive, open type of city palace, the composition of the facade of which, with subtle, elegant details, retains Moorish-Gothic features. The architecture of Milan retained the features of Gothic and fortified architecture, reflected in civil architecture.
Rice. 1. Florence Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. 1434 Axonometric section of the dome, plan of the cathedral.
Rice. 2. Palazzo Medici-Riccardi in Florence. 1452 Fragment of the facade, plan.
Milan is associated with the activities of the greatest painter and scientist of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci. He developed several projects for palaces and cathedrals; a city project was proposed, in which, anticipating the development of urban science, attention was paid to the arrangement of water supply and sewerage, to the organization of traffic at different levels. Of great importance for the architecture of the Renaissance were his studies of the compositions of centric buildings and the mathematical justification for calculating the forces acting in the structures of buildings. Roman architecture of the late 15th century. replenished with the works of Florentine and Milanese architects, who, during the decline of their cities, moved to Rome to the court of the pope. Here, in 1485, the Palazzo Cancelleria was laid, made in the spirit of Florentine palaces, but devoid of the severity and gloomy asceticism of their facades. The building has graceful architectural details, fine ornamentation of the entrance portal and window frames.
High Renaissance architecture
With the discovery of America (1492) and. sea route to India around Africa (1498), the center of gravity of the European economy moved to Spain and Portugal. The necessary conditions for construction were preserved only in Rome - the capital of the Catholic Church throughout feudal Europe. Here the leading was the construction of unique places of worship. The architecture of gardens, parks, country residences of the nobility is developing. A significant part of the work of the largest architect of the Renaissance, Donato Bramante, is associated with Rome. The tempietto in the courtyard of the church of San Pietro in Montorio was built by Bramante in 1502 (Fig. 3). This small work of mature centric composition was the preparatory stage for Bramante's work on the plan of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome.
Rice. 3. Tempietto in the courtyard of the Church of San Pietro in Montorio. Rome. 1502 General view. Section, plan.
The courtyard with a circular gallery was not realized. One of the significant works on the development of the idea of centric composition was the construction of the church of Santa Maria del Consoliazione in Todi, which has the utmost clarity of design and the integrity of the internal space, decided according to the Byzantine scheme, but using frame ribs in the domes. Here, part of the spacer forces is balanced by metal puffs under the heels of the spring arches of the sail. In 1503, Bramante began work on the courtyards of the Vatican: the courtyard of the Loggias, the Pigny garden and the Belvedere courtyard. He creates this grandiose ensemble in collaboration with Raphael. Design of the Cathedral of St. Peter (Fig. 111), begun in 1452 by Bernardo Rossolino, was continued in 1505. According to Bramante, the cathedral was to have the shape of a Greek cross with additional spaces in the corners, which gave the plan a square silhouette. The overall solution is based on a simple and clear pyramidal-centric composition crowned with a grandiose spherical dome. The construction, begun according to this plan, was stopped with the death of Bramante in 1514. From his successor, Rafael Santi, they demanded an extension of the entrance part of the cathedral. The plan in the form of a Latin cross was more in line with the symbolism of the Catholic cult. Of the architectural works of Raphael, the Palazzo Pandolfini in Florence (1517), the partially built "Villa Madama" - the estate of Cardinal G. Medici, the Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli, the Villa Farnesina in Rome (1511), the project of which is also attributed to Raphael, have been preserved.
Rice. 4. Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. Plans:
a - D. Bramante, 1505; b - Raphael Santi, 1514; c - A, yes Sangallo, 1536; d - Minel Angelo, 1547
In 1527, Rome was captured and plundered by the troops of the Spanish king. The cathedral under construction acquired new owners, who demanded a revision of the project. Antonio da Sangallo Jr. in 1536 returns to the plan in the form of a Latin cross. According to his project, the main facade of the cathedral is flanked by two high towers; the dome has a higher rise, it is placed on two drums, which makes it visible from afar with the facade part strongly advanced forward and the huge scale of the building. Of the other works of Sangallo Jr., the Palazzo Farnese in Rome (begun in 1514) is of great interest. The third floor with a magnificent cornice and decorative processing of the courtyard was completed by Michelangelo after the death of Sangallo in 1546. In Venice, a number of projects were carried out by Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti): the library of San Marco, the reconstruction of Piazzetta. Giorgio Vasari, a well-known biographer of outstanding artists, created the Uffizi Street in Florence, which completed the composition of the Piazza della Signoria ensemble.
Late Renaissance architecture
The ongoing decline of the economy and the reaction of the church affect the entire cultural life of Italy. In architecture, there is a departure from the calm harmony of the High Renaissance, Gothic motifs come to life, the expressiveness of forms and verticalism increase. In general, the architecture of the Late Renaissance is characterized by the struggle of two directions: one laid the creative foundations of the future Baroque, the other, which developed the line of the High Renaissance, prepared the formation of classicism architecture. Michelangelo Buonarroti, the great sculptor and painter, in 1520 began work on the New Sacristy at the church of San Lorenzo in Florence, where he achieved a plastically expressive, but very intense synthesis of architecture and sculpture. The interior of the sacristy is “tuned” on a large scale to the large sizes of allegorical sculptures of members of the Medici family, which give a special monumentality to the architectural space. In the same period, Michelangelo was working on a project for the Laurentian Library in Florence, completed after his death by B. Amman in 1568. The staircase of the library lobby is especially famous, where the perspective reduction in the width of the marches and the reduction in the size of the steps create the illusion of expanding the space. Capitol Square is one of the earliest examples of the development of an urban ensemble in the history of European architecture (Fig. 5). Michelangelo has been rebuilding it since 1546. According to his project, the square is symmetrically framed by the porticos of the Capitoline Museum and the Palace of the Conservatives. The rhythm of the powerful pilasters of the buildings gives unity to the entire composition of the square, from which a view of the northwestern part of Rome and the Tiber is revealed. The largest work of Michelangelo as an architect is the continuation of the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome, entrusted to him in 1547. He takes as a basis the scheme of the Bramante plan, but significantly enhances the role of the central part in the composition, for which it was necessary to strengthen the supporting pillars of the substructure.
Rice. 5. Capitol Square in Rome. Started in 1546 Plan:
1 - Palace of Senators; 2 - Palace of Conservatives; 3 - Museum.
Rice. 6. Villa Farnese in Naprarola. Perestroika 1559-1625 General view, general plan.
Rice. 7. Church of Il Gesu in Rome. Beginning in 1568 Facade, plan.
After the death of Michelangelo in 1564, the dome was built by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana according to his design and model. Only the design was changed: instead of the triple shell planned by Michelangelo, a double shell was adopted. Michelangelo's bold quest had a huge impact on the subsequent architecture of Italy. Unlike the balanced compositions of classical architecture, his works are based on enhancing the dynamics of form, volume and plastic processing. Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, already a mature architect (he designed the Fontainebleau Palace in France and worked on the construction of the Vatican Belvedere), received in 1559 an order to rebuild the Farnese Villa in Caprarola. He reconstructs the castle, pentagonal in plan, built according to the project of Sangallo Jr., and creates a whole park ensemble around it (Fig. 6). The work was completed only in 1625. The Church of Il Gesu in Rome, begun by Vignola in 1558, marks the beginning of a return to compositions, the main thing in which is the facade plane, and the structure of the entire space is revealed from the inside (Fig. 7). This is the influence of Gothic techniques and economic considerations (you can not care about the side facades hidden from the viewer). The compositional principles laid down by Vignola in the architecture of the Il Gesu church became the main ones during the Baroque period. The treatise "The Rule of Five Orders" brought him great fame as an architectural theorist who systematized the laws of proportioning ancient buildings. Andrea Palladio, who carefully studied the ancient heritage and continued the traditions of the High Renaissance, worked mainly in Vicenza. In 1540, his project won the competition for the reconstruction of the Palazzo Publico. The Gothic building of the 15th century, covered with a closed vault, Palladio is surrounded by two-tier galleries, which gave it an open, civil character (Fig. 8). The impression of compositional clarity, plasticity, openwork is achieved by a free arrangement of arches and columns of a large order in combination with a wide field of entablature.
Rice. 8. Palazzo Publico in Vicenza. 1549-1614 Facade rebuilt by A. Palladio.
Palladio continues the tradition of using the "colossal" order, begun by Alberti (Loggia del Capitanio, 1571, and the Palazzo Valmarana, begun in 1566). The Villa Rotonda, begun by Pall & Dio in 1587, is well known (Fig. 116). Its construction was completed by Scamozzi. Palladio established several churches in Venice. The most significant of these are the churches of San Giorgio Maggiore (1580) and Il Redentore, whose facades are designed in baroque motifs. Palladio wrote the theoretical work Four Books on Architecture, which has been reprinted in many languages since 1570. The architectural school of Palladio became the basis of classicism as an architectural style.
Baroque architecture in Italy
By the beginning of the XVII century. The economic life of Italy fell into complete decline. Architecture develops only in Rome, where the baroque style was especially pronounced in the construction of religious buildings.
The baroque is characterized by the complexity of plans, the splendor of interiors with unexpected spatial and lighting effects, the abundance of curves, plastically curving lines and surfaces; the clarity of classical forms is contrasted with sophistication in shaping. Painting, sculpture, painted wall surfaces are widely used in architecture. In 1614, work on the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter. Domenino Fontana and Carlo Maderna lengthen the eastern branch of the plan and complete the imposing vestibule. With the height of the inner space of the cathedral up to the opening of the light lantern of 123.4 m and the diameter of the dome of 42 m, the length of the main nave was 187 m, width - 27.5, height - 46.2 m (Fig. 10). In 1667, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, a talented snulptor, built a colonnade on the square in front of the cathedral, completing the composition of the square. A completely different work by Bernini is the Church of Sant'Andrea in Rome (1670) - one of the classic works of the Baroque. When constructing the main staircase at the Sistine Chapel (“Rock of the Reggia”), Bernini used the effect of an optical illusion, narrowing the width of the marches towards the upper platform. The largest architect of the Italian Baroque was Francesco Borromini, who built the Church of San Carlo at the Four Fountains (beginning in 1638) and Sant Ivo in the courtyard of the university in Rome (1660). Both churches are small with centric, whimsical in terms of interior space (Fig. 11). The Baroque period is rich in significant town-planning works, which include Piazza del Popolo, begun in 1662 by the architects C. Rainaldi and D. Fontana. Typical examples of late Baroque ensemble composition are the Spanish Steps (A. Specchi and F. da Sancti, 1725), leading to the Cathedral of Santa Trinita dei Monti, as well as the Palazzo Poli ensemble with the famous Trevi Fountain in front of it (N. Salvi, 1762 G.).
Rice. 9. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza. 1567-1591 General view, plan
Rice. 10. Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome, Master Plan of the Vatican.
Rice. 11. Church of Sant'Ivo in Rome. 1660 General view, plan.
In the latter work, the synthesis of architecture and sculpture is solved with exceptional skill and the effect of a theatrical action is achieved, in which the sculptures seem to “appear” against the backdrop of architectural scenery. In both examples, the problem of architectural organization of space is solved by means of dynamic comparison of masses and surfaces. Country villas of the Baroque era are distinguished by the axial construction of the composition, most of which is occupied by a vast regular park with gazebos, fountains, cascades of waterfalls, and wide staircases. The most interesting of them are Villa d'Este in Tivoli, begun in 1549 by Ligorio, and Villa Aldobrandini in Frascati (Giacomo della Porta, 1603). In addition to Rome, magnificent baroque works were created in Venice. The best work of Baldassare Longhena - the Church of Santa Maria della Salute (1682) on the spit of the Grand Canal - a picturesque centric octahedral building with a dome, the drum of which is supported by powerful volutes (Fig. 12).
Urban planning in Italy during the Renaissance and Baroque
The Renaissance opened up new possibilities for the formation of the human personality. Artists, architects and urban planners tried to create other models of the human living environment. In the era of the Renaissance and Baroque, the search for modern forms of functioning of cities also develops; economic prerequisites and technical advances make the search for a new structure and a new image of the city a social necessity. In urban planning, successively ideal cities become the object of development, then urban planning elements - squares, parks, ensembles of buildings, and later - the city itself as a real task in terms of artistic composition.
Rice. 12. Church of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice. 1682 View from the Grand Canal, plan.
Its solution is complicated by the ever-increasing stratification of society. This was reflected in the structure of the city in the chaos of housing quarters for the common people with separate inclusions of palace and cult ensembles. During the Renaissance, special attention was paid to the construction of cities. The bourgeoisie is not satisfied with crooked cramped medieval lanes. The idea of a city of a centric type arises, reflecting the synthesis of rational forms of Roman military camps with the naturally developing concentric structures of medieval cities. The utopian philosophers Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella tried to create a theoretical basis for the social structure of new cities. A. Filarete in the project of the ideal city of Sforzinda for the first time proposes to replace the rectangular planning structure with a radial scheme of the street network, thus generalizing the experience of the spontaneous geometry of the development of medieval European cities. In the developments of L. Alberti, the city is saturated with air, greenery, and a sense of space. The city is understood as a democratic formation, but is divided into quarters according to class. A. Palladio reassesses the structures of the city from the standpoint of the Baroque. He proposes to place the prince's palace in the center of the city, thereby laying the foundations for palace beam compositions. Interest in the urban landscape, the everyday life of the townspeople stimulated the development of perspective painting, genre compositions, Renaissance art in general. Some ideal cities were built: Palma Nuova according to the plan of Scamozzi (1583, fig. 13); Livorno and Feste Castro in the 15th century. (architect Sangal-lo) -these cities have not been preserved; La Valetta (1564) and Grammichele (1693). Another side of practical urban planning, which implemented new principles in already established cities, was the creation of compositions in an amorphous urban environment, which later became centers of urban ensembles. The Baroque draws on the landscape as one of the main components of the urban ensemble. The architectural formation of urban centers continues. At the same time, the square loses its functional and democratic content, which was inherent in it in the era of the early Middle Ages (place of trade, folk gatherings). It becomes an adornment of the city, its front part, hiding the elements of intra-quarter development. The streets during the Renaissance did not receive much attention. During the Baroque period, the main streets are laid out in the form of wide avenues (Via Corso in Rome, overlooking Piazza del Popolo). The ensemble of Piazza del Popolo is an example of a three-beam composition illustrating the principles of baroque in urban planning. Two churches, built during the reconstruction of the square, cut the city traffic into three channels and are oriented with their apses not to the east, but in accordance with the town planning plan, the entrance to the north. In the architecture of the Renaissance, the development of a project from the standpoint of theoretical mechanics, its engineering justification, is of great importance. There is a differentiation between the work of the designer and the builder. The architect now supervised the construction, but was not one of the masters directly involved in the work. At the same time, he not only worked out the entire project in detail, often on a model, but also thought through the course of construction work, the use of construction mechanisms for lifting and installation. The return to ancient - scaled to man and constructively truthful - order systems in the choice of artistic means of expression is explained by the general humanistic orientation of the culture of the Renaissance. But already in the early works, the order is used to dismember and enhance the expressiveness of the wall on the facade and in the interior. and later two or three order "decorations" of different scales are superimposed on the wall plane, creating the illusion of depth of space. The architects of the Renaissance overcame the strict ancient relationship between design and form and developed, in essence, purely aesthetic norms of “pictorial” tectonics, the correspondence of which to the constructive and spatial logic of the structure was observed depending on the formulation of the general artistic task. In the Baroque era, the illusory deep interpretation of the wall continues with real three-dimensional compositions in the form of sculptural groups, fountains (Palazzo Poli with the Trevi Fountain). It is not accidental, therefore, that Renaissance architects were interested in working on urban ensembles and a decisive turn towards understanding architecture as an organized environment. But in the feudal era, the scale of the implementation of urban planning initiatives rarely went beyond the ensembles of palace or cathedral squares. O. Choisy, characterizing the Renaissance, wrote that the superiority of the Renaissance lies in the fact that he did not know the types of art that were independent of each other, but he knew only a single art in which all ways of expressing beauty merge.
Rice. 13. "Ideal City" Renaissance Palma Nuova, 1593
The material is taken from the book: History of Architecture. (V.N. Tkachev). In case of partial or complete copying of the material, a link to www.stroyproject.com.ua is required.
History of architecture of Western Europe V-XV centuries. In this millennia-old epoch of the emergence, flourishing and decline of feudal relations, rich in upheavals, saturated with sharp socio-economic and cultural-historical contradictions, the main contours of the modern political map of Europe took shape, and prerequisites were created for the rapid development of the national cultures of European peoples.
The crisis of the slave-owning mode of production, the uprising of slaves and peoples oppressed by Rome, the invasion of German and Slavic tribes into the shattered Roman Empire led to the IV-V centuries. to its final collapse and to the emergence on its ruins of a number of "barbarian" state formations that developed under the conditions of the formation of new production relations, which were based on large-scale feudal landownership and the labor of peasants who fell into personal, serf dependence on the feudal lords.
The stormy process of the destruction of the old, slave-owning world and the emergence of a new, feudal world, was directly and vividly reflected in the superstructural sphere of material and spiritual culture. The crisis of the slave system already in the first centuries of our era caused the collapse of Roman ideology and the rapid spread of new beliefs, especially early Christianity, as the religion of slaves and the destitute. A divided public consciousness and a disturbing uncertainty paralyzed the forces that nourished the once opulent art of late antiquity.
The steady decline of the economy and chronic wars completely halted construction. With the disappearance of the political and economic prerequisites for development, one after another, the comfortable Roman cities fell into desolation, which for centuries served as the main hotbeds of Roman civilization in the entire Mediterranean basin. Many of the Roman cities were destroyed by the invasions of the Germanic and Slavic agricultural tribes. This dealt the final blow to ancient culture.
But along with the feudal world that arose on the ruins of the slave system, a new culture was born, fertilized by creative energy and nourished by the young peoples' own traditions. Developing in the course of a fierce struggle between progressive and reactionary forces, it spread east of the Rhine and north of the Danube, far beyond the borders of the former Roman Empire, into countries that had never known either the Roman yoke or Roman civilization. The deeply folk monuments of this culture are among the greatest achievements of mankind.
The emergence of "barbarian" states (V-VI centuries), a short-term heyday (VIII century) and the subsequent collapse (IX century) of the Carolingian empire, devastating raids by the Hungarians and Normans. (IX century), the conquest of England by the Norman barons (XI century), the emergence and development of the states of Eastern Europe (IX-XI centuries), the crusades (XI-XIII centuries), the Spanish reconquista (VIII-XV centuries), peasant uprisings and the struggle of urban communes for their liberties (XI-XIII centuries), feuds between German emperors and popes (XI-XIII centuries), endless feudal wars that exhausted peoples throughout the Middle Ages, already suppressed by the oppression of dominant land relations , like all complex socio-economic processes caused by the constant clash of centrifugal and centripetal forces and the desire of the emerging state to overcome the chaos of feudal fragmentation - all this left its mark on the material and spiritual culture of medieval Europe.
A huge role in the life of medieval society was played by the church, which served as the most important support for feudalism and, according to F. Engels, acted as the most general synthesis and the most general sanction of the existing feudal system. Having subjugated philosophy, science, literature and art, it entangled all aspects of the life of a medieval person, in the mass of ignorant and superstitious. Over the centuries, the Catholic Church has developed both the very system of its doctrine in relation to the requirements of the feudal exploitation of the masses, and the ritual addressed to the psyche, suppressed by superstition.
But “the religion that subjugated the Roman world empire and for 1800 years dominated the most significant part of civilized mankind cannot be dealt with simply by declaring it nonsense concocted by deceivers. To deal with it, it is necessary first to be able to explain its origin and its development, based on those historical conditions under which it arose and achieved dominance "(F. Engels. Bruno Bauer and primitive Christianity. - K. Marx and F. Engels. Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 19, p. 30).
There are many amazing places on this old continent that still impress tourists and locals alike. Regardless of what it is about, Europe offers its visitors a lot of beauty, and one of the best ways to see the beauty is to get acquainted with modern European architecture.
Many great architects come up with projects, putting all their efforts and imagination to create unusual buildings that will impress viewers for a long time. In many European countries you can see similar modern architectural masterpieces, so as a tourist, there is something to see while traveling in Europe. We have selected ten buildings designed in the spirit of modern architecture. Take a look, you are sure to love something, and the next time you travel, include it in your itinerary!
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10Location: Prague, Czech Republic
"Dancing House" is also known as "Ginger and Fred", named after the famous dancers of the era of golden Hollywood, Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. The building was designed by architects Vlado Milunich and Frank Gehry, construction began in 1992 and was completed in 1996.
During this time, the building was criticized, as it differed significantly from the typical architecture of Prague. The building consists of two parts - one static and one dynamic (dancing part). In fact, they represent the transition of Czechoslovakia from a communist system to a parliamentary democracy.
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9"New Customs" (Der Neue Zollhof)
Location: Dusseldorf, Germany
Der Neue Zollhof or "New Customs" consists of three buildings. All of them are located in the German city of Düsseldorf in the harbor next to the river Rhine. The buildings are unique due to their geometric shapes and unusual window openings. Different materials were used for the facade of these three buildings. The building in the center is covered with metal panels, the east and tallest building is faced with plaster, and the west has a red brick facade.
Thanks to the attractive facades of all three, and especially the metal building, they are popular among tourists. Der Neue Zollhof was designed by Frank Gehry and completed in 1998.
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8
Location: Brussels, Belgium
The Atomium is located in the capital of Belgium, Brussels, and is a fragment of the iron crystal lattice, magnified 165 billion times! The building that now houses the museum was built in 1958 for the World Exhibition in Brussels and represents the belief in scientific progress. The Atomium was designed by architects André and Jean Polak, who worked with engineer André Waterkeyn.
At the end of the exhibition, the building was supposed to be dismantled, but the unique and futuristic architecture won the hearts of many people and is still doing it with success, so it was decided to leave the building.
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7Location: Malmö, Sweden
This unusual building is located in the south of Sweden in the city of Malmö. Turning Torso is an amazing neo-futuristic skyscraper. This house is considered the highest in all of Scandinavia! The project was designed by the famous Spanish architect and sculptor Santiago Calatrava. The idea of such a skyscraper came from one of Calatrava's sculptures, which depicts a twisted human torso.
The building was completed in 2005 and ten years later, it won the "10 Years Award" from the Tall Buildings and Urban Environment Council. The height of "Turning Torso" reaches 190 meters. This is a residential building with 147 apartments. Thanks to this height, its residents can enjoy amazing views of Malmö and Copenhagen across the Øresund Strait.
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6Prince Philip Science Museum
Location: Valencia, Spain
The Prince Philip Science Museum is one of the buildings of the cultural and architectural complex "City of Arts and Sciences" in Valencia. The complex was designed by the Spanish architect and sculptor Santiago Calatrava and opened in 2000. The museum has three floors that cover 8,000 square meters. It hosts several regular exhibitions covering many areas of science, technology, climate and art.
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5cube houses
Location: Rotterdam, Netherlands
Cubic houses are located in Rotterdam, and initially they were built as ordinary residential buildings. But thanks to their unique appearance, the buildings attracted many visitors who were interested in how these cube houses look from the inside. One of the owners decided to open his house to visitors, and his cube is known today as the Kijk-Kubus Museum.
Behind this masterpiece is the architect Pita Bohm, who designed the first series of cubic houses in Helmond in the mid-1970s and then created the second project in Rotterdam in the early 1980s.
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4Kunsthaus
Location: Graz, Austria
The Austrian city of Graz has taken on an alien look thanks to a building that was built in 2003 as part of the European Capital of Culture program. We mean Kunsthaus (Kunsthaus Graz)! With such a modern appearance, the building definitely stands out from its baroque neighbors. The architects of this masterpiece are Colin Fournier and Peter Cook.
Since 2003, Kunsthaus Graz has been an architectural landmark of the city. In fact, now a modern art gallery, visitors can see art exhibits here from the 1960s to the present day, including films, photographs and new media.
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3
Location: Montpellier, France
Located in the French city of Montpellier. This theater really looks like a decorated wooden box! Built in 2013 by architects from A+Architecture, the theater has a very interesting exterior with harlequin-style wood patterns. At night, thanks to the multi-colored illumination built into the facade, the building takes on an even more amazing look.
The theater is named after the famous French novelist Jean-Claude Carrier, which makes this theater really special. In addition, it is built in such a way that it absorbs much less energy than any analogue of the same size.
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2
Location: Gothenburg, Sweden
Kuggen is a colorful, cylindrical building designed by Swedish architects Gert Wingardhom and Jonas Edblad for Wingårdh Arkitektkontor. The building is located in Gothenburg, Sweden's second largest city, and belongs to the Chalmers University of Technology (lucky students!).
The facade is made of terracotta panels in six shades of red and two green, which look different depending on the angle you look at them and the amount of natural light at the moment.
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1Kunsthofpassage
Location: Dresden, Germany
At first, you might think that this building doesn't look that unusual compared to the rest on our list, but what makes it unique is that the house plays music every time it rains! Thanks to a system of drains and funnels attached to the facade of the building, the Kunsthofpassage is one of the top attractions in Dresden, Germany. The musical building was designed by sculptor Annette Pawla and designers Christoph Rossner and André Tempel.
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Conclusion
It was an article TOP 10 most unusual modern buildings in Europe. Thank you for your attention!
