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What is horizontal mobility in social science. social mobility

What is horizontal mobility in social science. social mobility

17.10.2019

scientific definition

social mobility- change by an individual or group of the place occupied in the social structure (social position), moving from one social stratum (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum (horizontal mobility). Sharply limited in a caste and estate society, social mobility increases significantly in an industrial society.

Horizontal mobility

Horizontal mobility- the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level (example: transition to another religious community, change of citizenship). Distinguish between individual mobility - the movement of one person independently of others, and group mobility - the movement occurs collectively. In addition, geographical mobility is distinguished - moving from one place to another while maintaining the same status (example: international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back). As a kind of geographical mobility, the concept of migration is distinguished - moving from one place to another with a change in status (example: a person moved to a city for a permanent place of residence and changed his occupation).

Vertical mobility

Vertical mobility- the promotion of an individual up or down the career ladder.

Upward mobility- social uplift, upward movement (For example: promotion).
Downward mobility- social descent, downward movement (For example: demotion).

social lift

social lift- a concept similar to vertical mobility, but more often used in the modern context of discussing the theory of elites as one of the means of rotation of the ruling elite or, in a broader context, a change in position in the social hierarchy, and not in the official one. A more rigid definition of rotation, reminiscent of the fact that social elevators work in both directions, is the concept of the wheel of fortune.

Generational mobility

Intergenerational mobility - a comparative change in social status among different generations (example: the son of a worker becomes president).

Intragenerational mobility (social career) - a change in status within one generation (example: a turner becomes an engineer, then a shop manager, then a factory director). Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. In general, men and young people are more mobile than women and the elderly. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the consequences of emigration (relocation from one country to another for economic, political, personal reasons) than immigration (moving to a region for permanent or temporary residence of citizens from another region). Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Theory of social mobility P. A. Sorokina

group mobility

You can make a career alone or in a group. There is individual and group mobility. When there are collective (caste, estate, racial, etc.) privileges or restrictions on mobility, then members of the lower groups may try to organize a rebellion in order to achieve the removal of these restrictions and, as a group, climb up the rungs of the social ladder. Examples of group mobility:

In ancient India, the varna of the brahmins (priests) achieved superiority over the varna of the kshatriyas (warriors). This is an example of collective ascent.
The Bolsheviks before the October Revolution were insignificant, after it they all together rose to the status that the tsarist aristocracy had previously occupied. This is an example of collective ascent.
The social status of the Pope and bishops has declined over the past three centuries. This is an example of a collective descent.

Mobile and immobile types of societies.

In a mobile type of society, the degree of vertical mobility is very high, and in a fixed type of society, it is very small. An example of the second kind is the caste system in India, although the degree of vertical mobility is never 0, even in ancient India. The degree of vertical mobility should be limited. On each "floor" there must be a "sieve" that sifts through individuals, otherwise people who are unsuitable for this role may turn out to be in leadership positions, and the whole society may die because of this during the war or as a result of the lack of reforms. The degree of vertical mobility can be measured, for example, by the proportion of "upstarts" among rulers and senior officials, calculated as a percentage. These "upstarts" began their careers from among the poor and ended up as rulers. Sorokin showed the difference between countries (according to the last three data, of course, until the second half of the 20th century) in terms of the degree of vertical mobility:

Western Roman Empire - 45.6%
Eastern Roman Empire - 27.7%
Russia before the October Revolution - 5.5%
USA - 48.3%

Sieve testing

In any society, there are many who want to move up, but few succeed in achieving this goal, since this is prevented by the "sieves" on each level of the social hierarchy. When a person comes to get a job, he is evaluated according to several criteria:

family background. A good family is able to give its child a good heredity and a good level of education. In practice, this criterion was applied in Sparta, Ancient Rome, Assyria, Egypt, Ancient India and China, where the son inherited the status and profession of his father. The modern family is unstable, therefore, today the norm is beginning to take shape to evaluate a person not by family origin, but by personal qualities. Even Peter I in Russia introduced a table of ranks, according to which promotion did not depend on "breed", but on personal merit.
The level of education. The function of the school is not only to “inject” knowledge, but also to determine, with the help of examinations and observations, who is talented and who is not, in order to weed out the latter.

Professional organizations double-check the conformity of a person's abilities with an entry in a diploma of education, they test the specific qualities of people: a voice for a singer, strength for a wrestler, etc. At work, every day and every hour becomes an exam for professional suitability for a person. This test can be considered final.

What leads to overproduction or underproduction of the elite?

There is an optimal ratio between the number of people in the elite and the total population. An overproduction of the number of people in the elite leads to a civil war or revolution. For example, the sultan in Turkey had a large harem and many sons who ruthlessly began to destroy each other after the death of the sultan in the struggle for the throne. The overproduction of the elite in modern society leads to the fact that the losers from the elite begin to organize underground organizations in order to organize an armed seizure of power.

The underproduction of the elite due to the low birth rate among the upper strata leads to the need to give some of the elite positions to people who have not passed the selection. This causes social instability and deep contradictions within the elite between "degenerates" and "upstarts". Too strict control in the selection of the elite often leads to a complete stop of the “elevators”, to the degeneration of the elite and to the “subversive” activity of low-ranking rulers by vocation, who cannot make a legal career and seek to physically destroy the “degenerates” and take their elite positions.

List of social mobility elevators

The choice of the elevator (channel) of social mobility is of great importance in the choice of profession and in the selection of personnel. Sorokin named eight elevators of vertical mobility, which people move up or down the steps of the social ladder in the course of their personal career:

Army. 36 Roman emperors (Julius Caesar, Octavian Augustus, etc.) out of 92 achieved their position through military service. 12 Byzantine emperors out of 65 achieved their status for the same reason.
Religious organizations. The significance of this lift reached its apogee in the Middle Ages, emperors, for example, Gregory VII (Pope of Rome) in 1077 deposed, humiliated and excommunicated the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Henry IV. Of the 144 popes, 28 were of simple origin, 27 came from the middle classes. The institution of celibacy forbade Catholic priests to marry and have children, therefore, after their death, the vacant positions were occupied by new people, which prevented the formation of a hereditary oligarchy and accelerated the process of vertical mobility. The Prophet Muhammad was at first a simple merchant, and then became the ruler of Arabia.
School and scientific organizations. In ancient China, the school was the main elevator in society. According to the recommendations of Confucius, a system of educational selection (selection) was built. Schools were open to all classes, the best students were transferred to higher schools, and then to universities, from there the best students got into the government and to the highest state and military posts. There was no hereditary aristocracy. The Mandarin government in China was a government of intellectuals who knew how to write literary compositions, but did not understand business and did not know how to fight, so China more than once became an easy prey for nomads (Mongols and Manchus) and European colonizers. In modern society, business and politics should be the main elevators. The school elevator was also of great importance in Turkey under Suleiman the Magnificent (1522-1566), when talented children from all over the country were sent to special schools, then to the Janissary corps, and then to the guards and the state apparatus. In ancient India, the lower castes did not have the right to receive an education, that is, the school elevator moved only along the upper floors. Today in the United States, one cannot hold a public office without a university degree. Of the 829 British geniuses, 71 were the sons of unskilled workers. 4% of Russian academicians came from peasants, for example, Lomonosov Trimalchio, Pallady, Narcissus. King Jugurtha of Numidia, by bribing officials of Rome, sought the support of Rome in his struggle for the throne at the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Expelled eventually from Rome, he called the "eternal" city a corrupt city. R. Gretton wrote about the rise of the English bourgeoisie: destroyed and ruined each other, the middle class went uphill, accumulating wealth. As a result, the nation once woke up, seeing new masters. The middle class used money to buy all the desired titles and privileges.
Family and marriage. According to ancient Roman law, if a free woman married a slave, then her children became slaves, the son of a slave and a free man became a slave. Today there is a "pull" of rich brides and poor aristocrats, when in the event of marriage, both partners receive mutual benefit: the bride receives the title, and the groom - wealth.

Ticket 10. Social mobility: concept, types, channels

concept "social mobility" introduced by P. Sorokin. He believed that society is a huge social space in which people move both in reality and conditionally, in the opinion of others and their own.

social mobility is a change by an individual or a group of its position in the social space. According to the directions of social movements, vertical and horizontal social mobility are distinguished.

Vertical mobility- social displacement, which is accompanied by an increase or decrease in social status.

Moving to a higher social position is called upward mobility, and on the lower downward mobility.

Horizontal mobility- social displacement, not associated with a change in social status, - transfer to another place of work in the same position, change of residence. If social status changes when moving, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

By types of mobility sociologists distinguish between intergenerational and intragenerational. Intergenerational mobility change in social status between generations. Intragenerational mobility associated with social career,, which means a change in status within one generation.

In accordance with the change by the individual of his social position in society, they distinguish two forms of mobility: group and individual. group mobility- movements are made collectively, and entire classes, social strata change their status. (It happens during periods of fundamental changes in society - social revolutions, civil or interstate wars, military coups). Individual mobility means the social displacement of a particular person.

Channels of social mobility may perform: school, education, family, professional organizations, army, political parties and organizations, church. Of course, in modern society, education is of particular importance, the institutions of which perform the function of a kind of "social lift" providing vertical mobility. social lift is a mechanism for raising (or lowering) social status.

At the same time, it should be noted that the processes of social mobility can be accompanied by the marginalization and lumpenization of society. Under marginality refers to an intermediate, “borderline” state of a social subject. Marginal when moving from one social group to another, he retains the old system of values, connections, habits and cannot learn new ones (migrants, the unemployed). lumpen, trying in the process of social mobility to move from the old group to the new one, finds himself outside the group altogether, breaks social ties and eventually loses basic human qualities - the ability to work and the need for it (beggars, homeless people).

The concept and types of social mobility

An analysis of the causes of social inequality always entails the question of whether an individual himself can achieve an increase in his social status and join the composition of a social stratum located above his own on the scale of wealth and prestige. In modern society, it is generally accepted that the starting opportunities for all people are equal and the individual will certainly succeed if he makes the appropriate efforts and acts purposefully. Often this idea is illustrated by examples of the dizzying careers of millionaires who started from nothing, and shepherdesses who turned into movie stars.

social mobility called the movement of individuals in the system of social stratification from one layer to another. There are at least two main reasons for the existence of social mobility in society. First, societies change, and social change alters the division of labor, creating new statuses and undermining old ones. Second, although the elite may monopolize educational opportunities, it is unable to control the natural distribution of talent and ability, so the upper strata are inevitably replenished by talented people from the lower strata.

Social mobility comes in many forms:

vertical mobility- a change in the position of the individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status. For example, if an auto mechanic becomes the director of a car service, this is an indication of upward mobility, but if an auto mechanic becomes a scavenger, such a movement will be an indicator of downward mobility;

horizontal mobility- a change in position that does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status.

A form of horizontal mobility is geographical mobility.

It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility becomes migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and got a job here, then this is migration.

intergenerational(intergeneration) mobility - is revealed by comparing the social status of parents and their children at a certain point in the career of both (according to the rank of their profession at approximately the same age).

intragenerational(intragenerational) mobility - involves a comparison of the social status of the individual for a long time.

Classification of social mobility can be carried out according to other criteria. So, for example, one distinguishes individual mobility, when movements down, up or horizontally occur in an individual independently of others, and group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old ruling class cedes its positions to the new ruling class.

On other grounds, mobility can be classified, say, into spontaneous or organized. An example of spontaneous mobility is the movement of residents of the near abroad to large cities of Russia for the purpose of earning money. Organized mobility (moving a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally) is controlled by the state. As P. Sorokin showed on a huge historical material, the following factors acted as the causes of group mobility:

social revolutions;

Foreign interventions, invasions;

Interstate wars;

Civil wars;

military coups;

Change of political regimes;

Replacing the old constitution with a new one;

Peasant uprisings;

Internecine struggle of aristocratic families;

Creation of an empire.

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The concept and parameters of social mobility

The concept of " social mobility» introduced into science by P.A. Sorokin. According to him, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.” In social mobility P.A. Sorokin included:

Movement of individuals from one social group to another;

The disappearance of some and the emergence of other social groups;

The disappearance of a whole set of groups and its complete replacement by another.

Cause of social mobility P.A. Sorokin saw the implementation in society of the principle of distribution of benefits in proportion to the merits of each of its members, because even partial implementation of this principle leads to increased social mobility and renewal of the composition of the higher strata. Otherwise, over time, these strata accumulate a large number of sluggish, incapable people, and in the low strata, on the contrary, talented people. Thus, socially combustible material is created in the form of discontent and protest in the low strata, which can lead to a revolution. To prevent this from happening, society must abandon the rigid social structure, carry out social mobility constantly and in a timely manner, improve and control it.

Factors affecting social mobility:

The level of economic development (for example, during a period of economic depression - downward mobility);

Historical type of stratification (class and caste societies limit social mobility);

Demographic factors (gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density). Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration; where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Indicators (parameters) of social mobility.

Social mobility is measured by two main indicators:

distance

volume.

Mobility distance- the number of steps that individuals managed to climb or had to descend. normal distance moving one or two steps up or down is considered. abnormal distance- an unexpected rise to the top of the social ladder or a fall to its base.

The scope of mobility called the number of individuals who have moved up the social ladder in a vertical direction in a certain period of time. If the volume is calculated by the number of moved individuals, then it is called absolute, and if the ratio of this number to the entire population, then - relative and is indicated as a percentage.

So, social mobility- this is the movement of an individual or a social group from one social stratum to another, or within a social stratum, a change in the place of a particular social subject in the social structure.

Types of social mobility

Exists two main types of social mobility:

Intergenerational

Intragenerational

and two main types:

vertical

Horizontal.

They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes that are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility- when children reach a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents.

Intragenerational mobility- the same individual changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called a social career.

Vertical mobility is the movement of an individual or social group from one stratum to another, while there is a change in social status. Depending on the direction of movement highlight the following types of vertical mobility:

Rising (social rise);

Descending (social descent).

There is a certain asymmetry between ascent and descent: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a voluntary phenomenon, while descent is forced.

Channels of vertical mobility.

According to P.A. Sorokin, in any society between the strata there are channels("elevators"), on which individuals move up and down. Of particular interest are social institutions - army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social mobility.

Army functions most intensively as such a channel in wartime. Large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies from lower ranks.

Church moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society, and vice versa. The institute of celibacy obliged the Catholic clergy not to have children. Therefore, after the death of officials, the vacant positions were filled with new people. At the same time, thousands of heretics were put on trial, destroyed, among them were many kings, aristocrats.

School: the institution of education at all times served as a powerful channel of social mobility, because education was always valued, and educated people had a high status.

Own most clearly manifests itself in the form of accumulated wealth and money, which is one of the simplest and most effective ways of social advancement.

Family and marriage become a channel of vertical mobility in the event that representatives of different social statuses enter the union.

Horizontal mobility- this is the transition of an individual or a social group from one social group to another, located at the same level, i.e. without changing social status.

A kind of horizontal mobility is geographical mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

Also distinguish individual and group mobility.

Individual mobility- moving down, up or horizontally occurs for each person independently of others.

To factors of individual mobility, those. reasons that allow one person to achieve greater success than another include: the social status of the family; the level of education received; nationality; physical and mental abilities; external data; received upbringing; place of residence; profitable marriage.

group mobility- Movements happen collectively. For example, after a revolution, the old class cedes its dominant position to the new class. According to P.A. Sorokin reasons for group mobility the following factors serve: social revolutions; foreign interventions; invasions; interstate wars; civil wars; military coups; change of political regimes, etc.

It is also possible to highlight organized and structural mobility.

Organized mobility occurs when the movement of an individual or social group up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state. This process can take place with the consent of the people themselves (for example, public calls for Komsomol construction projects) and without their consent (resettlement of small peoples, dispossession).

Structural mobility It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people employed in them.

During the mobility process, a state may arise marginality. This is a special sociological term for a borderline, transitional, structurally indefinite social state of the subject. People who, for various reasons, fall out of their usual social environment and are unable to join new communities (often due to cultural inconsistencies), who experience great psychological stress and experience a kind of crisis of self-consciousness, are called outcasts. Among marginals there can be ethnomarginals, biomarginals, economic marginals, religious marginals.

The process of migration in society

Migration is the process of changing the permanent place of residence of individuals or social groups, expressed in moving to another region, geographical area or another country.

The migration process is closely related to both horizontal and vertical mobility, since each migrating individual seeks to find better economic, political or social conditions of existence in a new place.

Migration mechanism. In order for people to want to change their habitual place of residence, conditions are necessary that force them to do so. These conditions are usually divided into three main groups:

extrusion

Attraction

Migration paths.

extrusion associated with the difficult conditions of existence of the individual in his native places. The expulsion of large masses of people is associated with serious social upheavals (interethnic conflicts, wars), economic crises, and natural disasters (earthquakes, floods). With individual migration, failure in a career, the death of relatives, and loneliness can serve as a buoyant force.

Attraction- a set of attractive features or conditions for living in other places (higher wages, the opportunity to occupy a higher social status, greater political stability).

Migration paths is a characteristic of the direct movement of a migrant from one geographical location to another. Migration routes include the accessibility of a migrant, his luggage and family to another region; the presence or absence of barriers on the way; information to help overcome financial obstacles.

Distinguish international(moving from one state to another) and internal(moving within one country) migration.

Emigration- traveling outside the country . Immigration- entry into the country.

seasonal migration- depends on the season (tourism, study, agricultural work).

pendulum migration- regular movement from this point and return to it.

Migration is considered normal up to certain limits. In the event that the number of migrants exceeds a certain level, saying that migration becomes redundant. Excessive migration can lead to a change in the demographic composition of the region (departure of young people and the “aging” of the population; the predominance of men or women in the region), to a shortage or excess of labor, to uncontrolled urban growth, etc.

Literature

Volkov Yu.G., Dobrenkov V.I., Nechipurenko V.N., Popov A.V.

Sociology: textbook / ed. prof.

SOUTH. Volkov. – M.: Gardariki, 2007.- Ch. 6.

Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: a textbook for universities. - M., 2003. - Ch. eleven.

Raduev V.V., Shkaratan O.I. Social stratification: a textbook. M., 1996.

Radugin A. A., Radugin K. A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 8.

Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. - Ch. 9.

Frolov S.S. Sociology: textbook. - M.: Gardariki, 2006. - Ch.17.

Test tasks on the topic "Social mobility"

1. Social mobility is:

1. change by a person of the place of his permanent residence

2. change of value orientations of the individual

3. change in the social status of an individual or group

4. expansion of professional and general cultural horizons

2. The main types of social mobility are:

1. vertical and horizontal

2. intergenerational and intragenerational

3. ascending and descending

4. individual and group

3. Geographic mobility turns into migration when:

1. a person moves from one place to another, while maintaining his social status

2. a person moves from one place to another, while changing his social status

3. person moves from one nationality to another

4. a person temporarily moves from one socio-geographical zone to another

4. An example of downward social mobility can be considered:

1. promotion

2. change of religion

3. dismissal due to redundancy

4. change of profession

5. Social career should be understood as:

1. increasing the social status of representatives of subsequent generations in comparison with the status of the current

2. achievement of a higher social position by an individual compared to parents

3. change by the individual, beyond comparison with the father, several times during the life of their social positions

4. change by the individual of his position in the social and professional structure

The topic of this article is social mobility. This is a very important topic for a sociologist. It is held today at school in the lessons of social studies. After all, knowledge of the society in which we live is necessary for everyone. In our days, when the world is changing very quickly, this is especially true.

Definition

Migration in the broad and narrow senses

Migrations, that is, territorial movements of the population, can also be considered as one of the forms of social mobility. In a broad sense, they are understood as any movements outside the boundaries of a certain territory of its population (usually this territory is a settlement). At the same time, for what purpose and for how long the procedure takes place is immaterial.

However, in popular science and scientific literature, a narrow interpretation of the concept of "migration" is much more often used. According to her, this is a movement that is associated with a change in the place of permanent residence.

Seasonal and pendulum migration

In a broad sense, migration includes, in addition to moving to a permanent place of residence, also seasonal and pendulum migration. The second is the regular movement of people between several (two or more) settlements. However, their place of residence does not change. Such migration is connected with work, rest or study. These are mostly daily trips. Sometimes, however, trips made for a longer period (usually within one week) are also considered as pendulum migrations.

Two important reasons for the sociologist to classify migration

Many features exist to classify migration flows. The most important for the sociologist are the following two:

1. Migration occurring between settlements, the rank of which is different. In some cases, migration is vertical social mobility. This is observed when it is associated with a decrease or increase in the status of a person who has a certain place of residence. In others, it is horizontal (in the event that the move occurs between settlements with the same rank). Today, migration as vertical social mobility is a phenomenon associated mainly with the process of urbanization. After all, moving from villages to cities is a necessary element of this process.

2. External and internal migration. This division is considered rather conditional. Migration human mobility is a vast phenomenon that cannot be rigorously classified. In official statistics, internal migration is usually understood as the movement of people to a new place of residence, carried out within the same country. Under the external means moving to a sufficiently long or permanent residence in another country. However, sometimes, depending on the goals pursued by a particular sociological study, migrations between different subjects of the federation are also considered external.

Social mobility in Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries

Throughout the history of the development of our state, the nature of the mobility of its population has changed. These changes can be recorded quite accurately from the beginning of the 18th century. Russia, like any other semi-agrarian and agrarian society, was characterized until the end of the 19th century by rather low rates of vertical mobility. During these years, the basis of the structure of society was made up of estates. The boundaries of class groups, however, were at that time more permeable than in Europe during the time of classical feudalism. The policy of absolutism pursued by the state contributed to this. Although the outflow was hardly noticeable in relation to the total number of the peasantry due to the high proportion of its representatives in the country's population, in relation to the urban estates and the nobility, the rates of mobility were very high. By paying the tax rate and the ransom, people from the peasantry quite easily got into the urban estates, they could advance in the social hierarchy up to the merchants of the first guild. The ranks of the service nobility also replenished very intensively. From all the estates of Russia, its representatives were nominated - from the clergy, merchants, philistines, peasants.

The structural mobility of the society of that time (since the time of Peter I, at least) was insignificant. That is, the layers that make up the structure of society remained unchanged. Until the 1870s, only their quantitative ratio changed slightly.

Mobility in the post-Petrine era

Russia during the next 140 years following the reign of Peter I, experienced not only a very intense vertical mobility. The structural social mobility of the society of that time was also significant and took place in several stages. At first (1870-1917), a class of proletariat and industrial bourgeoisie was gradually formed in Russia. After that, mainly from 1930 to 1970, an intensive process of modernization took place. At this time, a structure was being formed that was already close to the corresponding one in industrial and post-industrial societies. The difference was that there was no class of private entrepreneurs. In addition, the sphere in which market relations operated was significantly limited. Since the 1990s, the third stage of structural mobility has begun in our society. It is associated with the formation of a post-industrial society in Russia, which is based on a market economy.

Change in the prestige of professions, high rates of inter- and intra-generational mobility

It was not only the quantitative ratio of different social strata that changed in the process of the structural shifts described above. The relative prestige of certain professions also did not remain unchanged. For example, in the 1930s-1950s, the most prestigious were technical specialties (skilled worker, engineer), in the 1950s-1970s, science-related professions, and from the mid-1980s, those related to finance and trade. During the entire period, very high rates of intergenerational and intragenerational mobility, as well as a low level of isolation of various professional groups, were observed. This was noted not only by domestic sociologists, but also by Western ones.

Territorial migration at different times

During this period, the rates of territorial mobility were also extremely high (both horizontal - to construction sites and newly developed areas, and vertical - from the village to the city). Migration began to decline only from the mid-1970s. However, since the beginning of the 1990s, growth rates have been observed again. Many people migrate to the regions of the Russian Federation from the former Soviet republics.

SOCIAL MOBILITY- change by an individual, group or class of their social position, occupied in the social structure.

Social mobility differs from demographic mobility, migration processes. Including as particular moments people change their occupations, level of education, culture, social mobility is not limited to only one of them.

There are two principal types of social mobility,

Horizontal.
Vertical.

Horizontal social mobility or movement refers to the transition of an individual or social object from one social group to another located at the same level. Examples of such social mobility are the movement of individuals from a Baptist to a Methodist religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (as husband or wife) to another as a result of divorce and remarriage, from one factory to another within the same employment status. .

Vertical social mobility refers to relationships that include the transition of an individual (or social object) from one social stratum to another. According to the direction of transition, there are two types of vertical social mobility: ascent and descent, or social ascent and social decline.

The acceleration of the development of society and the growing social difference lead to the emergence of qualitatively new positions, cause a significant increase in social movements, frequency and speed.

Social mobility finds expression in a change in a person's position in the hierarchy of social groups, in his relation to the means of production, in societies. division of labor throughout the system of production. relations. Social mobility is associated with the acquisition or loss of property, appointment to a certain position, mastery of the relevant profession, education, even marriage, etc. When analyzing the channels of social mobility, it is important to divide them into main and secondary, mass and single, typical and random.

Every social movement between social strata and groups means mobility up or down within the social structure.

Social mobility is expressed both in changes in the positions of one generation and in the positions of two and three generations. Changing the positions of children in relation to the positions of fathers is evidence of social mobility Social stability manifests itself while maintaining a certain position of generations.

An important place in the study of the social structure is occupied by the issues of social mobility of the population, that is, the transition of a person from one class to another, from one intraclass group to another, social movements between generations. Social movements are massive and become more intense as society develops. Sociologists study the nature of social movements, their direction, intensity; movement between classes, generations, cities and regions.

They can be positive and negative, encouraged or, conversely, restrained.

In our country, for decades, social origin was put in the forefront in characterization, biography, and people with worker-peasant roots received an advantage. For example, young people from intelligent families, in order to enter a university, initially went to work for a year or two, get seniority, change their social status. Thus, having received a new social status of a worker, they were, as it were, cleansed of their "flawed" social origin. In addition, applicants with seniority received benefits upon admission, were enrolled in the most prestigious specialties.

Also, the more developed a society, the more dynamic it is, the more the principles of real status, real merit work in its system. Society is interested in this.

And today we will consider the following questions:

characterize the types, types and main channels of mobility;
consider the main indicators of social mobility.

Social mobility: concepts, types, types, main channels

People are in constant motion, and society is in development. This also means the continuous variability of the social structure. The totality of social movements in society, i.e., changes in their status, is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time.

The unexpected rise of a person or his sudden fall is a favorite plot of folk tales: a cunning and wise beggar suddenly becomes rich, a poor prince becomes a king, and the industrious Cinderella marries a prince, thereby increasing her status and prestige.

However, human history is made up not only of individual destinies, but of the movements of large social groups. The landed aristocracy is being replaced by the financial bourgeoisie, representatives of low-skilled professions are ousting representatives of the so-called "white collars" - engineers, programmers, operators of robotic complexes - from modern production. Wars and revolutions reshaped the social structure of society, raising some to the social top of the pyramid and lowering others. Similar changes took place in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917. They are still happening today, when the business elite is replacing the party elite.

In general, there are two main types of social mobility- intergenerational (or intergenerational) and within generational (intragenerational) and two main types- vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes that are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility describes an increase or, conversely, a decrease in the social status of representatives of subsequent generations in comparison with the status of the current one; assuming that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower rung than their parents.

For example: the son of a miner becomes an engineer - upward intergenerational mobility, and the son of a professor works as a plumber - downward.

Intragenerational mobility refers to a situation where the same individual, beyond comparison with the father, changes his social positions several times throughout his life. In another way, this process is called a social career.

Example: a turner becomes an engineer, then a shop manager, a factory director, and finally a minister of the engineering industry.

The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term social processes.

Vertical mobility implies a movement from one stratum (as well as estate, class, caste) to another. Depending on the direction of movement, upward mobility is distinguished - social ascent, upward movement and downward mobility - social descent, downward movement.

For example: Promotion is a typical example of upward mobility, dismissal, demolition or dismissal due to staff reduction is an example of downward mobility.

Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level. An example is the movement from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one's own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction.

A variation of horizontal mobility is geographical mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another. Or. For example, the transition from one company to another, while retaining the status (accountant).

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and found a job here, then this is migration.

On the nature of vertical and horizontal mobility influenced by sex, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. Men and young people are generally more mobile than women and older people. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa. For young people, professional mobility is more typical, for adults - economic mobility, for the elderly - political mobility.

The birth rate is also unevenly distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, the higher classes have fewer. There is a pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he has. Even if every son of a rich man follows in the footsteps of his father, voids are still formed on the upper steps of the social pyramid, which are filled by people from the lower classes. In no classroom do people plan ahead for the exact number of children needed to house their parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for the occupation of certain social positions in different classes is different.

Interesting fact: Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees do not have enough children of their own to fill their jobs in the next generation. By contrast, in the United States, farmers and farm workers have one and a half times as many children as they need for self-replacement.

High and low birth rates in different classes have the same effect on vertical mobility as population density in different countries has on horizontal mobility.

Also distinguish individual and group mobility.

Individual mobility- the movement of a particular person up the social ladder, down, up or horizontally, regardless of other people.

group mobility- movement on the social ladder down, up or horizontally of a particular group of people; for example, when, after a social revolution, the old class cedes its dominant positions to the new.

Individual mobility and group mobility are connected in a certain way with assigned and achieved status. Individual mobility is more consistent with the status achieved, and group mobility with the assigned status. Individual mobility occurs where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category rises or falls.

An interesting fact: the October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who had not previously had a recognized high position. In ancient Greece, most people were freed from slavery and climbed the social ladder, and many of their masters went down after the adoption of the constitution. The transition from a hereditary aristocracy to a plutocracy (an aristocracy based on the principles of wealth) had the same consequences. In 212, almost the entire population of the Roman Empire received the status of Roman citizenship. Thanks to this, huge masses of people, who were previously considered inferior, have increased their social status. The invasion of the barbarians disrupted the social stratification of the Roman Empire: one by one, the old aristocratic families disappeared, and they were replaced by new ones. Foreigners founded new dynasties and new nobility.

These are the main types, types and forms of social mobility. In addition to them, sometimes they distinguish organized mobility when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state - with or without the consent of the people themselves. Voluntary organized mobility should include the so-called socialist organizational recruitment, public calls for Komsomol construction projects, etc. Involuntary social mobility includes the resettlement of small peoples and dispossession during the years of Stalinism.

It is necessary to distinguish from organized mobility structural mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people.

So, for example, we can consider the conditions for raising social status in two subspaces - political and professional. Any career ascent of a state official will be reflected on the scale of the axis "rank in the state hierarchy"; one can also increase one's political weight by raising one's rank in the party hierarchy. If he belongs to the number of functionaries or activists of the party that became the ruling party as a result of parliamentary elections, then such an official has a much better chance of getting a leadership position in the system of state or municipal government. And, of course, the professional status of a person will increase with the receipt of a diploma of higher education or with the defense of a dissertation for an accounting degree.

Channels of social mobility

The accessibility of pathways for social mobility depends both on the individual and on the structure of the society in which he lives. Individual ability matters little if society allocates rewards based on prescribed roles. On the other hand, an open society does little to help the individual who is not prepared to fight for promotion to higher statuses. In some societies, young people's ambitions are one or two possible channels of mobility open to them. At the same time, in other societies, youth can take a hundred ways to achieve higher status. Some ways to achieve a higher status may be closed due to ethnic or social-class discrimination, others due to the fact that an individual, due to individual characteristics, is simply not able to use his talents.

However, in order to completely change social status, an individual often has the problem of entering a new subculture of a group with a higher status, as well as the related problem of interacting with representatives of a new social environment. To overcome the cultural barrier and the barrier of communication, there are several ways that, in one way or another, individuals resort to in the process of social mobility.

lifestyle change. It is not enough just to earn and spend big money in the case when the individual has caught up in income with representatives of a higher social stratum. To assimilate a new status level, he needs to accept a new material standard corresponding to this level. Arranging an apartment, buying books, a TV set, a car, etc. - everything must correspond to a new, higher status. Material everyday culture is, perhaps, not very noticeable, but a very significant way of familiarizing with a higher status level. But the material way of life is only one of the moments of familiarization with a new status, and in itself, without changing other components of culture, means little.
development of typical status behavior. A person oriented towards vertical mobility will not be accepted into a higher social class stratum until he has assimilated the patterns of behavior of this stratum to such an extent that he can follow them without any effort. A graduate student, gradually becoming a professor, or a performer, turning into a director, must change his behavior in order to be accepted in a new environment for himself. Clothing patterns, verbal expressions, leisure activities, manner of communication - everything is being revised and should become habitual and the only possible type of behavior. Children are often specially prepared for high-class behavior by teaching them music, dance, and good manners. True, not all aspects of the subculture of a social stratum or group can be mastered as a result of deliberate training and conscious imitation, but such efforts can accelerate the process of acceptance by an individual of a subculture of a higher social stratum.
change in the social environment. This method is based on establishing contacts with individuals and associations (social groups, social circles) of the status stratum in which the mobile individual is socialized. The ideal condition for entering a new layer is the situation when the individual is completely surrounded by representatives of the layer where he seeks to get. In this case, the subculture is mastered very quickly. However, the positive aspect of connections is always that a new acquaintance (individuals, associations) can create a favorable public opinion in favor of the newcomer.
marriage to a higher status stratum. At all times, such a marriage has served as the best means of overcoming the barriers that stand in the way of social mobility. First, it can greatly contribute to the manifestation of talents if it gives material well-being. Secondly, it provides the individual with the opportunity to quickly rise, often bypassing several status levels (everyone, of course, remembers Cinderella's rapid vertical mobility to the highest strata of society). Thirdly, marriage to a representative or representative of a higher status largely resolves the problems of the social environment and the rapid assimilation of culture samples of a higher status layer. This kind of marriage allowed people to overcome the most difficult social barriers in a caste society, as well as penetrate into the elite strata. But such a marriage can be useful only if the individual of a lower status stratum is prepared for the rapid assimilation of new patterns of behavior and lifestyle of a new social environment for him. If he cannot quickly assimilate new cultural statuses and standards, then this marriage will not give anything, since representatives of the highest status layer will not consider the individual "their own".

Main indicators of social mobility

To quantify mobility processes, indicators of the speed and intensity of social mobility are usually used. Under speed or the universality of mobility is understood as "the vertical social distance or the number of strata - economic, professional or political, that an individual passes in his movement up or down in a certain period of time."

For example, within three years after graduating from the institute and starting work in the specialty, a certain individual manages to take the position of head of a department, and his colleague, who graduated from the institute with him, manages to take the position of senior engineer. It is obvious that the speed of mobility is higher for the first individual, since during the indicated period of time he has overcome more status levels. On the other hand, if any individual, as a result of circumstances or personal weakness, slides from a high social position to the bottom of society, then they say that he has a high rate of social mobility, but directed down the status hierarchy.

Under intensity of mobility refers to the number of individuals who change social positions in a vertical or horizontal direction over a certain period of time. The number of such individuals in any social community gives the absolute intensity of mobility, and their share in the total number of this social community shows relative mobility. For example, if we take into account the number of individuals under 30 who are divorced and moved to other families, then here is the absolute intensity of horizontal mobility in this age category. If we consider the ratio of the number of people who moved to other families to the number of all individuals under the age of 30, then this is relative social mobility in a horizontal direction.

Often there is a need to consider the process of mobility from the point of view of the relationship between its speed and intensity. In this case, the aggregate mobility index for the social community is used. In this way, for example, one society can be compared with another in order to find out in which of them or in which period mobility is higher in all indicators. Such an index can be calculated separately for the economic, professional or political field of activity.

Conclusion

Thus, the analysis of the hierarchical structure of society shows that it is not frozen, it constantly fluctuates and moves both horizontally and vertically. When we talk about a social group or individual changing their social position, we are dealing with social mobility. It can be horizontal (in this case, the concept of social displacement is used), if there is a transition to other professional or other groups, but equal in status. Vertical (upward) mobility means the transition of an individual or group to a higher social position with greater prestige, income, power. Downward mobility is also possible, involving movement to lower hierarchical positions.

During periods of revolutions and social cataclysms, there is a radical change in the social structure, a radical replacement of the upper stratum with the overthrow of the former elite, the emergence of new classes and social groups, and mass group mobility.

In stable periods, social mobility increases during periods of economic restructuring. At the same time, an important “social lift” that ensures vertical mobility is education, the role of which is growing in the context of the transition from an industrial to an information society.

Social mobility is a fairly reliable indicator of the level of “openness” or “closedness” of a society. A striking example of a "closed" society is the caste system in India. A high degree of closeness is characteristic of a feudal society. On the contrary, bourgeois-democratic societies, being open, are characterized by a high level of social mobility.

However, it should be noted that here, too, vertical social mobility is not absolutely free, and the transition from one social stratum to another, a higher one, is not carried out without resistance.

Social mobility puts the individual in the conditions of the need for adaptation in a new socio-cultural environment. This process can be very difficult. A person who has lost the socio-cultural world familiar to him, but who has not been able to accept the norms and values of the new group, finds himself, as it were, on the verge of two cultures, becomes marginalized. This is also characteristic of migrants, both ethnic and territorial. In such conditions, a person experiences discomfort, stress. Mass marginality gives rise to serious social problems. It, as a rule, distinguishes societies that are at sharp turning points in history. This is the period Russia is going through at the present time.

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COURSE WORK

on the topic: "Vertical and horizontal social mobility"

Introduction

1. The concept, essence and nature of social mobility

2. Main types and types of social mobility

2.1 Horizontal social mobility

2.1 Vertical social mobility

3. Factors affecting horizontal and vertical mobility

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Modern Russian society is developing and changing especially rapidly due to the fact that the reforms of the 1990s, along with a sharp aggravation of social problems, the rapid growth of social inequality and painful transformations of the social structure, opened up new economic, technological and social opportunities for the country.

Along with changes in the socio-economic system, factors associated with changes in people's social identity, their value orientations, consumer behavior, the material and symbolic world are beginning to play an increasing role in the development of society.

The state of the social structure of society and its social stratification most fully reflects the social mobility of the population, which characterizes the directions and existing mechanisms for changing the social status of individuals. People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in one's status is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time. social horizontal mobility society

The relevance of the research topic of the nature of social mobility is determined by the strengthening of the role of social mobility in modern society. Social mobility is an integral part of the culture in any modern democratic society. Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. Moreover, any social movement does not occur without hindrance, but by overcoming more or less significant barriers. Social mobility is an integral and necessary process in society, which is significantly influenced by constantly emerging new circumstances of social life, factors of social differentiation and integration. Their influence on the social structure of society and on social mobility has not yet been studied and constitutes a research problem. At present, there is a need for a thorough study of the processes of social mobility, as well as factors influencing the dynamics of social mobility.

The purpose of this work is to study the nature of social mobility of the population and consider the main types and types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical.

The following tasks were set during the study:

Find out the nature and essence of social mobility;

Determine and analyze the types and forms of social mobility;

Identify problems of transition from one status group to another.

1. The concept, essence and nature of social mobility

The problem of the socio-economic division of society, as a scientific problem, was studied by ancient Greek philosophers. The analysis of estates is already found in Plato's "Laws" and "State", as well as in Aristotle's "Politics". The reasoning of Plato and Aristotle had a significant impact on the formation of the theory of stratification as a component of socio-political philosophy. Within the framework of the school of social stratification, the theory of social mobility is born, the founder of which is considered to be Pitirim Sorokin. His first major work on this issue was published in 1927. This work, entitled "Social Mobility", belongs to the sociological classics, and its most important provisions have long been included in numerous social science textbooks.

P. Sorokin singled out three forms at the basis of social stratification: economic stratification, political and professional differentiation. Sorokin's attention to the hierarchy of professional groups was revealing. Shortly after him, a number of researchers took up the problems of social stratification of social mobility.

Let's take a look at what social mobility is. Each person moves in the social space, in the society in which he lives. Sometimes these movements are easily felt and identified, for example, when an individual moves from one place to another, the transition from one religion to another, a change in marital status. This changes the position of the individual in society and speaks of his movement in the social space.

However, there are such movements of the individual that are difficult to determine not only for the people around him, but also for himself. For example, it is difficult to determine the change in the position of an individual in connection with an increase in prestige, an increase or decrease in the possibilities for the use of power, a change in income. At the same time, such changes in a person's position ultimately affect his behavior, the system of relations in the group, needs, attitudes, interests and orientations.

In this regard, it is important to determine how the processes of movement of individuals in the social space are carried out, which are called mobility processes.

There are barriers between strata and classes that prevent the free transition of individuals from one status group to another. One of the biggest barriers arises from the fact that social classes have subcultures that prepare the children of each class to participate in the class subculture in which they are socialized.

All social movements of an individual or a social group are included in the process of mobility. According to the definition of P. Sorokin, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.”

When an individual moves from one social plane to another, the problem of entering a new subculture of a group with a higher status often arises, as well as the related problem of interactions with representatives of a new social environment. To overcome the cultural barrier and the barrier of communication, there are several ways that, one way or another, resort to individuals in the process of social mobility.

1. Lifestyle change. For example, it is not enough just to earn and spend big money in the case when an individual has caught up in income with representatives of a higher social stratum. To assimilate a new status level, he needs to accept a new material standard corresponding to this level. At the same time, changing the material way of life is only one of the moments of initiation to a new status, and in itself, without changing other components of culture, means little.

2. Development of typical status behavior. A person will not be accepted into a higher social class stratum until he has assimilated the patterns of behavior of this stratum to such an extent that he can follow them without any effort. Clothing patterns, verbal expressions, leisure activities, manner of communication - all this is being revised and should become the usual and only possible type of behavior.

3. Change in the social environment. This method is based on establishing contacts with individuals and associations of the status stratum into which the mobile individual is socialized.

4. Marrying a representative of a higher status stratum. At all times, such a marriage has served as the best means of overcoming the barriers that stand in the way of social mobility. First, it can greatly contribute to the manifestation of talents if it gives material well-being. Secondly, it provides the individual with the opportunity to quickly rise, often bypassing several status levels. Thirdly, marriage to a representative or representative of a higher status largely resolves the problems of the social environment and the rapid assimilation of culture samples of a higher status layer.

The social mobility of society is a contradictory process. Even if society allows individuals relatively freely to bypass the barriers between social classes and strata, this does not mean at all that any individual with talents and motivation can painlessly and easily move up the steps of the ladder of social ascent. Mobility is always difficult for all individuals, as they have to adapt to a new subculture, make new connections and fight the fear of losing their new status. At the same time, an open way to the top, a large number of achieved statuses is the only way for the development of society, because otherwise social tensions and conflicts arise.

To characterize mobility processes, indicators of the speed and intensity of social mobility are used. They are commonly used to quantify mobility processes.

The speed of mobility is understood as "the vertical social distance or the number of strata - economic, professional or political, that an individual passes in his movement up or down in a certain period of time." For example, within three years after graduating from the institute and starting work in the specialty, a certain individual manages to take the position of head of a department, and his colleague, who graduated from the institute with him, manages to take the position of senior engineer. It is obvious that the speed of mobility is higher for the first individual, since during the indicated period of time he has overcome more status levels.

The intensity of mobility is understood as the number of individuals who change social positions in a vertical or horizontal direction over a certain period of time. The number of such individuals in any social community gives the absolute intensity of mobility, and their share in the total number of this social community shows relative mobility. For example, if we take into account the number of individuals under the age of 30 who are divorced and moved to other families, then we will talk about the absolute intensity of horizontal mobility in this age category. If we consider the ratio of the number of people who moved to other families to the number of all individuals under the age of 30, then we will talk about relative social mobility in a horizontal direction.

Often there is a need to consider the process of mobility from the point of view of the relationship between its speed and intensity. In this case, the aggregate mobility index for a given social community is used. In this way, for example, one society can be compared with another in order to find out in which of them or in which period mobility is higher in all indicators.

2. Main types and types of social mobility

There are two main types of social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and its two main types - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes, which are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility implies that children achieve a higher social position or move down to a lower level than their parents, i.e. this is a change in the social status of people, especially young people, in various spheres of public life in comparison with the status of their parents. Intergenerational mobility is an important factor in social change and an expression of the social activity of individuals.

Intragenerational mobility takes place where the same individual, unlike, for example, his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise, such mobility is called a social career.

The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second - the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental labor.

There is also a classification of social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish between individual mobility, when movements down, up, or horizontally occur for each person independently of others, and group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old class cedes dominant positions to the new class.

In addition to these types, there are two more types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Let's consider them in more detail.

2.1 Horizontal social mobility

Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or social object from one social position to another, lying on the same level. In all these cases, the individual does not change the social stratum to which he belongs, or social status. Examples of horizontal mobility are movements from one citizenship to another, from an Orthodox religious group to a Catholic one, from one labor collective to another, and so on.

Such movements occur without a noticeable change in the social position in the upright position.

A variation of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to a permanent place of residence and got a job, then this is migration.

Consequently, horizontal mobility can be territorial, religious, professional, political (when only the political orientation of the individual changes). Horizontal mobility is described by nominal parameters and can only exist with a certain degree of heterogeneity in society.

Regarding horizontal mobility, P. Sorokin only says that it means the transition of people from one social group to another without changing their social status. But if we proceed from the principle that all differences without exception in the world of people have some kind of unequal significance, it will be necessary to recognize that horizontal social mobility must also be characterized by a change in social position, only not ascending or descending, but progressive or retreating (regressing) . Thus, horizontal mobility can be considered any process that leads to the formation or change of class social structures - in contrast to the starting ones, which are formed and changed as a result of vertical social mobility.

Today, it is horizontal mobility that is gaining momentum in society, especially among residents of large cities. For young people, it becomes a rule to change jobs every 3-5 years. At the same time, most sociologists welcome this, believing that such an approach allows a person not to be “conserved” in one place and an invariable range of tasks. Secondly, a considerable part of workers prefers to master related specialties or even radically change their field of activity.

A change of residence - and it is also a type of horizontal mobility - often complements a change of place of work, even if the new job is located in the same city - there are people who prefer to rent an apartment closer, so as not to spend two and a half hours a day on the road.

The meaning of vertical mobility is completely transparent - many people want to improve their situation. Much more interesting is the question of what drives horizontal social mobility.

First of all, it becomes noticeable that in recent years the so-called social elevators have ceased to work: that is, the number of opportunities to take and jump to a higher social level in one fell swoop is decreasing. Isolated cases are possible, but for the majority this move is closed. And horizontal mobility is, in principle, available to almost everyone.

Horizontal mobility allows you to significantly expand your horizons, it does not force you to significantly change your habits, lifestyle.

2.2 Vertical social mobility

The most important process is vertical mobility, which is a set of interactions that facilitate the transition of an individual or a social object from one social stratum to another. Vertical mobility involves the movement of an individual or group from one social stratum to another.

Depending on the direction of movement, upward mobility, or social ascent, and downward mobility, or social descent, are distinguished. Thus, promotion, rank and demolition show respectively these types of vertical social mobility. Both types manifest themselves in economic, political and professional mobility, which is another option for structuring social mobility. Vertical upward mobility can in this case be shown as the acquisition of property by a person, election as a deputy, obtaining a higher position.

Society can elevate the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals who have talent, energy, youth should force out other individuals who do not possess these qualities from the highest statuses. Depending on this, they distinguish between upward and downward social mobility, or social upsurge and social decline.

The upward currents of professional, economic and political mobility exist in two main forms:

1) as an individual rise, or infiltration of individuals from their lower stratum into a higher one;

2) and as the creation of new groups of individuals with the inclusion of groups in the upper layer next to the existing groups of this layer or instead of them.

Consider the mechanism of infiltration in vertical mobility.

In order to understand how the process of ascension occurs, it is important to study how an individual can overcome barriers and boundaries between groups and rise up, that is, increase his social status. This desire to achieve a higher status is due to the achievement motive, which, to one degree or another, each individual has and is associated with his need to achieve success and avoid failure in the social aspect.

The actualization of this motive ultimately generates the strength with which the individual strives to achieve the highest social position or to stay on the existing one and not slide down. The realization of the power of achievement depends on many factors, in particular, on the situation in society.

In order to achieve a higher status, an individual who is in a group with lower statuses must overcome the barriers between groups or layers. An individual striving to get into a higher status group has a certain amount of energy directed towards overcoming these barriers and expended on walking the distance between the statuses of the higher and lower groups. The energy of the individual striving for a higher status finds expression in the strength with which he tries to overcome the barriers in front of the higher stratum. Successful passage of the barrier is possible only if the force with which the individual seeks to achieve high status is greater than the repulsive force. By measuring the force with which an individual seeks to penetrate into the upper layer, one can predict with a certain probability that he will get there. The probabilistic nature of infiltration is due to the fact that when assessing the process, one should take into account the constantly changing situation, which consists of many factors, including their personal relationships of individuals.

Similarly, downward mobility exists in the form:

1) pushing individual individuals from high social statuses to lower ones;

2) and lowering the social status of the whole group.

An example of the second form of downward mobility can be the decline in the social status of a group of engineers that once occupied very high positions in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party that is losing real power in the figurative expression of P. Sorokin, “the first case of decline resembles a fall of a man from a ship; the second is a ship that sank with all on board.

3. Factors affecting horizontal and vertical mobility

Vertical and horizontal mobility is influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. In general, the young are more mobile than the elderly, and men are more mobile than women. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Professional mobility is typical for the young, economic mobility for adults, and political mobility for the elderly. The birth rate is unevenly distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, while the upper classes tend to have fewer. There is a pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he has.

Even if every son of a rich man follows in the footsteps of his father, voids form on the upper steps of the pyramid, which are filled by people from the lower classes. In no class do people plan for the exact number of children needed to replace parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for the occupation of certain social positions in different classes is different.

Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees do not have enough children to fill their jobs in the next generation. In contrast, farmers and agricultural workers, in the US, have 50% more children than are needed for self-replacement. It is not difficult to calculate in which direction social mobility should proceed in modern society.

High and low birth rates in different classes have the same effect on vertical mobility as population density in different countries has on horizontal mobility. Strata, like countries, can be undersalted or overpopulated.

Conclusion

Having considered the essence, nature and types of social mobility, we can draw the following conclusions:

1. Social mobility is a change by an individual or a group of persons of the place occupied in the social structure, or movement from one social stratum to another. The nature of social mobility is directly related to the subculture in which a person was born and raised. For advancement from one stratum to another, or from one social class to another, "difference in starting opportunities" matters.

2. In modern sociology, there are various ways to quantify social mobility, mobility indices, mobility coefficients with gender, education level, nationality, etc. This is one of the main areas of study of the social structure of society, a comparative analysis of various countries.

3. All social movements of an individual or group are accompanied by the overcoming of serious barriers, and to overcome these barriers, there are a number of techniques and ways of adapting to a new social space (changing lifestyle, developing typical status behavior, changing social behavior, etc.).

4. There are several variants of social mobility, but the main ones are considered to be horizontal and vertical social mobility. Horizontal mobility implies the movement of an individual from one social group to another, with both groups being approximately at the same level. Vertical mobility involves the movement of an individual or group from one social stratum to another. Moreover, moving up in the corresponding status hierarchy represents an upward mobility, downward - downward. Lliterature

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