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Ethnocentrism as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Concept and problems of ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Concept and problems of ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism

17.07.2019

PLAN

INTRODUCTION 2

GROUP 3

ETHNOCENTRISM 7

CONCLUSION 17

REFERENCES 19

INTRODUCTION

A person as a person is formed in a group, he is a direct and indirect spokesman for intra-group relations. The significance of the group for the individual, first of all, is that the group is a certain system of activity, given by its place in the system of social division of labor. The group itself acts as the subject of a certain type of activity and through it is included in the entire system of social relations. In this regard, the group acts as the most complete reflection of the fundamental features of the social system within which it is formed and functions.

The problem of the group as the most important form of social association of people in the process of joint activity and communication is one of the central ones in social psychology. Interest in the group is due to a number of fundamental points. On the one hand, the personality, its self-consciousness, the values and norms adopted by it, the system of ideas about the world are formed in the process of including a person throughout his life in the activities of various groups. His mental warehouse, personal content are formed at the intersection of various group influences. Consequently, it is impossible to understand a person, to study the process of his development, without referring to the analysis of those groups of which he is a member. On the other hand, the group itself is not a simple sum of people included in it, but represents, from the moment of its psychological emergence, an independent integral phenomenon with its own characteristics, not reducible to the individual characteristics of its members, its own history of development and patterns of life.

GROUP

A group is a community limited in size, distinguished from the social whole on the basis of certain characteristics (the nature of the activity performed, social or class affiliation, structure, composition, level of development, etc.).

Social psychology has made repeated attempts to construct a classification of groups. The American researcher Juwenck singled out seven different principles on the basis of which such classifications were built. These principles were very diverse: the level of cultural development, the type of structure, tasks and functions, the predominant type of contacts in the group. However, a common feature of all the proposed classifications is the forms of group life.

The classification of groups can be visualized in the form of a diagram. (Fig.1)

For social psychology, the division of groups into conditional and real is significant. She focuses her research on real groups. But among these real ones there are also those that mainly appear in general psychological research - real laboratory groups. In contrast to them, there are real natural groups. Socio-psychological analysis is possible with respect to both types of real groups. However, real natural groups are of the greatest importance. In turn, these natural groups are subdivided into the so-called "large" and "small" groups.

A small group is understood as a small group, whose members are united by common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes.

The expediency of studying groups is obvious, because. they are a convenient model for studying the processes of suggestibility, conformity, workability, communication, etc. for a certain period of time.

Small group laboratory studies can be approximated to real life conditions in two different ways. The first way goes along the path of creating experiments that isolate all the major and minor attributes of these situations. The second method of convergence follows the path of not only organizing the conditions of the experiment, but also includes the study of real contact groups in “life” (simulated) conditions of interaction.

And what is valuable, in laboratory studies of small groups, the general psychological principle of selecting subjects is observed: they must be of the same age, gender, and a similar level of education.

As for large groups, the question of their study is much more complicated and requires special consideration. It is important to emphasize that these “large” groups are also unequally represented in social psychology: some of them have a solid tradition of research in the West (these are mainly large, unorganized, spontaneously arisen “groups”, the very term “group” in relation to which is very conditional), while others, like classes, nations are much less represented in social psychology as an object of study. In groups of the first type, the processes occurring in them are well described in some sections of social psychology, in particular, in the study of methods of influence in situations outside of collective behavior.

In the same way, small groups can be divided into two varieties: emerging groups, already set by external social requirements, but not yet united by joint activity in the full sense of the word, and collectives, i.e. groups of a higher level of development associated with specific types of social activities. Groups of the first variety can be designated as "becoming".

Traditionally, in social psychology, some parameters of the group are studied: the composition of the group (or its composition), the structure of the group, group processes, group values, norms, and the system of sanctions. Each of these parameters can take on a completely different meaning, depending on the general approach to the group that is implemented in the study. So, for example, the composition of the group can, in turn, be described in terms of completely different indicators, depending on whether, in each specific case, it means, for example, the age professional or social characteristics of the group members. Obviously, a single recipe for describing the composition of a group cannot be given, especially in connection with the diversity of real groups. in each specific case, it is necessary to start with which real group is chosen as the object of study.

The structure of large groups, which include small ones, is diverse:

social classes;

Various ethnic groups;

professional groups;

Age groups (for example, young people, women, the elderly, etc. can be considered as a group).

Directly general qualities of the group:

1. Integrativity - a measure of unity, fusion, commonality of group members with each other, (lack of integrativity - disunity, disintegration).

2. The microclimate determines the well-being of each person in the group, its satisfaction with the group, the comfort of being in it.

3. Reference - the degree of acceptance by the members of the group of group standards.

4. Leadership - the degree of the leading influence of certain members of the group on the group as a whole in the direction of the implementation of group tasks.

5. Intragroup activity - a measure of the activation of the group's constituent personalities.

6. Intergroup activity - the degree of influence of this group on other groups.

In addition to these qualities, the following are also considered:

The orientation of the group is the social value of the goals adopted by it, the motives of activity, value orientations and group norms;

Organization - the real ability of the group to self-government;

Emotionality - interpersonal relationships of an emotional nature, the prevailing emotional mood of the group;

Intellectual communication - the nature of interpersonal perception and the establishment of mutual understanding, finding a common language;

Volitional communication is the ability of a group to withstand difficulties and obstacles, its reliability in extreme situations.

ethnocentrism

From the point of view of social psychology, three main lines of research into the psychology of classes can be identified:

psychological characteristics of different specific classes (workers, peasants, bourgeoisie, etc.);

characterization of the class psychology of different classes of the same epoch;

correlation between class psychology and the psychology of individual class members.

The elements of class psychology include: class needs, class interests, social feelings (that is, certain characteristics of the emotional states inherent in the group), habits, customs, and traditions of the class.

The psychological characteristics of ethnic groups have the following sides:

the most persistent part is the mental composition (national character, temperament, traditions and customs);

emotional sphere (national or ethnic feelings).

Ethnocentrism is a preference for one's ethnic group, manifested in the perception and evaluation of life phenomena through the prism of its traditions and values. The term "ethnocentrism" was introduced in 1906 by W. Sumner, who believed that people tend to see the world in such a way that their own group is at the center of everything, and all others are measured with it or evaluated with reference to it.

Ethnocentrism as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Ethnocentrism has existed throughout human history. Written in the 12th century "The Tale of Bygone Years" meadows, which, according to the chronicler, supposedly have a custom and law, are opposed to the Vyatichi, Krivichi, Drevlyans, who have neither a real custom nor a law.

Anything can be considered a reference: religion, language, literature, food, clothing, etc. There is even the opinion of the American anthropologist E. Leach, according to which, the question of whether a particular tribal community burns or buries its dead, whether their houses are round or rectangular, may have no other functional explanation, except that each nation wants to show that he is different from his neighbors and superior to them. In turn, these neighbors, whose customs are directly opposite, are also convinced that their way of doing anything is right and best.

American psychologists M. Brewer and D. Campbell identified the main indicators of ethnocentrism:

perception of elements of one's culture (norms, roles and values) as natural and correct, and elements of other cultures as unnatural and incorrect;

considering the customs of one's group as universal;

the idea that it is natural for a person to cooperate with members of his group, to help them, to prefer his group, be proud of it and not trust and even be at enmity with members of other groups.

The last of the criteria identified by Brewer and Campbell testifies to the ethnocentrism of the individual. Regarding the first two, some ethnocentric people recognize that other cultures have their own values, norms, and customs, but are inferior to the traditions of "their" culture. However, there is also a more naive form of absolute ethnocentrism, when its bearers are convinced that "their" traditions and customs are universal for all people on Earth.

Soviet social scientists believed that ethnocentrism is a negative social phenomenon, equivalent to nationalism and even racism. Many psychologists consider ethnocentrism a negative socio-psychological phenomenon, manifested in the tendency to reject other groups, combined with an overestimation of one's own group, and define it as the inability to view the behavior of other people in a manner different from that dictated by one's own cultural environment.

But is it possible? Analysis of the problem shows that ethnocentrism is an inevitable part of our life, a normal consequence of socialization and familiarization of a person with culture. Moreover, like any other socio-psychological phenomenon, ethnocentrism cannot be considered as something only positive or only negative, and a value judgment about it is unacceptable. Although ethnocentrism often proves to be an obstacle to intergroup interaction, at the same time it performs a useful function for the group to maintain a positive ethnic identity and even preserve the integrity and specificity of the group. For example, when studying Russian old-timers in Azerbaijan, N.M. Lebedeva, it was revealed that the decrease in ethnocentrism, manifested in a more positive perception of Azerbaijanis, testified to the erosion of the unity of the ethnic group and led to an increase in the departure of people to Russia in search of the necessary sense of "We".

Flexible ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism initially does not carry a hostile attitude towards other groups and can be combined with a tolerant attitude towards intergroup differences. On the one hand, bias is mainly the result of one's own group being considered good, and to a lesser extent it arises from the feeling that all other groups are bad. On the other hand, an uncritical attitude may not extend to all properties and spheres of life of one's group.

In the course of research by Brewer and Campbell in three countries of East Africa, ethnocentrism was found in thirty ethnic communities. Representatives of all nations treated their group with greater sympathy, more positively assessed its moral virtues and achievements. But the degree of expression of ethnocentrism varied. When evaluating group achievements, the preference of one's own group was significantly weaker than when evaluating other aspects. A third of the communities rated the achievements of at least one of the outgroups higher than their own achievements. Ethnocentrism, in which the qualities of one's own group are fairly objectively assessed and attempts are made to understand the characteristics of a foreign group, is called benevolent, or flexible.

As a cause of ethnic conflicts... Abstract >> Culture and art

other cultures or subcultures. ethnocentrism unites the group, justifies sacrifice... it is impossible for him to display patriotism. ethnocentrism- a necessary condition for the appearance ..., extreme manifestations are possible ethnocentrism e.g. nationalism, contempt for...

Ethnocentrism is a general concept or point of view of individuals, according to which one's own people, social stratum, one's own race, or some one's own group is put forward in a central place as superior to all others and prevailing. The concept of "ethnocentrism" is associated with both positive consequences (to a lesser extent) - for example, patriotism, a sense of national dignity, and negative (mostly) - discrimination, nationalism, chauvinism, segregation.

Ethnocentrism is characteristic of every group that is to some extent independent, independent and aware of its identity. Ethnocentric positions are "beneficial" to the group itself in that with their help the group determines its place among other groups, strengthens its identity and preserves its cultural features. However, extreme forms of ethnocentrism are associated with religious fanaticism and racism and even lead to violence and aggression (Saressalo, 1977, 50-52) (Saressalo).

The concept of ethnocentrism also includes the concept of "stereotype". In this case, these are generalized, schematic representations of other groups, their culture and properties adopted by a group. The stereotypical way of responding is a long-term, stable and, despite new, even very recent experience, an unshakable idea of the behavioral traits of other people or groups, as well as a firm opinion about any organizations or social formations (cf. Hartfeld, 1976 ) (Hartfield). Stereotypes are like prejudices, they do not need logical justification, and even their objectivity and plausibility are not always indisputable (Saressalo, 1977, 50).

The American sociologist William G. Sumner (1960) (William G. Stunner) studied the emergence of ethnocentrism among primitive peoples and came to the conclusion that almost every one of these peoples claimed a special place, "dating" it back to the creation of the world. This is evidenced, for example, by the following Indian legend narrated by M. Herskovits (1951) (M. Herskovits):

“To crown his creative work, God fashioned three human figures from dough and placed them in a brazier. After some time, he impatiently took out the first little man from the stove, whose appearance was too light and therefore unpleasant. It was "unbaked" inside as well. Soon God got the second one; this one was a success: it was beautifully brown on the outside and "ripe" on the inside. With joy God made him the founder of the Indian race. But the third, unfortunately, during this time was very burnt and turned completely black. The first character became the founder of the white clan, and the last of the black one.

Such legends and myths are characteristic of the prejudices of an ethnic group. Under prejudice, according to the definition of the American scientist W. Weaver (1954) (W. Weaver), they mean "an assessment of social situations on the basis of pre-mastered ideas and values, without empirical evidence or a rational and logical course of reasoning." Based on mythological thinking, own group has all the virtues; she lives for the joy of God. The characteristic features of each such group, as mentioned above, date back to the creation of the world and are either a gift or a mistake of the creator. At the same time, one's own group, of course, is ranked among the "chosen people." Such a view contains racial motivation; connected with it is the belief that the successful activity of people depends on their biological quality. The logical conclusion from such a concept is the following: certain people, according to their biological racial qualities, are initially allegedly more gifted and talented than others, more perfect, both physically and mentally, and therefore more suitable and capable for leading and managing the world and for occupying higher social positions. in society (E. Asp, 1969) (Asp).

ethnocentrism
(from Greek ethnos - group, tribe and lat. centrum - center, focus) - a view of the world through the prism of ethnic identification. At the same time, life and cultural processes are evaluated through the traditions of ethnic self-consciousness, which acts as an ideal model. The term "E." first appeared in the work of Paul-Austria. sociologist L. Gumplovich "Racial Struggle" (1883). More thoroughly this term was worked out by Amer. sociologist W. Sumner. Now this concept is used in philosophy, sociology, social psychology and ethnology. In Folk Customs, Sumner introduced a number of concepts ("we-group", "they-group", "ethnocentrism"), which express a person's tendency to perceive and evaluate various phenomena based on the cultural stereotypes of his ethnic group. The worldview of an ethnic group is developed with the help of symbols of the common past - myths, legends, shrines, emblems. This cultural-historical continuity in the life of an ethnos is a dynamic and variable quantity. Yes, Amer. The Irish are a later original version of the Irish ethnos, formed in special economic and political circumstances. This ethnos has some of its own memories, which does not shake the ethnic unity of the Irish on both sides of the ocean. The consciousness of an ethnic group is characterized in such terms as "cohesion", "solidarity", "unity". As for the relations between groups (“they-group”), “otherness”, “foreignness”, “hostility” are emphasized here. In ethnology and cultural studies, the origin and functions of E. are usually considered in connection with the nature of intergroup relations. Psychoanalysts (Z. Freud, E. Fromm) consider E. in terms of individual and group narcissism.

Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Gardariki.Edited by A.A. Ivina.2004 .

ethnocentrism
(from Greek? group, tribe, nation and lat. centrum - focus, center), property ethnic. self-awareness to perceive and evaluate life phenomena through the prism of traditions and values own ethnic group, acting as a kind of universal standard or optimum.

The term "E." introduced in 1906 by Sumner, who believed that there was a sharp difference between the relations of people within an ethnic group. groups and intergroup relations. If camaraderie and solidarity reign within a group, then suspicion and enmity predominate in relations between groups. E. reflects and at the same time creates the unity of ethnic. groups, the feeling of "We" in the face ext. peace. In the future, the meaning of the concept became more complicated. In ethnology and cultural studies, the genesis and functions of E. are associated ch. arr. with the nature of intergroup relations, while psychologists study the mechanisms of individual consciousness. Freud considered E. a reoriented expression of individual narcissism, social psychology associates it with cognition. categorization processes.

Like ethnic. self-consciousness in general, E. cannot be considered in isolation from history and socio-economic. state corresponding. ethnic groups. Interethnic. installations depend on the degree of intensity and orientation of cultural contacts, which can be not only hostile, but also friendly. Interethnic. borders are not always clear and stable (territorial interpenetration of ethnic communities; variability of cultural and linguistic characteristics; problematic ethnicity of some members of ethnic communities; interaction crossing the boundaries of ethnic communities; historical shifts in ethnicity and lifestyle). Processes of internationalization of culture and societies. lives undermine tradition. ethnocentric installation.

Brmley Yu. V., Ethnos and ethnography, M., 1973; Methodologies, problems of ethnic research. cultures. Symposium materials, Er., 1978; Campbell D. T., Social dispositions of the individual and their group functionality: evolution-lyuts. aspect, in book.: Psychology, mechanisms of regulation of social behavior, M., 1979; Artanovsky S. N., Problem E., ethn. originality of cultures and mszhetnich. relations in modern foreign ethnography and sociology, in book.: Actual problems of ethnography and modern foreign science. L., 1979; Shibutani T., Kwan K. M., Ethnic stratification. A comparative approach, N. ?.-L., 1968 ; Le Vine R., Campbell D., Ethnocentrism: Theories of conflict, ethnic attitudes and group behavior, N.Y., 1971; Differentiation between social groups. Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations, ed. by H. Tajfel, L., 1978.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia.Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov.1983 .

ethnocentrism
(from Greek ἔϑνος - group, tribe, people and lat. centrum - focus, center) - the tendency to perceive and evaluate all life phenomena through the prism of traditions and values of one's own. ethnic groups, which acts as a kind of universal standard. E. denotes a preference for own. lifestyle for everyone else.

The concept of E., widely used in modern. sociology and ethnology, was first introduced by Sumner. Representing the primitive society in the form of a number of small groups scattered throughout the meaning. territory, Sumner wrote: “Members of even the smallest and most primitive societies already tend, as observations have shown, to make a sharp distinction between themselves and others; in other words, between people who form an in-group and those who belong to another group (out-group)....Our group and everything it does is truth and virtue itself, and anything that does not belong to it is treated with suspicion and contempt" (Sumner W. and Keller A., The science of society, v. 1, New Haven, p. 356). If comradeship and solidarity reign within the group, then enmity prevails in relations between groups.

The concept of ethnicity focuses attention on the specifics of ethnic self-awareness. groups, distinguishing "we" from "they". However, the content of this self-consciousness may be different, depending on the specific socio-historical. conditions. Each ethnic the group necessarily fixes its distinguishes. traits in relation to other groups with which she communicates. But E. as a sense of belonging to a certain. group does not always mean hostility to other people. groups. Ethnographic data show that socio-psychological. stereotypes of foreign ethnicities. groups in the minds of underdeveloped peoples reflect the nature of their real relationship with these groups. Along with hostility (where competition prevails in real relations), friendliness (where different ethnic groups cooperate with each other), and patronage, and many other feelings are found here. In a class society, international relations and the stereotypes that sanctify them develop depending on class relations, reactions. classes often deliberately incite nat. strife.

The degree of E. also depends on the intensity and breadth of communication between members of this ethnic group. groups with others. Where the sphere of communication is limited, local traditions and values are inevitably universalized. Intensive communication with others, if it is not of a conflict nature, removes this limitation, allows you to better understand both your own and foreign culture. Cultural contacts, without eliminating the need to define. ethnic identification, facilitate overcoming the feelings of nat. exclusivity and contribute to the rapprochement of peoples. However, this is determined by the socio-economic. relationships. Socialism, based on the principles of internationalism, seeks to eradicate nat. enmity, while providing opportunities for the development of nat. cultures.

Lit.: Kon I., Psychology of prejudice, "New World", 1966, No 9; Porshnev B.F., Social psychology and history, M., 1966; Artanovsky S. N., Historical. the unity of mankind and the mutual influence of cultures, L., 1967; Sumner, W. G., Folkways, Boston, 1907; Herskovits M. J., Man and his works, N. Y., 1949; Duijker H. C. J. and Frijda N. H., National character and national stereotypes, Amst., 1960; Shibutanti T., Kwan K. W., Ethnic stratification. A comparative approach, N. Y., 1965; Lambert W. E., Klineberg O., Children's views of foreign peoples. A cross national study, N. Y., 1967.

I. Kon. Leningrad.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia.Edited by F. V. Konstantinov.1960-1970 .

Synonyms:
nationalism, centrism

Ethnocentrism is a preference for one's ethnic group, people see the world in such a way that their own group is at the center of everything, and others are compared with it or evaluated, referring to it.

The term "ethnocentrism" was introduced in 1906 by W. Sumner, who defined it as "a vision of things in which one's own group is at the center of everything, and all others are measured with it or evaluated with reference to it." The nature of ethnocentrism is determined by the type of social relations, ideology, the content of national policy, as well as the personal experience of the individual. Ethnocentrism as a mechanism for the formation of interethnic, intergroup relations.

The general understanding of ethnocentrism as a phenomenon in ethnology comes down to the fact that people compare other cultures with their own and regard their own as the only correct one, that is, the standard, and not accepting any other groups.

American psychologists M. Brewer and Donald Campbell identified the main indicators of ethnocentrism:

perception of elements of one's own culture (norms, roles and values) as natural and correct, and elements of other cultures as unnatural and incorrect;

Considering the customs of one's group as universal;

The idea that it is natural for a person to cooperate with members of his group, to help them, to prefer his group, be proud of it and not trust and even be at enmity with members of other groups.

Ethnocentrism is a negative social phenomenon, equivalent to nationalism and even racism. Many psychologists consider ethnocentrism a negative socio-psychological phenomenon, manifested in the tendency to reject other groups, combined with an overestimation of one's own group, and define it as the inability to view the behavior of other people in a manner different from that dictated by one's own cultural environment. Ethnocentrism cannot be viewed as something only positive or only negative, and a value judgment about it is unacceptable.

There is a division of ethnocentrism into 3 types:

1. Flexible- Ethnocentrism, in which the qualities of one's own group are fairly objectively assessed and attempts are made to understand the characteristics of a foreign group, is called benevolent, or flexible. Comparison of one's own and other groups in this case occurs in the form of comparison - peaceful non-identity. It is the acceptance and recognition of differences that can be considered the most acceptable form of social perception in the interaction of ethnic communities and cultures at the present stage of human history.

2. opposition: “Interethnic comparison can be expressed in the form of opposition, which implies at least a bias towards other groups. Members of an ethnic group ascribe only positive qualities to themselves, and only negative qualities to "strangers". The most striking contrast is manifested in mirror perception, when members of two conflicting groups attribute identical positive traits to themselves, and identical vices to rivals.

3. Warlike(or inflexible) - "expressed in hatred, mistrust, fear, and blaming other groups for one's own failures."

The extreme degree of ethnocentrism is expressed in the form of delegitimization - the consideration of a group or groups as super-negative social categories, excluded from the reality of acceptable norms and values. Delegitimization maximizes inter-group differences and includes an awareness of the overwhelming superiority of one's own group. (Examples of ethnocentric delegitimization are well-known are the attitude of the first European settlers towards the native inhabitants of the Americas and the attitude towards "non-Aryan" peoples in Nazi Germany.)

In modern conditions, with the strengthening in the minds of people of the need for their ethnic identity, the problem of ethnocentrism manifests itself most acutely (largely associated with the destabilization of many spheres of public life). The revival of the ethno-language, ethno-religious traditions and customs caused an inter-ethnic stratification of society, when ethnic conflicts and contradictions became a daily reality. A striking example of this is the emergence of so-called "hot spots" (Nagorno-Karabakh, Ingushetia, Chechnya, South Ossetia, Ukraine, Syria and others), the presence of long-term unabated inter-ethnic conflicts with the use of armed forces (Palestinian-Israeli conflict, events in Yugoslavia, India) .

Ethnocentrism has its roots in the distortion of group self-consciousness, in the transformation of a positive ethnic identity as a result of the action of a huge number of factors. Ethnocentrism in any form of its manifestation prevents the normal interaction of ethnic groups, their successful ethnocultural adaptation. Ethnocentrism is the result of the negative transformation of ethnic identity, which is expressed in the presence in the individual's mind of a set of attitudes about the undeniable superiority and advantage of the culture of one's ethnic group over other cultures, ultimately leading to hostility in interethnic relations.

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Introduction

In contacts with other cultures, most people judge other people's cultural values, using the cultural values of their own ethnic group as a model and criterion. This type of value judgment is called ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is a psychological attitude to perceive and evaluate other cultures and the behavior of their representatives through the prism of their own culture. Most often, ethnocentrism implies that one's own culture is superior to other cultures, in which case it is regarded as the only correct one, superior to all others, which are thus underestimated. Everything that deviates from the norms, customs, value system, habits, types of behavior of one's own culture is considered base and classified as inferior in relation to one's own. One's own culture is placed at the center of the world and considers itself as the measure of all things. Ethnocentrism means that the values of other cultures are viewed and evaluated from the perspective of one's own culture.

The ethnocentric vision of the world has deep roots in human history. Even in antiquity, the Greeks rigidly divided all peoples into Hellenes and barbarians. Already in the writings of Herodotus, the barbarian was described as alien and repulsive, uneducated, clumsy, stupid, unsociable. He is servile, cowardly, full of unbridled passions, wayward, terrible, cruel, unfaithful, greedy. Approximately similar assessments were given by the Chinese to the Huns: "These barbarians look like animals, and therefore their friendly speeches are worthless." For the Romans, the Germans were "men who had in common with people only voices and body size."

1. Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism - (from the Greek ethnos - group, tribe and lat. centrum - center, focus) a view of the world through the prism of the values of one's ethnic group, considered as a standard, the basis for evaluating and making judgments about other cultures; preference for one's own way of life to all others, a reflection of relations both within the group itself and its relations with other groups. At the same time, life and cultural processes are evaluated through the traditions of ethnic self-consciousness, which acts as an ideal model. Anything can be considered a reference: religion, language, literature, food, clothing, etc. There is even the opinion of the American anthropologist E. Leach, according to which, the question of whether a particular tribal community burns or buries its dead, whether their houses are round or rectangular, may have no other functional explanation, except that each nation wants to show that he is different from his neighbors and superior to them. In turn, these neighbors, whose customs are directly opposite, are also convinced that their way of doing anything is correct and the best. One of the manifestations of ethnocentrism is "xenophobia" - an unmotivated, negative attitude, irrational fear and hatred of strangers, foreigners.

American psychologists M. Brewer and D. Campbell showed that ethnocentrism is characterized by:

* consider the customs of your group as universal: what is good for us is good for others;

* perceive the norms and values of their ethnic group as unconditionally true;

* provide, if necessary, comprehensive assistance to members of their group;

* act in the interests of their group;

* feel hostility towards other ethnic groups;

* Be proud of your group.

The term "ethnocentrism" first appeared in the work of the sociologist L. Gumshuvic "Racial Struggle" (1883). More thoroughly, this term was worked out by the American sociologist W. Sumner in 1906. Studying ethnic groups, he found that they all have the same perception of themselves in the world around them as the center of the universe. Therefore, the perception of the way of life, values, ideas, even the external appearance of other ethnic groups occurs from the position of comparing "them" with "us". W. Sumner rightly argues that each group cultivates pride and vanity in itself, boasts of its superiority, postulates its divine origin (the mythology of any people tells about this) and looks at everyone else with contempt or fear.

But in psychology there are other explanations for national pride and ethnic arrogance. It is given by theories of depth psychology, and in particular Alfred Adler and Wilhelm Reich, who believe that both national and individual self-aggrandizement, coupled with a derogatory attitude towards others, is an unconscious compensation for feelings of envy, resentment, helplessness, humiliation, in a word, a sense of one's own inferiority. W. Reich considers the fascist movement in Germany in the 1930s, which proclaimed the superiority of the German nation over all others, to be a vivid example of a mass compensatory process. After all, fascism rapidly spread and established itself in Germany after its humiliating defeat in the First World War.

Ethnocentrism has existed throughout human history. Written in the 12th century "The Tale of Bygone Years" meadows, which, according to the chronicler, supposedly have a custom and law, are opposed to the Vyatichi, Krivichi, Drevlyans, who have neither a real custom nor a law. In ancient societies, a suspicious-hostile attitude towards strangers was a necessary condition for the formation and maintenance of the unity and identity of one's own tribal group. The principles of ethnocentrism find clear expression in the activities of missionaries who seek to convert "barbarians" to their faith. An example of ethnocentrism is the attitude of the ancient Greeks towards the barbarians.

Ethnocentric reassessment of one's own culture is found in many peoples in different regions of the world. The high appreciation of one's own culture and the belittling of foreign cultures are based on the fact that many peoples and tribes at an early stage of their history designated themselves as "people", and everything that was outside their culture was designated as "inhuman", "barbaric". ". Such beliefs are found among many peoples in all regions of the world: among the Eskimos of North America, among the African Bantu tribe, among the Asian San people, in South America among the Munduruku people. The feeling of superiority was also pronounced at one time among the European colonizers: most Europeans considered the non-European inhabitants of the colonies as socially, culturally and racially inferior, and their own way of life, of course, as the only true one. If the natives had other religious ideas, they became pagans, if they had their own sexual ideas and taboos, they were called immoral, if they did not try hard to work, then they were considered lazy, if they did not share the opinion of the colonialists, they were called stupid. Proclaiming their own standards as absolute, the Europeans condemned any deviation from the European way of life, while not allowing the idea that the natives could have their own standards.

As intergroup communication expands, becomes more complex and intensifies, the images of “others” are differentiated, colored with different emotions, depending on the nature of specific intergroup relations. Otherness can cause not only negative feelings, but also interest, the need for interaction and exchange. A rival group arouses hostility and envy. The attitude towards the people with whom we cooperate can be colored by positive feelings, and towards those whom we look at from the outside, by a sense of curiosity.

The assumption that a particular way of thinking or acting is better is very difficult to substantiate with any reasonable arguments. Take, for example, food. Different cultures have different productivity in food production, and some peoples eat less than others. But no matter how little or how much various peoples eat, there will always be some kind of food taboo. Milk, which is actively used by Europeans, is rejected by the peoples of Southeast Asia. An Indian, no matter how hungry, will be disgusted by the idea of eating beef. Most of these taboos are purely cultural in nature and have nothing to do with the nutritional value or suitability of certain foods. These rules are so strong that violation of them can cause a physiological reaction of nausea or vomiting. Take for example various worms and insects. Europeans, unlike many other peoples, will not eat them, although insects certainly contain calories and vitamins and are edible.

Like any other socio-psychological phenomenon, ethnocentrism cannot be viewed as something only positive or only negative. On the one hand, it promotes rallying within a certain cultural (ethnic) community around their own norms and values, as well as the formation of ethnic self-consciousness as belonging to a certain cultural circle. For example, when studying Russian old-timers in Azerbaijan, N.M. Lebedeva, it was revealed that the decrease in ethnocentrism, manifested in a more positive perception of Azerbaijanis, testified to the erosion of the unity of the ethnic group and led to the departure of people to Russia in search of the necessary feeling of "We". On the other hand, ethnocentrism leads to the denial of the values of a foreign culture, leads to cultural self-isolation and interethnic conflicts.

2. Types of ethnocentrism

Comparison of one's own and other groups in this case takes place in the form of comparison - peace-loving non-identity, in the terminology of the Soviet historian and psychologist B.F. Porshnev. It is the acceptance and recognition of differences that can be considered the most acceptable form of social perception in the interaction of ethnic communities and cultures at the present stage of human history.

In interethnic comparison in the form of comparison, one's own group may be preferred in some spheres of life, and someone else's - in others, which does not exclude criticism of the activities and qualities of both and is manifested through the construction of complementary images. A number of studies in the 1980s and 1990s found a fairly clear tendency among Moscow students to compare "typical American" and "typical Russian". The stereotype of an American included business (entrepreneurship, diligence, conscientiousness, competence) and communicative (sociability, looseness) characteristics, as well as the main features of "Americanism" (striving for success, individualism, high self-esteem, pragmatism).

Comparison of ethnic groups in the form of opposition. Ethnocentrism is not always benevolent. Interethnic comparison can be expressed in the form of opposition, which implies at least a bias towards other groups. An indicator of such a comparison are polar images, when members of an ethnic group attribute only positive qualities to themselves, and only negative qualities to “outsiders”. The opposition is most clearly manifested in mirror perception, when members of two conflicting groups attribute identical positive traits to themselves, and identical vices to their rivals. For example, one's own group is perceived as highly moral and peaceful, its actions are explained by altruistic motives, and a foreign group is perceived as an aggressive "evil empire" pursuing its own selfish interests. It was the phenomenon of mirror reflection that was discovered during the Cold War in the distorted perceptions of Americans and Russians of each other. When the American psychologist Uri Bronfennbrenner visited the Soviet Union in 1960, he was surprised to hear from his interlocutors the same words about America that the Americans spoke about the Soviets. Ordinary Soviet people believed that the US government was made up of aggressive militarists, that it was exploiting and oppressing the American people, that it could not be trusted diplomatically.

The tendency towards interethnic opposition can also manifest itself in a more smoothed form, when qualities that are practically identical in meaning are evaluated differently depending on whether they are attributed to one's own or another group. People choose a positive label when they describe their own group trait and a negative label when they describe the same trait of an outgroup: Americans perceive themselves as friendly and uninhibited, while the British consider them pushy and cheeky. And vice versa - the British believe that they are characterized by restraint and respect for the rights of other people, and the Americans call the British cold snobs.

Some researchers see the main reason for varying degrees of ethnocentricity in the characteristics of a particular culture. There is evidence that members of collectivistic cultures who are closely related to their group are more ethnocentric than members of individualistic cultures. However, a number of psychologists have found that it is in collectivist cultures, where the values of modesty and harmony prevail, that intergroup bias is less pronounced, for example, Polynesians show less preference for their group than Europeans.

militant ethnocentrism. The degree of expression of ethnocentrism is more significantly influenced not by the characteristics of culture, but by social factors - the social structure, the objective nature of interethnic relations. Representatives of minority groups - small in size and below others in status - are more likely to prefer their own group. This applies to both ethnic migrants and "small nations". In the presence of a conflict between ethnic communities and in other unfavorable social conditions, ethnocentrism can manifest itself in very vivid forms and - although it helps to maintain a positive ethnic identity - becomes dysfunctional for the individual and society. With this kind of ethnocentrism, which has been called militant or inflexible, people not only judge other people's values based on their own, but also impose them on others.

Militant ethnocentrism expresses itself in hatred, mistrust, fear, and blaming other groups for their own failures. Such ethnocentrism is also unfavorable for the personal growth of the individual, because love for the motherland is brought up from his position, and the child, as the American psychologist E. Erickson wrote, not without sarcasm: it is precisely the emergence of this species that was an event of cosmic significance and that it is precisely it that is destined by history to stand guard over the only correct variety of humanity under the leadership of a select elite and leaders.

3. Problems of ethnocentrism

The term "ethnocentrism" was first introduced in sociological science in 1883 by the Austrian scientist I. Gumplovich.

In psychology it was used by W. Sumner in 1906, who considered the relationship between "we - the group" and "they - the group" as hostile. W. Sumner believed that in the minds of people there is a tendency to use the cultural stereotypes of their group to evaluate other groups, placing their group at the top of the hierarchy of relationships and considering other groups as inferior.

It is this phenomenon that underlies the emergence of hostility towards other social groups and ethnic groups. If a person lives in one culture for a long time, then it will be natural for him to consider this particular culture as a standard. It should be noted that the fixation on the elitism of the features of one's ethnic group, characteristic of ethnocentrism, does not necessarily lead to the formation of a negative or hostile attitude towards representatives of other ethnic communities. Although almost anything can be considered elite: beliefs, language, clothing, food, etc.

The development of ethnocentrism is facilitated by the poor awareness of people about the customs, beliefs, and traditional occupations of representatives of other ethnic communities.

Conclusion

ethnocentrism delegitimization social

Although ethnocentrism is often spoken of in a negative way, rather than as an inevitable consequence of cultural exposure and socialization, one must know that ethnocentrism is a normal part of everyday psychological functioning. However, a certain degree of ethnocentrism is inherent in social order and harmony. Without such implicit positive evaluations of one's own culture, there would be no reason to observe the norms of behavior and the laws of society or to work together with other people in everyday life. Thus, ethnocentrism plays an important role and function, helping to unify society and culture. The bigger question is how we can use our ethnocentrism more flexibly.

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Ethnocentrism as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Concept and problems of ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism

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