When it comes to the horrors and atrocities of the Second World War, as a rule, the acts of the Nazis are meant. Torture of prisoners, concentration camps, genocide, extermination of the civilian population - the list of atrocities of the Nazis is inexhaustible.
However, one of the most terrible pages in the history of the Second World War is inscribed in it by units of the Allied troops who liberated Europe from the Nazis. The French, and in fact the Moroccan expeditionary force, received the title of the main scumbags of this war.
Moroccans in the ranks of the allies
As part of the French Expeditionary Force, several regiments of Moroccan Gumiers fought. Berbers were recruited into these units - representatives of the native tribes of Morocco. The French Army used the Gumiers in Libya during World War II, where they fought Italian troops in 1940. Moroccan gumiers also took part in the battles in Tunisia, which took place in 1942-1943.
In 1943, Allied troops landed in Sicily. The Moroccan Gumiers, by order of the allied command, were placed at the disposal of the 1st American Infantry Division. Some of them participated in the battles for the liberation of the island of Corsica from the Nazis. By November 1943, the Moroccan soldiers were redeployed to the Italian mainland, where in May 1944 they crossed the Avrunk mountains. Subsequently, regiments of Moroccan Gumiers participated in the liberation of France, and at the end of March 1945 they were the first to break into Germany from the side of the Siegfried Line.
Why Moroccans went to fight in Europe
Gumiers rarely went into battle for reasons of patriotism - Morocco was under the protectorate of France, but they did not consider it their homeland. The main reason was the prospect of decent wages by the standards of the country, an increase in military prestige, and a manifestation of loyalty to the heads of their clans who sent soldiers to fight.
The poorest inhabitants of the Maghreb, the highlanders, were often recruited into the regiments of the Gumiers. Most of them were illiterate. The French officers were supposed to play the role of wise advisers with them, replacing the authority of the tribal leaders.
How the Moroccan Gumiers fought
At least 22,000 Moroccan subjects participated in the battles of World War II. The permanent strength of the Moroccan regiments reached 12,000, with 1,625 soldiers killed in action and 7,500 wounded.
According to some historians, Moroccan warriors have proven themselves in mountain battles, finding themselves in familiar surroundings. The birthplace of the Berber tribes is the Moroccan Atlas Mountains, so the Gumiers perfectly tolerated transitions to the highlands.
Other researchers are categorical: the Moroccans were average warriors, but they managed to surpass even the Nazis in the brutal murders of prisoners. The Gumiers could not and did not want to give up the ancient practice of cutting off the ears and noses of the corpses of enemies. But the main horror of the settlements, which included Moroccan soldiers, was the mass rape of civilians.
Liberators became rapists
The first news about the rape of Italian women by Moroccan soldiers was recorded on December 11, 1943, on the day the Gumiers landed in Italy. It was about four soldiers. The French officers were unable to control the actions of the Gumiers. Historians note that "these were the first echoes of a behavior that would later be long associated with the Moroccans."
Already in March 1944, during de Gaulle's first visit to the Italian front, local residents turned to him with an ardent request to return the Gumiers to Morocco. De Gaulle promised to involve them only as carabinieri to protect public order.
On May 17, 1944, American soldiers in one of the villages heard the desperate cries of raped women. According to their testimonies, the Gumiers repeated what the Italians did in Africa. However, the allies were really shocked: the British report speaks of the rape of women, little girls, teenagers of both sexes, as well as prisoners in prisons, right on the streets.
Moroccan horror near Monte Cassino
One of the most terrible deeds of the Moroccan Gumiers in Europe is the story of the liberation of Monte Cassino from the Nazis. The Allies succeeded in capturing this ancient abbey in central Italy on May 14, 1944. After their final victory at Cassino, the command announced "fifty hours of freedom" - the south of Italy was given to the Moroccans for three days.
Historians testify that after the battle, the Moroccan Gumiers committed brutal pogroms in the surrounding villages. All girls and women were raped, and teenage boys were not saved. Reports from the German 71st Division record 600 rapes of women in the small town of Spigno in just three days.
Over 800 men were killed while trying to save their relatives, girlfriends or neighbors. The pastor of the town of Esperia tried in vain to save three women from the violence of the Moroccan soldiers - the gumiers tied the priest and raped him all night, after which he soon died. The Moroccans also plundered and carried away everything that had at least some value.
Moroccans chose the most beautiful girls for gang rapes. Queues of gummers lined up for each of them, wanting to have some fun, while other soldiers kept the unfortunate. So, two young sisters 18 and 15 years old were raped by more than 200 Gumiers each. The younger sister died from injuries and ruptures, the older one went crazy and was kept in a psychiatric hospital for 53 years until her death.
War with women
In the historical literature about the Apennine Peninsula, the time from the end of 1943 to May 1945 is called guerra al femminile - "war with women." French military courts during this period initiated 160 criminal proceedings against 360 individuals. Death sentences and heavy punishments were handed down. In addition, many rapists who were taken by surprise were shot at the scene of the crime.
In Sicily, the Gumiera raped everyone they could capture. The partisans of some regions of Italy stopped fighting the Germans and began to save the surrounding villages and villages from the Moroccans. A huge number of forced abortions and infections with venereal diseases had terrible consequences for many small villages and villages in the regions of Lazio and Tuscany.
The Italian writer Alberto Moravia wrote in 1957 his most famous novel, Ciociara, based on what he saw in 1943, when he and his wife were hiding in Ciociaria (a locality in the Lazio region). On the basis of the novel, in 1960, the film "Chochara" (in the English box office - "Two Women") was filmed with Sophia Loren in the title role. On their way to liberated Rome, the heroine and her young daughter stop to rest in a church in a small town. There, they are attacked by several Moroccan Gumiers, who rape both of them.
Testimony of victims
On April 7, 1952, the testimonies of numerous victims were heard in the lower house of the Italian Parliament. So, the mother of 17-year-old Malinari Velha spoke about the events of May 27, 1944 in Valecors: “We were walking along Monte Lupino Street and saw Moroccans. The soldier was clearly attracted to the young Malinari. We begged not to touch us, but they did not listen. Two held me, the rest raped Malinari in turn. When the latter finished, one of the soldiers took out a gun and shot my daughter.”
Elisabetta Rossi, 55, from the Farneta area, recalled: “I tried to protect my daughters, aged 18 and 17, but I was stabbed in the stomach. Bleeding, I watched as they were raped. A five-year-old boy, not understanding what was happening, rushed to us. They fired several bullets into his stomach and threw him into a ravine. The next day the child died.
Morocco
The atrocities that the Moroccan Gumiers committed in Italy for several months received the name marocchinate from Italian historians, derived from the name of the native country of the rapists.
On October 15, 2011, Emiliano Ciotti, President of the National Association of Marocchinate Victims, gave an assessment of the extent of what happened: “From the numerous documents collected today, it is known that at least 20,000 recorded cases of violence have been committed. This number still does not reflect the truth - medical reports of those years report that two-thirds of the raped women, out of shame or modesty, chose not to report anything to the authorities. Based on a comprehensive assessment, we can say with certainty that at least 60,000 women were raped. On average, North African soldiers raped them in groups of two or three, but we also have testimonies of women raped by 100, 200 and even 300 soldiers,” Ciotti said.
Effects
After the end of the Second World War, the Moroccan gummers were urgently returned by the French authorities to Morocco. On August 1, 1947, the Italian authorities sent an official protest to the French government. The answer was formal replies. The problem was raised again by the Italian leadership in 1951 and in 1993. The question still remains open.
They were so-so warriors, but in sadism they outdid even the Nazis, they cut off body parts from defeated enemies - as proof of their own valor
When people talk about inhumanity during World War II, they usually mean the atrocities of the Nazis. And it is not at all accepted in society to raise the topic of war crimes of the allied forces, although they sometimes committed no less atrocities.
Barbarians in the service of the masters
The Berber mercenaries who served in the ranks of the French army were especially cruel. It included several regiments, which were Moroccan natives. Units consisting of Gumiers were previously used in armed conflicts. The French fielded them in the Libyan campaign against the Italians, then in Tunisia against the Germans. The Gumiers have proven themselves to be good scouts, and in the highlands they had no equal at all - the mountains were their native element.
In 1943, the famous landing of allied troops on Sicily took place, and the Americans received at their disposal several units of Moroccan fighters who had already fought for Corsica. From November 1943, African warriors in turbans and striped djellabas (hooded robes) were deployed to the mainland.
The Moroccans fought desperately. But one should not think that the Gumiers were characterized by patriotism, or they were adherents of any ideology. No. Rather, the role was played by following one's own traditions, loyalty to the family and its elders, who sent a man to get military honor in battle. Well, and mercenary payments, of course. It was impossible to earn such money in his native area. And if we also assume military booty! .. In general, war is a matter for men, and the gumiers sought to justify this.
The savage is out of control
But the courage and high-class military skills of the Gumiers are the approval of only one part of the historians and witnesses of that war. Another part says that it would be better if these savages did not exist at all in the spaces of Europe. The Gumiers cut off the ears and noses of the defeated enemies as proof of their prowess. No exhortations and punishments from the French officers had no effect. The warriors grinned angrily in response and did it their own way. The Moroccans were especially notorious for raping the vanquished.
The first case recorded in the documents was an appeal from the population to French officers on the very first day after the landing of allied troops in Italy. Then four soldiers "distinguished themselves".
And although the punishment followed, it did not affect the future actions of the Moroccan warriors. They raped and abused as before, openly ignoring the orders of the French authorities. Within a couple of months, when the general de Gaulle arrived in the Lazio region with an inspection, the inhabitants practically begged him to return the Gumiers to their homeland. De Gaulle was cynically promised to attract Gumiers only to ensure street order.
License to die
The behavior of the Americans, under whose wing the units of the Moroccan thugs were given, looks strange. Knowing about their predilection for atrocities, the American command, after the victory of the allies over the Germans in the area of the ancient abbey of Monte Cassino, for three days gave the southern part of Italy to the plunder of the savages.
The surroundings of the abbey were covered in blood. All the villages around were devastated. Women, girls, boys, teenagers were brutally raped, often killed after bullying. Only in the written records of the town of Spigno recorded over six hundred rapes in three days. And how many cases were not taken into account! Everyone who tried to protect their women was killed. A pastor from the Esperia city church who tried to save the three women was seized and raped until the morning. The pastor died soon after.
Don't be born beautiful
The prettiest girls are the least fortunate. The Berbers loved beauty. So much so that queues of 200 people lined up for the beauties. In the local psychiatric hospital of the same Spigno, a woman was kept who went crazy when she, at the age of eighteen, and her fifteen-year-old sister were raped by the Moroccans. The younger sister died from tears and beatings, and the older sister lived in this horror for another 53 years.
From December 1943 to May 1945, French courts opened 160 cases that ended in the application of severe punishments to rapists, up to the death penalty. They were also shot at the scene of the crime. But even these measures did not stop the unbridled savages. It got to the point that in several areas the Italian partisans switched from the Germans to saving the surrounding villages from the Gumiers.
When it comes to the horrors and atrocities of the Second World War, as a rule, the acts of the Nazis are meant. Torture of prisoners, concentration camps, genocide, extermination of the civilian population - the list of atrocities of the Nazis is inexhaustible.
However, one of the most terrible pages in the history of the Second World War is inscribed in it by units of the Allied troops who liberated Europe from the Nazis. The French, and in fact the Moroccan expeditionary force, received the title of the main scumbags of this war.
Moroccans in the ranks of the allies
As part of the French Expeditionary Force, several regiments of Moroccan Gumiers fought. Berbers were recruited into these units - representatives of the native tribes of Morocco. The French Army used the Gumiers in Libya during World War II, where they fought Italian troops in 1940. Moroccan gumiers also took part in the battles in Tunisia, which took place in 1942-1943.
In 1943, Allied troops landed in Sicily. The Moroccan Gumiers, by order of the allied command, were placed at the disposal of the 1st American Infantry Division. Some of them participated in the battles for the liberation of the island of Corsica from the Nazis. By November 1943, the Moroccan soldiers were redeployed to the Italian mainland, where in May 1944 they crossed the Avrunk mountains. Subsequently, regiments of Moroccan Gumiers participated in the liberation of France, and at the end of March 1945 they were the first to break into Germany from the side of the Siegfried Line.
Why Moroccans went to fight in Europe
Gumiers rarely went into battle for reasons of patriotism - Morocco was under the protectorate of France, but they did not consider it their homeland. The main reason was the prospect of decent wages by the standards of the country, an increase in military prestige, and a manifestation of loyalty to the heads of their clans who sent soldiers to fight.
The poorest inhabitants of the Maghreb, the highlanders, were often recruited into the regiments of the Gumiers. Most of them were illiterate. The French officers were supposed to play the role of wise advisers with them, replacing the authority of the tribal leaders.
How the Moroccan Gumiers fought
At least 22,000 Moroccan subjects participated in the battles of World War II. The permanent strength of the Moroccan regiments reached 12,000, with 1,625 soldiers killed in action and 7,500 wounded.
According to some historians, Moroccan warriors have proven themselves in mountain battles, finding themselves in familiar surroundings. The birthplace of the Berber tribes is the Moroccan Atlas Mountains, so the Gumiers perfectly tolerated transitions to the highlands.
Other researchers are categorical: the Moroccans were average warriors, but they managed to surpass even the Nazis in the brutal murders of prisoners. The Gumiers could not and did not want to give up the ancient practice of cutting off the ears and noses of the corpses of enemies. But the main horror of the settlements, which included Moroccan soldiers, was the mass rape of civilians.
Liberators became rapists
The first news about the rape of Italian women by Moroccan soldiers was recorded on December 11, 1943, on the day the Gumiers landed in Italy. It was about four soldiers. The French officers were unable to control the actions of the Gumiers. Historians note that "these were the first echoes of a behavior that would later be long associated with the Moroccans."
Already in March 1944, during de Gaulle's first visit to the Italian front, local residents turned to him with an ardent request to return the Gumiers to Morocco. De Gaulle promised to involve them only as carabinieri to protect public order.
On May 17, 1944, American soldiers in one of the villages heard the desperate cries of raped women. According to their testimonies, the Gumiers repeated what the Italians did in Africa. However, the allies were really shocked: the British report speaks of the rape of women, little girls, teenagers of both sexes, as well as prisoners in prisons, right on the streets.
Moroccan horror near Monte Cassino
One of the most terrible deeds of the Moroccan Gumiers in Europe is the story of the liberation of Monte Cassino from the Nazis. The Allies succeeded in capturing this ancient abbey in central Italy on May 14, 1944. After their final victory at Cassino, the command announced "fifty hours of freedom" - the south of Italy was given to the Moroccans for three days.
Historians testify that after the battle, the Moroccan Gumiers committed brutal pogroms in the surrounding villages. All girls and women were raped, and teenage boys were not saved. Reports from the German 71st Division record 600 rapes of women in the small town of Spigno in just three days.
Over 800 men were killed while trying to save their relatives, girlfriends or neighbors. The pastor of the town of Esperia tried in vain to save three women from the violence of the Moroccan soldiers - the gumiers tied the priest and raped him all night, after which he soon died. The Moroccans also plundered and carried away everything that had at least some value.
Moroccans chose the most beautiful girls for gang rapes. Queues of gummers lined up for each of them, wanting to have some fun, while other soldiers kept the unfortunate. So, two young sisters 18 and 15 years old were raped by more than 200 Gumiers each. The younger sister died from injuries and ruptures, the older one went crazy and was kept in a psychiatric hospital for 53 years until her death.
War with women
In the historical literature about the Apennine Peninsula, the time from the end of 1943 to May 1945 is called guerra al femminile - "war with women." French military courts during this period initiated 160 criminal proceedings against 360 individuals. Death sentences and heavy punishments were handed down. In addition, many rapists who were taken by surprise were shot at the scene of the crime.
In Sicily, the Gumiera raped everyone they could capture. The partisans of some regions of Italy stopped fighting the Germans and began to save the surrounding villages and villages from the Moroccans. A huge number of forced abortions and infections with venereal diseases had terrible consequences for many small villages and villages in the regions of Lazio and Tuscany.
The Italian writer Alberto Moravia wrote in 1957 his most famous novel, Ciociara, based on what he saw in 1943, when he and his wife were hiding in Ciociaria (a locality in the Lazio region). On the basis of the novel, in 1960, the film "Chochara" (in the English box office - "Two Women") was filmed with Sophia Loren in the title role. On their way to liberated Rome, the heroine and her young daughter stop to rest in a church in a small town. There, they are attacked by several Moroccan Gumiers, who rape both of them.
Testimony of victims
On April 7, 1952, the testimonies of numerous victims were heard in the lower house of the Italian Parliament. So, the mother of 17-year-old Malinari Velha spoke about the events of May 27, 1944 in Valecors: “We were walking along Monte Lupino Street and saw Moroccans. The soldier was clearly attracted to the young Malinari. We begged not to touch us, but they did not listen. Two held me, the rest raped Malinari in turn. When the latter finished, one of the soldiers took out a gun and shot my daughter.”
Elisabetta Rossi, 55, from the Farneta area, recalled: “I tried to protect my daughters, aged 18 and 17, but I was stabbed in the stomach. Bleeding, I watched as they were raped. A five-year-old boy, not understanding what was happening, rushed to us. They fired several bullets into his stomach and threw him into a ravine. The next day the child died.
Morocco
The atrocities that the Moroccan Gumiers committed in Italy for several months received the name marocchinate from Italian historians, derived from the name of the native country of the rapists.
On October 15, 2011, Emiliano Ciotti, President of the National Association of Marocchinate Victims, gave an assessment of the extent of what happened: “From the numerous documents collected today, it is known that at least 20,000 recorded cases of violence have been committed. This number still does not reflect the truth - medical reports of those years report that two-thirds of the raped women, out of shame or modesty, chose not to report anything to the authorities. Based on a comprehensive assessment, we can say with certainty that at least 60,000 women were raped. On average, North African soldiers raped them in groups of two or three, but we also have testimonies of women raped by 100, 200 and even 300 soldiers,” Ciotti said.
Effects
After the end of the Second World War, the Moroccan gummers were urgently returned by the French authorities to Morocco. On August 1, 1947, the Italian authorities sent an official protest to the French government. The answer was formal replies. The problem was raised again by the Italian leadership in 1951 and in 1993. The question still remains open.
France until the twentieth century was a major world colonial power. Its possessions extended far to the south, covering vast areas of Africa. As you know, France was the last world state to have colonies. Algeria became independent from the mother country only in 1962. The French actively used for their own purposes not only minerals and cheap labor of local residents, but also their lives.Already during the First World War, the French authorities called on the service of the inhabitants of Africa. At that time, over three hundred thousand soldiers from the Maghreb countries fought in the Allied army. The French decided to continue this policy during the Second World War. Although the occupation created certain difficulties, however, twelve infantry divisions fought on various fronts under the French tricolor, as well as three spagi brigades formed in colonial countries.
Twelve infantry divisions fought under the French tricolor, as well as three spagi brigades formed in the Maghreb countries // Photo: livejournal.com
Only among the population of such countries as Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia was a conscription carried out, which gave the French army over two hundred and seventy thousand soldiers of European and Arab-Berber origin. They had a chance to fight in their homeland, in Italy, and were even among the first to launch an offensive against Germany from the “Siegfried Line”.
Moroccan warriors
Most of the soldiers from Africa, including from Morocco, were illiterate peasants. Often among them came across, one might say, experienced warriors. The main advantage of such soldiers was that they were perfectly adapted to long marches and it was quite natural for them to fight in the mountains. This gave the Moroccan Gumiers a serious advantage over European soldiers and over the enemy. French officers were attached to them as mentors. But over time, the Gumiers themselves began to enter officer positions.It is worth noting that the name "gumiery" comes from the Arabic word "gum", meaning "to stand". A little later, this word began to mean "subdivision". Gumiers were divided into units of two hundred people. From three or four such units, a camp was obtained, and from three camps, a group.
Natives of Morocco went to fight not at all for reasons of patriotism. France was, first and foremost, an enslaving country for them. Due to military service, it was possible to significantly improve their financial situation, as well as social status. Despite the fact that the soldiers were paid enough for the level of Africa, they could also return home loaded with stolen goods.
Moroccan gumiers went to fight not for reasons of patriotism, but to improve their material and social situation // Photo: warspot.ru
In addition to high endurance, the Moroccan Gumiers were also distinguished by their cruelty. It was typical for them to cut off the nose and ears of the defeated enemies. And after the battle won, the Moroccans celebrated the victory in such a way that Italian women cannot forget it for decades.
Scarier than the Nazis
It is worth noting that most often the Moroccan Gumiers are remembered not because of their high-profile military victories, but because of the harm they caused to the female and sometimes male part of the population of southern Italy. For the first time, the atrocities of the Gumiers against civilians became known in 1943. Soldiers raped local women after landing in Italy. Often these rapes were group rapes, and there was nothing the French officers could do about it.
The only thing the Italians asked Charles de Gaulle for was to send Moroccan gummers home // Photo: russian7.ru
In 1944, residents of Italian towns and villages approached Charles de Gaulle directly during his visit. The only thing they asked for was to send the Moroccans back to their homeland. In British military chronicles, there are many references to the brutal rape of women, children, adolescents and even adult men by Moroccan gumiers.
Horror at Monte Cassino
In May 1944, the Moroccans took part in the liberation of the abbey of Monte Cassino. After the victory over the troops of the Third Reich, they were given fifty hours of freedom, which went down in history as the "Moroccan horror".The Gumiers raped and robbed everyone who came under their arm. If the victim turned out to be particularly sympathetic, then several tens or even hundreds of people lined up for her. There were frequent cases when women raped by Moroccans died from multiple internal injuries, or they were killed by rapists.
A case is described when the pastor of one of the churches tried to hide young girls from the Gumiers. The Moroccans discovered his intentions, tied him up and also began to rape him until the priest died. The same thing happened to the women he tried to save. Those events are described in Alberto Moravia's novel Ciochara, which was filmed in the sixties by director Vittorio de Sica. Sophia Loren played the main role. The film tells the story of a mother and daughter who were victims of rapists.
The atrocities of the Gumiers are described in Alberto Moravia's novel "Ciochara", which was filmed in the sixties by director Vittorio de Sica. The main role was played by Sophia Loren // Photo: ria.ru
According to official figures, more than twenty thousand people were subjected to violence by the Moroccan Gumiers. But, as historians admit, two-thirds of the victims either kept silent about what happened to him, or did not live. The authorities tried to fight the rapists. Guilty verdicts were handed down, and some were killed right at the scene of the crime. Yet the majority remained unpunished.
Testimony of female victims from the official record of testimony in the lower house of the Italian Parliament. Meeting of April 7, 1952:
“Malinari Veglia, at the time of the events she was 17 years old. The testimony is given by her mother, Events of May 27, 1944, Valekorsa.
They were walking down Monte Lupino Street when they saw the "Moroccans". The warriors approached the women. They were clearly interested in the young Malinari. The women began to beg not to do anything, but the soldiers did not understand them. While two held the girl's mother, the others took turns raping her. When the last one finished, one of the "Moroccans" took out a pistol and shot Malinari.
Elisabetta Rossi, 55, Farneta district, tells how, stabbed in the stomach, she watched her two daughters, aged 17 and 18, being raped. She got hurt when she tried to protect them. A group of "Moroccans" left her nearby. The next victim was a five-year-old boy who rushed towards them, not understanding what was happening. The child was thrown into a ravine with five bullets in the stomach. A day later, the baby died.
Emanuella Valente, May 25, 1944, Santa Lucia, she was 70 years old. An elderly woman calmly walked down the street, sincerely thinking that her age would protect her from rape. But he turned out to be rather her opponent. When a group of young "Moroccans" spotted her, Emanuella tried to run away from them. They caught up with her, knocked her down, broke her wrists. After that, she was subjected to group abuse. She was infected with syphilis. It was embarrassing and difficult for her to tell the doctors exactly what had happened to her. The wrist remained damaged for the rest of his life. She perceives her other illness as martyrdom.
Did other allies or fascists know about the actions of the Franco-African Corps? Yes, because the Germans recorded their statistics, as mentioned above, and the Americans made proposals to "bring prostitutes."
The final figures of the victims of the "war against women" vary: DWF magazine, No. 17 for 1993, cites the historian's information about sixty thousand women raped in less than a year as a result of the "Moroccans" playing the role of police in southern Italy. These numbers are based on the statements of the victims. In addition, many women who, after such events, could no longer marry or continue a normal life, committed suicide, went crazy. These are outrageous stories. Anthony Collici, who was 12 years old in 1944, writes: "... they entered the house, held a knife to the throats of men, looked for women ...". What follows is the story of two sisters who were abused by two hundred "Moroccans". As a result, one of the sisters died, the other ended up in a lunatic asylum.
On August 1, 1947, the Italian leadership submitted a protest to the French government. In response - bureaucratic delays, chicanery. The issue was raised again in 1951 and in 1993. There is talk about the Islamic threat, about intercultural communication. This question remains open to this day.
