Buildings and sculptures, poems and thoughts of great philosophers - all these are the components of the "Greek miracle", as scientists call it today.
If you are interested in culture, you can briefly familiarize yourself with it in this article. So, what has fascinated even the most inexperienced person in art for four thousand years now? Let's take a closer look.
General information
The ancient period, which is characterized by the rise and flourishing of Hellas (as the ancient Greeks called their country), is the most interesting for most art historians. And not in vain! Indeed, at this time, the origin and formation of the principles and forms of almost all genres of contemporary art took place.
In total, scientists divide the history of the development of this country into five periods. Let's look at the typology and talk about the formation of some types of art.
Aegean era
This period is most clearly represented by two monuments - the Mycenaean and Knossos palaces. The latter is better known today as the Labyrinth from the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. After archaeological excavations, scientists have confirmed the veracity of this legend. Only the first floor has been preserved, but it has more than three hundred rooms!
In addition to the palaces, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is known for the masks of the Achaean leaders and small Cretan sculptures. The figurines found in the secrets of the palace amaze with their filigree. Women with snakes look very realistic and graceful.
Thus, the culture of Ancient Greece, a summary of which is presented in the article, originated from the symbiosis of the ancient island civilization of Crete and the arrived Achaean and Dorian tribes who settled on the Balkan Peninsula.
Homeric period
This era is significantly different in material terms from the previous one. Many important events took place between the 11th and 9th centuries BC.
First of all, the previous civilization perished. Scientists suggest that due to a volcanic eruption. Further from the statehood there was a return to the communal structure. In fact, society was being re-formed.
An important point is that against the background of material decline, spiritual culture was fully preserved and continued to develop. We can see this in the works of Homer, which reflect precisely this critical era.
It belongs to the end of the Minoan period, and the writer himself lived at the beginning of the archaic era. That is, the Iliad and the Odyssey are the only evidence of this period, because apart from them and archaeological finds, nothing is known about it today.
archaic culture
At this time, there is a rapid growth and formation of state-states. The coin begins to be minted, the formation of the alphabet and the formation of writing takes place.
In an archaic era, the Olympic Games appear, a cult of a healthy and athletic body is formed.
classical period
Everything that captivates us today with the culture of Ancient Greece (a brief summary is in the article) was created precisely in this era.
Philosophy and science, painting and sculpture, and poetry - all these genres are experiencing a rise and unique development. The apogee of creative self-expression was the Athens architectural ensemble, which still amazes the audience with its harmony and elegance of forms.
Hellenism
The last period of the development of Greek culture is interesting precisely because of its ambiguity.
On the one hand, there is a unification of Greek and Eastern traditions as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great. On the other hand, Rome captures Greece, but the latter conquers it with its culture.
Architecture
The Parthenon is probably one of the most famous monuments of the ancient world. And Doric or Ionic elements, such as columns, are inherent in some later architectural styles.
Basically, the development of this type of art, we can trace the temples. After all, it was in this type of buildings that the most efforts, means and skills were invested. Even palaces were valued less than places for sacrifices to the gods.
The beauty of ancient Greek temples lies in the fact that they were not formidable temples of mysterious and cruel celestials. According to the internal structure, they resembled ordinary houses, only they were equipped more elegantly and were richer furnished. How could it be otherwise if the gods themselves were depicted as human-like, with the same problems, quarrels and joys?
In the future, three orders of columns formed the basis of most styles of European architecture. It was with their help that the culture of Ancient Greece briefly, but very capaciously and durably entered the life of modern man.
vase painting
The works of this type of art are the most numerous and studied to date. At school, children learn information about what the culture of Ancient Greece was (briefly). Grade 5, for example, is a period of acquaintance only with myths and legends.
And the first monuments of this civilization that students see are black-glazed ceramics - very beautiful and copies of which served as souvenirs, decorations and collectibles in all subsequent eras.
Vessel painting went through several stages of development. At first, these were simple geometric ornaments, known since the time of the Minoan culture. Next, spirals, meanders and other details are added to them.
In the process of formation, vase painting acquires the features of painting. Scenes from the mythology and everyday life of the ancient Greeks, human figures, images of animals and everyday scenes appear on the vessels.
It is noteworthy that the artists managed not only to convey movement in their paintings, but also to give personal features to the characters. Thanks to their attributes, individual gods and heroes are easily recognized.
Mythology
The peoples of the ancient world perceived the surrounding reality a little differently than we are used to understanding it. The deities were the main force that was responsible for what is happening in a person's life.
The school is often asked to make a short report on the topic “Culture of Ancient Greece”, briefly, interestingly and in detail describe the heritage of this amazing civilization. In this case, it is better to start the story with mythology.
The ancient Greek pantheon included a lot of gods, demigods and heroes, but the main ones were twelve Olympians. The names of some of them were already known during the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. They are mentioned on clay tablets in linear writing. It is noteworthy that at this stage they had female and male counterparts of the same character. For example, there was Zeus-he and Zeus-she.
Today we know about the gods of ancient Greece thanks to the monuments of fine art and literature that have remained for centuries. Sculptures, frescoes, figurines, plays and stories - in all this, the worldview of the Hellenes was reflected.
Such views have outlived their time. The artistic culture of Ancient Greece, in short, had a primary influence on the formation of many European schools of various arts. The Renaissance artists resurrected and developed the ideas of style, harmony and form already known in classical Greece.
Literature
Many centuries separate our society from the society of ancient Hellas, besides, in fact, only crumbs of what was written have come down to us. The Iliad and the Odyssey are probably the most popular works for which the culture of Ancient Greece is known. A summary (about Odysseus and his adventures) can be read in any reader, and the exploits of this wise man still impress society.
Without his advice, there would have been no victory for the Achaeans in the Trojan War. In principle, both poems form the image of the ruler in an ideal light. Critics perceive him as a collective character, containing many positive features.
Homer's work dates back to the eighth century BC. Later authors, such as Euripides, brought a completely new stream to their works. If before them the main thing was the relationship between heroes and gods, as well as the tricks of the celestials and their interference in the lives of ordinary people, now everything is changing. The tragedies of the new generation reflect the inner world of man.
In short, culture in the classical period tries to penetrate deeper and answer most of the eternal questions. This "research" involved such areas as literature, philosophy, fine arts. Speakers and poets, thinkers and artists - all tried to realize the versatility of the world and pass on the received wisdom to posterity.
Art
The classification of art is based on the elements of vase painting. The Greek (Achaean-Minoan) period is preceded by the Cretan-Mycenaean, when a developed civilization existed on the islands, and not on the Balkan Peninsula.
Actually the culture of Ancient Greece, a brief description of which we give in the article, is formed at the end of the second millennium BC. The most ancient monuments were temples (for example, the temple of Apollo on the island of Thera) and vessel paintings. The latter are characterized by an ornament in the form of simple geometric shapes. The main ones of this era were the ruler and the compass.
During the archaic period, which began around the seventh century BC, art becomes more developed and bold. Corinthian black-lacquer ceramics appeared, and the poses of people depicted on vessels and bas-reliefs were borrowed from Egypt. The so-called archaic smile appears at the sculptures, which are becoming more and more natural.
In the classical era, there is a "facilitation" of architecture. Doric style is replaced by Ionic and Corinthian. Instead of limestone, marble is being used, and buildings and sculptures are becoming more airy. This civilizational phenomenon ends with Hellenism, the heyday of the empire of Alexander the Great.
Today, in many institutions, the culture of Ancient Greece is studied - briefly for children, more fully for teenagers and in depth for researchers. But even with all the desire, we do not fully cover the material left to us by the representatives of this solar people.
Philosophy
Even the origin of this term is Greek. The Hellenes were distinguished by a strong love of wisdom. No wonder they were considered the most highly educated people throughout the ancient world.
Today we do not remember any of the scientists of Mesopotamia or Egypt, we know a few Roman researchers, but the names of Greek thinkers are on everyone's lips. Democritus and Protagoras, and Pythagoras, Socrates and Plato, Epicurus and Heraclitus - they all made a huge contribution to world culture, enriched civilization with the results of their experiments so much that we still use their achievements.
The Pythagoreans, for example, absolutized the role of numbers in our world. They believed that with their help it was possible not only to describe everything, but even to predict the future. Sophists mainly paid attention to the inner world of man. Good was defined by them as something that is pleasant, and evil - as a thing or event that causes suffering.
Democritus and Epicurus developed the doctrine of atomism, that is, that the world consists of tiny elementary particles, the existence of which was proved only after the invention of the microscope.
Socrates turned the attention of thinkers from cosmology to the study of man, and Plato idealized the world of ideas, considering it the only real one.
Thus, we see that the features of the culture of Ancient Greece, in short, were reflected through the prism of the philosophical worldview on the modern life of a person.
Theatre
Those who have visited Greece for a long time remember the amazing feeling that a person experiences while in the amphitheater. Its magical acoustics, which even today seems like a miracle, has won hearts for thousands of years. This is a building in which there are more than a dozen rows, the stage is located in the open air, and the viewer, sitting in the farthest place, is able to hear how a coin falls on the stage. Isn't it a marvel of engineering?
Thus we see that the culture of ancient Greece, briefly described above, formed the foundations of modern art, philosophy, science, and social institutions. If not for the ancient Hellenes, it is not known what the modern way of life would be like.
Homeric period
This period (11-9 centuries BC) of Greek history got its name from the great Homer. His poems reflect the life of a community with a much more primitive culture than that which appears before us in the monuments of the Cretan-Mycenaean era. The heroes of Homer are kings and representatives of the nobility.
Few monuments of the Homeric period have come down to us. The main building material was wood and unbaked bricks, monumental sculpture was also made of wood. The art of this period was most clearly manifested in ceramic vases painted with geometric patterns, as well as in terracotta and bronze figurines.
In general, the Homeric period was a time of decline, stagnation of culture, but it was then that the prerequisites for the rapid rise of Greek society in the archaic and classical era ripened.
During this period (8-6 centuries BC) the Great Colonization took place - the development by the Greeks of the coast of the Mediterranean, Black, Marmara Seas. As a result, the Greek world came out of a state of isolation, and found itself in CT after the collapse of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture. The Greeks managed to learn a lot from other nations. The coinage was borrowed from the Lydians, from the Phoenicians - the alphabetical letter, which the Greeks improved by introducing not only consonants, but also vowels. The origin of Greek science (astronomy, geometry) took place under the influence of the Egyptians and Babylonians. Greek art was heavily influenced by Egyptian and Near Eastern architecture and sculpture. These and other elements of foreign cultures were creatively reworked and organically entered Greek culture.
During the archaic period, with the final decomposition of the tribal community, the formation of the ancient policy - the city-state, covering the city itself and the territory adjacent to it. The polis structure of the state was embodied in the participation of citizens in public assemblies, in courts, in making decisions on state affairs. importance. Such a state structure is the prototype of democracy. (the largest policies are Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Argos, Thebes). Politically, Greece was divided into many independent city-states, but it was in the archaic era that the active interaction of the Greeks with other peoples awakened in them the consciousness of unity, the concept of “Hellenes”, “Hellas” appears, covering the Greek world as a whole.
Social practice, which involved obedience to laws, the election of senior officials and jury trials, had a direct impact on the state of minds, generating and strengthening confidence in their minds in the minds of citizens. The nature of the worldview of Greek society took shape starting from the Cretan-Mycenaean period. This formation continued into the archaic period. The worldview was focused on the pantheon of the gods of Olympus. For the Greek religion, as well as for the ancient Eastern, polytheism (polytheism) is characteristic. In addition to the common Greek gods, in every region of Greece there were also local deities who inhabited forests, mountains, springs, meadows. The Greeks considered their gods to be immortal and omnipotent, they imagined them in an anthropomorphic form (similar to people). The power of the Olympic gods was not unlimited. Zeus himself obeyed the dictates of fate.
According to the idea of the ancient Greeks, Chaos originally existed, from which the earth (Gaia) and the underworld (Tartarus) stood out. The sky (Uranus) was generated by Gaia. The second generation of gods were the children of Gaia and Uranus - the titans, who overthrew their father. One of the titans Kronos (time) reigned over the world, but after a fierce struggle he was replaced by his youngest son, Zeus. According to legend, Zeus and the gods around him lived on Mount Olympus, so the Greeks called them Olympians. Having defeated the titans, Zeus the Thunderer became the supreme god, his wife Hera became the mistress of the sky.
The god of light and poetry was Apollo, who was usually accompanied by 9 muses - patrons of the arts and sciences. Apollo - son of Zeus and the Goddess Latona, born on the island of Delos. One of the most ancient and revered gods. On the one hand, this is a destroyer god, an arrowhead, he sends death, illness, on the other hand, he is the god of the sun, light, the patron of shepherds, travelers and sailors, as well as the healer god, the god of muses. He received his nickname Apollo Musagete after Hermes gave him a lyre. Musaget means Lord of the Muses. Later, Apollo becomes the patron of the art of poetry and music. In Moscow, on the building of the Bolshoi Theater, Apollo is depicted on a chariot. Apollo is also a predictor of the future. His largest sanctuary is known in Delphi, where the Pythian priestess made predictions.
Muses - goddesses of creative inspiration in poetry, singing and other arts; companions of Apollo. They are the daughters of Jupiter (Zeus) and the nymph Mnemosyne (Memory), who spent nine consecutive nights on the bed. According to Greek myths, they were born to glorify the heroic deeds of the struggle against the prehistoric titans by singing. Originally, the Muses were nymphs who presided over springs with the power to give inspiration, such as Aganippe and Hippocrene on Mount Helikon and the Key of Kastal on Mount Parnassus. The latter eventually became their abode. Therefore, in the paintings depicting the muses, fountains and springs often appear. Over time, their number was established - nine, and each received its own sphere of influence among the sciences and arts:
calliope, muse of epic poetry; depicted with a trumpet, tablet (waxed) and style (antique writing instruments). (Orpheus is the son of Apollo and Calliope);
Erato- muse of love poetry; depicted with a tambourine, lyre, viola, or, more rarely, a triangle (one of the percussion musical instruments);
Melpomene- the muse of tragedy; portrayed in a wreath of ivy with a tragic mask and a club in her hand;
Terpsichore- muse of dance and singing; depicted crowned with a wreath, with a viola, lyre or other - certainly a stringed - instrument;
polyhymnia- muse of sacred hymns; a frequent attribute in painting are musical instruments - a portable organ, less often a lute or other instrument;
Clio- the muse of history; depicted crowned with a laurel wreath; with a stylus and a papyrus scroll, or with a box for scrolls, or with a book;
Waist- muse of comedy and pastoral poetry; portrayed with a scroll, a small viola, less often with other musical instruments; since the 17th century - with a comic mask;
Euterpe- muse of music, lyrical poetry; depicted with a flute (often with a double, or aulos) or sometimes with a trumpet or other musical instrument;
Urania- muse of astronomy; depicted with a ball and a compass.
In the visual arts, they are young women, in the company of the sun god Apollo or alone, and represent this or that art, holding various attributes in their hands: books, scrolls, canvases, violins, tambourines, trumpets, lyres, harps, flutes, crowns, laurel wreaths (as a sign of success in a particular field), masks or, in the case of Melpomene, a sword or dagger.
Aphrodite was the goddess of beauty, Athena was the goddess of wisdom, Hephaestus was the god of fire and blacksmithing, Ares was the god of war. Each branch of economic activity had its own patron god: Demeter - agriculture, Athena - weaving, Dionysus - winemaking, Hermes - trade, etc.
In addition to myths about the gods and the beginning of the world, the Greeks had all sorts of myths about heroes, and the most popular were combined into cycles, for example, about the Trojan War, about the exploits of Hercules, Perseus, etc.
An important factor in the development of Greece were games held in honor of certain gods. The most significant of these were:
· Olympic Games - sports competitions dedicated to Zeus, held every 4 years in Olympia, starting from 776 BC;
· Pythian games - sports and musical competitions in honor of Apollo in Delphi;
Isthmian - in honor of Poseidon, held near Corinth every 2 years.
In games in honor of the gods, one of the most important elements of Greek culture is manifested - agonism (Greek Agon - struggle) - the desire for success in sports, music, poetry. The desire for confrontation, competition, organically inherent in the worldview of the ancient Greeks, permeates almost all spheres of their life. The main thing in the system of education of the archaic era is the main thing - to surpass the rest, to become the best. An educated person had to own all kinds of weapons, play the lyre, sing, dance, participate in sports and gaming competitions, etc.
In the archaic era, Ionia was the most developed region of Greece. It was there that the first philosophical system of antiquity arose - natural philosophy. Its representatives perceived the world as a single material whole, tried to comprehend its patterns. Thales (624-546 BC) considered water to be the fundamental principle of all things, Anaximenes (585 - 525 BC) - air, Anaximander (c. 611 - 546 BC) - apeiron (infinite), i.e. primordial matter with its opposite principles - solid and liquid, warm and cold.
The emergence of the Greek theater dates back to the same time, which grew out of round dances, songs and prayers performed at religious holidays in honor of Dionysus. The archaic era impresses with the richness and variety of patterns on Greek ceramics. Corinthian vases, painted in the so-called. oriental, i.e. Oriental style, Attic black-figure and red-figure vases. The Parthenon, the temple of Athena the Virgin, amazes with its grandeur. A peculiar archaic culture laid the foundation for the flourishing of classical culture, which played a significant role in the development of world civilization.
Pythagoras (c. 540-500 BC) and his followers, considering the basis of all things to be numbers and numerical relations, made a significant contribution to the development of mathematics, astronomy and music theory. One of the greatest Greek philosophers was Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 554-483 BC), who considered fire to be the fundamental principle of matter. In his opinion, both in nature and in society, there is an eternal movement, an eternal struggle, being is constantly changing. The Eleatic school made a great contribution to the development of philosophy, the most prominent representative of CT was Parmenides of Elea (c. 540-480 BC), who formulated the principle of the identity of thinking and being. Considering the mind, and not sensations, as the source of knowledge, the multiplicity of things, their movement, he explained by the deception of the senses.
It should be noted that not everything in the culture of ancient Greece was created directly by the Greeks. They borrowed from the Egyptians the solar calendar and information about the structure of the state, from the Babylonians - many mathematical discoveries. But the Greeks did not just use the achievements of other peoples, they learned from them.
classical period
The transition from archaic to classic was largely due to serious socio-political events:
· the struggle of slave-owning democracy and tyranny;
· fierce war of the Greek policies with the Persians.
The wars with Persia became a severe historical test for the Greek people. Terrible danger rallied the Greek cities under the leadership of Athens in the struggle for freedom and independence. The defeat of the Persians convincingly showed the advantage of the social system of city-states in Ancient Greece, contributed to the growth of the civil consciousness of the Hellenes. This period is associated with the flourishing of ancient slave-owning democracy, which found its most complete expression in the socio-political system of Athens during the so-called. "golden age"
Democracy is one of the main features of classical ancient Greek culture. The state did not exist "outside" and "above" the citizens, they themselves were the state with all its cult and aesthetic institutions. This determined that sense of unity of the personal and the public, the aesthetic and the ethical, the concrete and the universal, which reaches its culminating expression precisely in classical culture. Scientists argued that the existence of this kind of culture was possible only in relatively small policies. In the Hellenistic monarchies, we are already dealing with a different level of culture and its expression. The period of the classics captures an important feature of spiritual culture: the Hellenes were not characterized by narrow professionalism. For example, the famous philosopher made remarkable discoveries in the field of mathematics and astronomy; a well-known sculptor could not only build a temple, but also paint it, create a scientific treatise (Polykleitos). And most of the famous Greeks were also poets.
Athens became the center of ancient culture of the classical period. They collected brilliant achievements of social thought and artistic activity. The Athenian state took care of the cultural life of citizens, giving them the opportunity to participate in festivities and visit the theater. Poor artisans and merchants were paid allowances for visiting the theatre. Sports, long the privilege of aristocrats, have become an arena of competition for everyone. Gymnasiums with halls and baths, palestras for youth training made physical education the right of any Athenian citizen. An ignorant person was said to be: "He can neither read nor swim." Its purpose was the all-round education of the individual.
Indifferent to external conquests, the Greeks directed all the strength of their energy towards achieving the harmony of beauty and goodness, striving for the classical ideal of balance of body and spirit. Moderation in financial position stemmed from trust in the gods. The world, guarded by the gods, did not need excessiveness and consolidation; for life in it, it was enough to become like nature. Such a worldview of the Greeks was reflected in the art of the archaic and classical periods, which does not know the images of not only spiritual, but also bodily suffering. The greatest sculptors of this time: Myron, Poliklet, Phidias - depicted gods and heroes. Images of winning athletes are the main theme in the work of the 2 largest masters of the 5th century. BC. Myron and Polikleitos. Both sculptors worked in bronze. Among the best works of Myron is the statue "Discobolus", depicting an athlete who won the competition in discus throwing.
The best work of Polykleitos is the sculpture "Dorifor" - a bronze figure of a young man with a spear. The statue was not a memorial to any particular victorious athlete, and was called a "canon" after the title of a theoretical treatise by Polikleitos. The master managed to find the correct proportions, on the basis of CT, the human body in sculpture can be built. He mathematically accurately calculated the dimensions of all parts of the body and their ratio of m / y. The glory of the statue of Polikleitos is also connected with the fact that he vividly expressed in sculpture the ideal of an athlete-citizen, the image of a comprehensively developed, healthy and whole person. From these works of art breathes calmness and majesty
Canon - a set of provisions that has the character of a rule, norm, standard.
"Golden Age" of Athens. 2nd floor 5th c. BC, when Pericles (c. 490-429 BC) was elected to the post of strategist (commander) in Athens. The period of his reign lasted only 15 years, but he did a lot during this time. Pericles had a broad outlook, deep theoretical knowledge, and a fine artistic taste. The best minds of Hellas aspired to Athens, lived and worked there for a long time. The most attractive center was the house of Pericles, where talented people gathered: the historian Herodotus, the philosophers Anaxagoras and Protagoras, the great sculptor Phidias, the playwright Sophocles. The soul of this circle of true intellectuals was the wife of Pericles Aspasia, who often entered into discussions with Socrates himself. Her role in the transformation of ancient culture was no less than the role of Queen Nefertiti in the ancient Egyptian reformation.
Pericles pursued a lofty goal: to create a new unprecedented city-state with a highly cultured society. He personified the idea of the greatness of the Hellenic spirit, which turned the consciousness of his fellow citizens to lofty ideals. Pericles was a highly cultured person, but, eager to see the same simple Greeks, he unwittingly overestimated the role of culture in ordinary human life. One of the negative consequences of the transformative activity of Pericles was the growth in the mass of idle citizens in Athens, who constantly demanded "bread and circuses" from the state. Plato wrote about this period that the best thoughts of Pericles were powerless before the worst claims of the Athenian demos.
Introduction
In the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries) there was a great colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coast of the Mediterranean, Black, Marmara Seas. The Greeks have an alphabetic letter, the natural sciences, in particular astronomy and geometry, are born, the first philosophical systems appear. Greek art was formed under the influence of oriental architecture and sculpture.
During the archaic period, the formation of the ancient policy takes place - the city-state, a specific type of political structure. Who gave life to all subsequent democracies of the world. The ancient Greeks created a fundamentally new type of civilization - a market economy based on honest, conscientious work, a high culture of democratic leadership and the free development of the individual. There was nothing like it in history before them.
The Athenians built their civilization by systematically combining state and private property. It was from the Greeks that the concept of “ECONOMY” came to us, which meant for them the management of the household.
The arid and once desert mountainous region, which came to the limit of ecological depletion in the era of barbarism, has been transformed by talented people over several centuries into a flourishing land with beautiful cities, productive agriculture and cattle breeding. The intensive economic system, brought almost to perfection, allowed the Greeks to compete with the traditional agrarian regions - the developed centers of Eastern civilization.
WRITING
One of the most important factors of Greek culture VIII-VI centuries. considered to be a new writing system. The alphabetic script, partly borrowed from the Phoenicians, was more convenient than the ancient Mycenaean syllabary: it consisted of only 24 characters, each of which had a firmly established phonetic meaning. If in the Mycenaean society, as in other similar societies of the Bronze Age, the art of writing was available only to a few initiates who were part of a closed caste of professional scribes, now it is becoming the common property of all citizens of the policy,
since each of them could master the skills of writing and reading. Unlike the syllabary, which was used mainly for keeping accounts and, perhaps, to some extent for compiling religious texts, the new writing system was a truly universal means of communication that could be used with equal success in business correspondence, and for recording lyrical poems or philosophical aphorisms. All this led to the rapid growth of literacy among the population of the Greek policies, as evidenced by the numerous inscriptions on stone, metal, and ceramics, the number of which is increasing as we approach the end of the archaic period. The oldest of them, for example, the now widely known epigram on the so-called Nestor Cup from Fr. Pitekussa, dates back to the third quarter of the 8th century, which makes it possible to attribute the borrowing by the Greeks of the signs of the Phoenician alphabet either to the first half of the same 8th century, or even to the end of the preceding 9th century.
Practically at the same time (the second half of the 8th century) such outstanding samples of the monumental heroic epic as the Iliad and the Odyssey, from which the history of Greek literature begins, were created and, most likely, at the same time.
In the archaic period (VIII - VI centuries BC), changes in economic life led to the creation of a new economic system. Greece has overtaken all neighboring countries in its development. Agriculture intensified: the peasants switched to growing more profitable crops - grapes and olives. The main cells of agricultural production were small peasant farms and larger estates of the clan nobility, cultivated by impoverished relatives. The lands were rented out, and the aristocrats charged 1/2 of the crop as payment.
The craft was concentrated in the cities, its branches were clearly formed: metallurgy, metalworking, shipbuilding. Pottery production was of a mass serial nature. Trade became the leading industry, its scale is evidenced by the finds of Greek ceramics up to Central and Western Europe. Money appeared (tradition attributes their invention to the Lydians). Purchase and sale transactions have spread to all types of material values. Usury was born, and with it debt slavery. Slaves also came from the colonies. Nevertheless, the economic role of slaves was small, the bulk of the artisans were free people.
In the VIII - VI centuries. The Great Greek colonization took place. Its reasons were, firstly, the lack of land due to the increase in population and the concentration of land in the hands of the nobility; secondly, the need for new sources of raw materials, the search for markets for agricultural and handicraft products, the need for metal that was absent in Greece itself, the desire of the Greeks to control trade routes; thirdly, the political struggle, which forced the defeated to seek their fortune in the colonies.
There are three main directions of colonization. The first is western, the most powerful. Sicily and Italy were so densely populated by colonists that they became known as Magna Graecia. The second - northeast - on the Black Sea coast. The third is the southern and southeastern, the weakest, since here the Greeks met with powerful resistance from the Phoenician merchants.
Colonization somewhat muffled social conflicts, contributed to the development of crafts and trade. It widely spread the centers of Hellenic culture, opened up scope for human abilities, freeing the individual from the control of the clan.
In the VIII - VI centuries. there was a formation of ancient policies - city-states with the territory adjacent to them. The policy was based on the ancient form of ownership, which was a unity of state and private principles of ownership. The policy, as a collective of citizens, had the right of supreme ownership of the land. At the same time, only the citizens of the policy could be the owners of the land. The main economic principle of the policy was the idea of autarky (self-sufficiency), which acted as the economic basis of freedom. A polis system of values was also developed: the idea of the superiority of agricultural labor over all others, the condemnation of the desire for profit, and so on.
Two main types of policies can be distinguished: 1) agrarian, with an absolute predominance of agriculture, weak development of trade and crafts, commodity-money relations, a large proportion of the labor of dependent workers, as a rule, with an oligarchic structure (Sparta, the cities of Thessaly, Boeotia); 2) trade and craft, with a large proportion of crafts and trade, commodity-money relations, the introduction of slave labor into production, a democratic system (Athens, Corinth, Miletus, Syracuse, etc.). The earliest polis system appeared in the southern part of Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula (Sparta is the most studied), later - in Attica (Athens).
Athens was economically more developed, tribal relations quickly decomposed here. The Draco Laws (621 BC) formalized the right to private property. The most important of the reforms of Solon (594 BC) was the following: all debts made under the mortgage of land were forgiven, the peasants restored the status of owners, the conversion of the Athenians into slavery for debts was prohibited, and the loan interest was limited. The export of olive oil for profit was allowed, but grains were prohibited. Handicraft activities were encouraged. A land maximum was introduced to limit the concentration of landed property.
Of great importance were the reforms that undermined the political dominance of the nobility: all Athenian citizens were divided into four categories according to the amount of land income. Now the size of private property determined the importance of a person. And the legislation of Cleisthenes (509 BC) completed the liquidation of the tribal system - all citizens, regardless of their property status, were endowed with equal rights.
Thus, in the VIII - VI centuries. BC. there was a decomposition of the tribal system and new forms of socio-economic organization were established, although this process proceeded differently in different parts of Hellas. Often scientists combine the Homeric and Archaic periods in the development of the economy of Ancient Greece into a single one. If we analyze this period of time, we can say the following. It covers two stages in the history of ancient Greece: the so-called dark ages (XI-IX centuries BC) and the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC). The Dark Ages are often called the Homeric period, since, along with archaeological data, the main source for studying this time are the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", attributed to Homer. Usually XI-IX centuries. BC e. is considered an intermediate stage at which, on the one hand, the level of development decreases compared to Achaean Greece, but, on the other hand, with the start of the production of iron tools, the prerequisites are created for the further flourishing of the Greek states. The archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization: - The Great Colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, Azov Seas; - registration of the policy as a special type of community. There are two main types of policies:
Agrarian - the absolute predominance of agriculture, the weak development of crafts, trade, a large proportion of dependent workers, as a rule, with an oligarchic structure; - trade and craft - with a large share of trade and crafts, commodity-money relations, the introduction of slavery into the means of production, a democratic system.
In the XI-IX centuries. BC. in the Greek economy, the subsistence type of economy dominated, the craft was not separated from agriculture. There was some improvement in tools, in particular, a plow with a metal coulter appeared. Animal husbandry also played an important role in agriculture, livestock was considered one of the main types of wealth. In the craft of the XI-IX centuries. BC e. there was some differentiation, weaving, metallurgy, ceramics were especially developed, but production was focused only on meeting the urgent needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The economic situation in ancient Greece has changed significantly. During this period, the craft separated from agriculture, which remains the leading branch of the economy. The weak development of agricultural production at the previous stage, the inability to provide food for the growing population of policies became one of the main reasons for Greek colonization. The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was the supply of bread to the metropolises. The main attention is paid to crops, the cultivation of which is more in line with the natural conditions of Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of garden and horticultural crops; as a result, agriculture is becoming increasingly market-oriented.
Handicraft production also acquires a commercial character, and Greek colonization played an important role in this, contributing to the expansion of the raw material base and the development of trade. Many Greek city-states are becoming major craft centers. Greek trade in the era of the Great Colonization is developing very actively. Permanent links are being established between the metropolises, which export mainly handicraft products, and the colonies, which supply various types of raw materials and agricultural products. In the most developed Greek policies, maritime trade becomes one of the most important sectors of the economy. The main distinguishing feature of the Greek policy was the participation of all members of the civil community in government, and this feature largely determined the internal policy of policies. In particular, many Greek city-states had laws restricting the purchase and sale of land and aimed at protecting the landed property of individual citizens. However, in most areas of Greece, the development of commodity production and the shortage of land led to the growth of large land ownership, increased social differentiation and aggravation of the conflict between the aristocracy and the people (demos). In many policies of the archaic era, socio-political conflicts often ended in the establishment of a regime of personal power. In most cases, tyrants sought to enlist the support of the demos, took care of improving its position, promoted the development of crafts and trade, and the improvement of cities. Economic development in the XI-VI centuries. BC e. This period of time covers two stages in the history of ancient Greece: the so-called dark ages (XI-IX centuries BC) and the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC). The Dark Ages are often called the Homeric period, since, along with archaeological data, the main source for studying this time are the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", attributed to Homer. Usually XI-IX centuries. BC e. is considered an intermediate stage at which, on the one hand, the level of development decreases compared to Achaean Greece, but, on the other hand, with the start of the production of iron tools, the prerequisites are created for the further flourishing of the Greek states. The archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization: 1) the Great Colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, Azov Seas, 2) the formation of a policy as a special type of community.
Sectoral structure of the economy In the XI-IX centuries. BC. in the Greek economy, the subsistence type of economy dominated, the craft was not separated from agriculture. As before, the main agricultural crops were cereals (barley, wheat), grapes, and olives. Irrigation systems were still created, soil manure was applied. There was some improvement in tools, in particular, a plow with a metal (especially iron) coulter appeared. Animal husbandry also played an important role in agriculture, livestock was considered one of the main types of wealth. In the craft of the XI-IX centuries. BC e. there was some differentiation, weaving, metallurgy, and ceramics were especially developed, but production, as in agriculture, was focused only on meeting the basic needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The economic situation in ancient Greece has changed significantly. During this period, the craft separated from agriculture, which remains the leading branch of the economy. The weak development of agricultural production at the previous stage, the inability to provide food for the growing population of policies became one of the main reasons for Greek colonization. The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was the supply of bread to the metropolises. Many Greek policies refuse to grow cereals, and focus on crops, the cultivation of which is more in line with the natural conditions of Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of garden and horticultural crops; as a result, agriculture is becoming increasingly market-oriented. This is also facilitated by the wider distribution of iron tools. Handicraft production also acquires a commercial character, and, as in agriculture, Greek colonization played an important role in this, contributing to the expansion of the raw material base and the development of trade. Many Greek city-states are becoming major craft centers, with entire quarters of artisans appearing in them. Greek trade in the era of the Great Colonization is developing very actively. Permanent ties are being established between the metropolises, which export mainly handicraft products, and the colonies, which supply various types of raw materials (especially metal, timber) and agricultural products (especially grain). In addition, the colonies become intermediaries between Greece and the distant barbarian periphery. In the most developed Greek policies, maritime trade becomes one of the most important sectors of the economy.
Land property. Organization of production During the Dark Ages, the land was the property of the territorial community, the main production unit was the oikos (from the Greek house) - the economy of the patriarchal family. Each family in the community was assigned a piece of land, which was inherited; however, it is possible that redistributions of land were carried out from time to time. Slavery in the XI-IX centuries. BC e. still had a patriarchal character, the main producer of products was a free farmer. The archaic period brought great changes in property relations. The polis (or ancient) becomes the leading form of land ownership - only citizens had the right to own land on the territory of the policy; personally free people who were not citizens (meteks) did not have this right. Citizens could sell, mortgage land, rent it out. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. there is also an important change in the organization of production - slavery of the classical type begins to take shape. This process was associated with the development of commodity production and a significant increase in the number of slaves - foreigners coming from the colonies. Cheap slave labor made it possible to obtain a higher income and was more actively used in the main branches of production.
Money relations
At the turn of the II-I millennium BC. e. due to the predominance of subsistence farming and the weak development of trade, there was no money as such, their role was played mainly by cattle. In the era of the Great Colonization, metal ingots, bars, and, finally, around the turn of the 7th-6th centuries, were increasingly used as money. BC e. coinage begins. By the VI century. BC e. In Greece, there were two main monetary systems - Aegina and Euboea. The basis of each system was talent - a weight unit which on Euboea was 26.2 kg, and on Aegina - 37 kg. From one talent, 6 thousand drachmas were minted - silver coins. The Aegina standard was distributed over most of the territory of Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Euboean - on the island of Euboea, in many western Greek colonies, as well as in the two largest policies - Corinth and Athens. In the archaic period, people with money circulation developed usury, and insolvent debtors, as a rule, were turned into slaves and could even be sold abroad.
The role of the state in economic life The main distinguishing feature of the Greek policy was the participation of all members of the civil community in government, and this feature largely determined the internal policy of policies. In particular, in many Greek city-states there were laws restricting the purchase and sale of land, aimed at protecting the landed property of individual citizens. However, despite this, in most parts of Greece, the development of commodity production and the lack of land led to the growth of large land ownership, increased social differentiation and aggravation of the conflict between the aristocracy and the people (demos). In many policies of the archaic era, socio-political conflicts often ended in the establishment of tyranny - a regime of personal power. In most cases, tyrants sought to enlist the support of the demos, took care of improving its position, promoted the development of crafts and trade, and the improvement of cities. However, the tyrants were constantly in need of money and pumped it out of the population in various ways; in the end, in most policies, tyranny was overthrown.
Conclusions: The economy of the Homeric period was rather backward. Subsistence farming dominated, cattle was considered a measure of wealth, society did not know money. However, important changes took place during this period. First, in the X-IX centuries. BC e. iron was widely introduced into the Greek economy. Secondly, the autonomous economy of a small patriarchal family came to the fore. Slavery is not widespread. Polis settlement became the political and economic center. The main population of the city were cattle breeders and farmers. Thus, by the end of this period, Greece was a world of small city-states-communities, associations of peasant farmers, with no external ties, the top of society was not strongly singled out. In the archaic period, Greece overtook all neighboring countries in its development. The main cells of agricultural production were small peasant farms and larger estates of the clan nobility. The craft was concentrated in the cities. Main industries: metallurgy, metalworking, shipbuilding. Trade became the leading industry. Money appeared. Usury was born, and with it debt slavery. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The Great Greek colonization took place. The reasons for colonization are as follows: lack of land, due to an increase in the population and its concentration in the hands of the nobility, the need for new sources of raw materials, the search for markets for their products, the need for metal (very little was left in Greece itself), the desire of the Greeks to control all maritime trade way, political struggle. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. was the formation of ancient policies. Policies were based on the ancient form of ownership. The polis had the right of supreme ownership of the land. The main economic principle of the policy was the idea of self-sufficiency.
Ancient Greece, which covers the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., served as the beginning of the most important stage in the history of this state. For all three centuries - in a short, in general, period - Greece has moved far ahead in its development and has overtaken many countries and states of the Ancient East, which developed quite quickly. Ancient Greece of the archaic period was a place of awakening of spiritual forces after four centuries of stagnation in development. This time was the heyday of creative activity.
Restoration of former greatness
During the archaic period in ancient Greece, such types of art as architecture, painting, and monumental sculpture are being revived. The most talented sculptors build the first Greek temples from marble and limestone, which have survived to this day. In the archaic period, sculpture in ancient Greece is experiencing an unprecedented rise. It is at this time that timeless works of art appear. Monumental statues of marble and bronze are created. It was during the archaic period in ancient Greece that the famous works of Homer and Hesiod were written, which amaze with their depth. It is also worth noting the amazing verses of Archilochus, Alcaeus and Saffo, written at this particular time. Literature of the archaic period of ancient Greece and in our time is published and translated in almost all countries. Famous to this day philosophers Thales, Anaximenes and Anaximander wrote their philosophical works, giving answers to questions about the origin of the universe and the world.
Art
The archaic period in the history of Ancient Greece, in particular the unprecedented rise of Greek culture in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., was due to the Great Colonization taking place at that time. She brought Greece out of the state of isolation in which she had been after the Mycenaean culture ceased to exist. Another feature of the archaic period in the history of Ancient Greece is the interchange of cultures of Hellas and the Ancient East. The Phoenicians brought writing and the alphabet to ancient Greek culture, which was made even more convenient in Greece with the introduction of vowels. It was from this moment that the culture of writing and speech began to develop, alphabets began to appear, including Russian. The Syrians told and showed the Greeks a lot of new things, for example, how to process sand into glass, and also showed how to make paint from shells. The Greeks adopted the basics of astronomy and geometry from the Egyptians. During the archaic period of ancient Greece, the sculpture of the Egyptians had a strong influence on Greek art that was just beginning to appear. The Lydians also had a huge impact on Greece - it was thanks to them that the Greeks learned to mint coins.
Despite the fact that many elements of Greek culture were borrowed from other cultures, Greece still remained an original country.
Colonization
Colonization made the Greek people, numerous at that time, more mobile and ready for change. Now every person could self-realize, regardless of tribal affiliation, respectively, society became more developed and progressive, many new phenomena appeared. In short, art in the archaic period of ancient Greece is not the only thing that has received an incredible degree of development. Now navigation and maritime trade come to the fore and move the country forward. Initially, most of the colonies that were on the periphery became largely dependent on their mother countries. But over time, this situation has changed.
Export
The inhabitants of many colonies experienced an acute shortage of even the most necessary things. For example, wine and olive oil, which the Greeks loved so much, did not enter the colony at all. Huge ships delivered tons of wine and oil to many countries. The metropolises exported to the colonies not only food - they supplied pottery and other household utensils, various fabrics, weapons, jewelry, and so on. Of course, these items are very popular with the locals, and they exchange them for grain, livestock, slaves and non-ferrous metals. Unpretentious crafts from Greece, of course, did not immediately compete with Phoenician souvenirs, which were hunted by merchants around the world. Despite this, there was a huge demand for them where the Phoenician ships did not reach - the Black Sea, Thrace, and the Adriatic.
Progress
Nevertheless, despite the fact that crafts and art objects of the archaic period of Ancient Greece are significantly inferior in quality to goods of oriental origin, the Greeks managed to establish mass production and sell their goods even in the "promised land" for all merchants - Sicily.
The colonies gradually become the most important centers of industry and trade between many developed countries of antiquity. And in Greece itself, the so-called policies become the centers for the development of the economy and trade, with the help of which the management of the colonization movement becomes more convenient. The largest and most developed of them are Corinth and Megara in the Northern Peloponnese, Aegina, Samos and Rhodes in the Aegean archipelago, Miletus and Ephesus on the western coast of Asia Minor.
Changes in society and craft
Gradually, markets began to appear in the colonies, which served as a powerful impetus for the development and improvement of crafts, agriculture, art and architecture in ancient Greece of the archaic period, briefly described above. Craftsmen from Greece are progressing noticeably and equipping their workshops with the latest technology of the time. Analyzing the characteristics of the archaic period of Ancient Greece, we can say that it was the most fruitful period in every sense for the country. What are innovations such as the invention of new methods of soldering iron or the improvement of bronze casting worth! Greek ceramics of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. staggers the imagination with luxury and an abundance of forms, a variety of decoration. The most beautiful vessels made by the hands of talented Corinthian craftsmen, which are painted in oriental style, stand out in particular. It can be distinguished by the colorfulness and incredible quirkiness of ornate patterns that resemble patterns on oriental carpets. Also worth noting are vases in the black-figure style, which were produced mainly in Athenian and Peloponnesian policies. Clay products of Greek potters and bronze casters show not only that in Greece of that time the division of labor was practiced, but also that responsibilities were divided even within a single industry. The culture of the archaic period of Ancient Greece experienced an incredible rise.
Separation of craft from agriculture
Most of the ceramic products exported by Greece abroad were made in special workshops by experienced craftsmen and vase painters. Numerous artisans are no longer alone without rights and freedoms. The time has already passed when they did not even have a permanent place of residence. Now they are a very significant and influential class of the population. The quality of their products was getting higher, as well as the prices for the work of craftsmen. Entire neighborhoods appeared where artisans of a certain profession lived. In one of the large cities called Corinth from the 7th century. BC e. there was a so-called quarter of potters - Keramik. In the capital of Greece, Athens, a similar area, located in an impressive part of the city, appeared in the 6th century. BC e. These historical facts indicate that during the archaic period in Greece a fundamentally new period in the development of the state began: the craft became a separate type of activity and completely separated from agriculture as a separate, absolutely abstract part of production and activity. The fundamental changes did not bypass agriculture, which now had to take into account not only the needs of the community, but also the demand in the market. Now the market dictates the rules to all branches of production. The first beginnings of entrepreneurship also appeared among farmers - those who had boats brought their goods to the markets of nearby cities. They did not move along the road because there were much more robbers and robbers with the development of trade. Since grain crops in Greece did not take well, they cultivated mainly grapes and olives, because delicious Greek wine and high-quality olive oil were in incredible demand in the East. In the end, the Greeks realized that it was much cheaper to bring grain from abroad than to grow it at home.
State structure and political system of the archaic period of Ancient Greece
Most, excluding numerous colonies, emerged from the centralized settlements of the era of Homer - policies. However, archaic and Homeric policies are completely different concepts. They differed quite significantly: the policy of the era of Homer was at the same time a city and a village, since there were no other settlements that could compete with it. The archaic polis, on the contrary, was a kind of capital of a small state, which, in addition to itself, included small villages (Greek comas) located on the outskirts of the polis and dependent on it both politically and economically.
Architecture
Pay attention to the fact that the archaic policies became much larger than the policies built in the era of Homer. There were two reasons for this: natural population growth and the unification of several villages into one large city. This phenomenon is called synoykism, the unification took place in order to repulse the neighboring hostile villages and towns. Despite the unprecedented progress, there were no truly large cities in Greece yet. The largest policies were settlements with a population of several thousand people. On average, the population did not exceed a thousand people. A good example of a typical Greek archaic polis is ancient Smyrna, recently found by archaeologists. A significant part of it was located on the peninsula, which closed the entrance to a deep bay, where numerous ships were stationed. The central part of Smyrna was surrounded by a protective fence made of bricks on a stone plinth. Numerous gates and viewing platforms are arranged in the wall. All residential buildings were parallel to each other. Of course, several temples were built in the city. Residential buildings were very spacious and comfortable, in the homes of wealthy citizens there were even terracotta baths.
Agora
The heart of the archaic city was the so-called agora, where citizens gathered and lively trade was conducted. Basically, the inhabitants of the city spent all their free time here. It was possible to sell your goods and purchase the necessary products, learn important city news, take part in matters of national importance and just chat with the townspeople. Initially, the agora was an ordinary open area, on which there were no buildings. Later, wooden steps appeared there, on which people sat down during events. When the archaic period came to an end, fabric canopies were hung over the steps, designed to protect people from heat and sun. On weekends, idle people and merchants of various small goods liked to settle down on them. State institutions were built on the agora or not far from it: the bouleuterium - the city council (bule), the pritanei - the place where the members of the ruling college of the pritans met, the dicastery - the courthouse. It was on the agora that the city dwellers could get acquainted with the new laws and decrees that were put on public display.
sports
Athletic competitions have been a significant part of the life of the Greeks since ancient times. In ancient Greek cities, from time immemorial, grounds for strength exercises were built. They were called palestras and gymnasiums. Every self-respecting young man spent most of his time training. Sports disciplines include running, freestyle wrestling, fisticuffs, jumping, javelin and discus throwing. Each big holiday in the policy was accompanied by a sports competition called agon, in which all free-born citizens of the policy, as well as guests from other countries who received an invitation to the holiday, could take part.
Some agons earned special popularity among the people, gradually becoming interpolis pan-Greek festivals. It was from there that the tradition of organizing the Olympic Games began, for participation in which they came even from the most remote colonies. They prepared for participation in the Olympic Games as seriously as for military operations. Each policy considered it a matter of honor to win the event. Joyful fellow citizens presented the winner of the Olympic Games with truly royal privileges. In some cases, it was necessary to dismantle the huge city wall so that the triumphal column of the winner solemnly entered the city: the townspeople believed that a person of such rank could not pass through an ordinary gate.
It was from such moments that the life of an ordinary inhabitant of an ancient Greek polis of the archaic era developed: trade and purchases in the agora, solving issues of national importance at a national assembly, participation in religious ceremonies of various orders, exercises and trainings in gymnasiums and palestras and, of course, participation in the Olympic games.
