Artistic culture of Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome- one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World, the greatest state of Antiquity, got its name from the main city (Roma - Rome), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.

The center of Rome developed within the swampy plain, bounded by the Capitol, the Palatine and the Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks had a certain influence on the formation of the ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached its peak of power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control was the area from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Iran in the east to Portugal in the west. Ancient Rome gave the modern world Roman law, architectural forms and solutions (for example, arch and dome) and many other innovations (for example, wheeled water mills). Christianity, as a religion, was born on the territory of the Roman Empire. The official language of the ancient Roman state was Latin. Religion during most of its existence was polytheistic the unofficial coat of arms of the empire was Golden Eagle(aquila).

ancient roman civilization gave the world carefully planned cities, palaces and temples, public institutions, paved roads and magnificent bridges. Their original engineering solutions not only determined the architectural appearance of the powerful Roman state, but also gave a huge impetus to the development of architectural ideas of subsequent eras.

In the II century. BC. Rome subjugated Greece, the art of Ancient Rome managed not only to inherit, but also creatively develop the best achievements of ancient Greek masters, creating its own original style. Primarily The Romans borrowed the pantheon of gods from the Greeks. The main place in the Roman pantheon was occupied by Jupiter the Thunderer, the powerful ruler of the sky, the personification of sunlight, thunderstorms, storms. The furious god of war Mars was revered as the father of the great and warlike Roman people.

In ancient Italy Mars was the god of fertility. In his honor, the first month of the Roman year, in which the rite of expulsion of winter was performed, was named March. Mars later became the god of war. The Temple of Mars was built on the Field of Mars outside the city walls, since according to the laws of Rome, an armed army should not enter the territory of the city. Mars is the father of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city. Mars was the guardian of Rome.

Statue of the god Mars.

Greek civilization had a great influence on the formation of Roman mythology. The vast majority of Greek gods were romanized. In Rome, they easily accepted other gods, thus trying to attract them to their side. Goddess of the home Vesta revered as the patroness of the state. The functions of Hera, Athena, Hermes, Aphrodite, Dionysus, Demeter, Artemis, Poseidon, Hades, Apollo, Hephaestus were performed respectively Juno, Minerva, Mercury, Venus, Bacchus, Ceres, Diana, Neptune, Pluto, Phoebus, Vulcan.

Jupiter surrounded by gods and goddesses.

In the II century. BC. The center of Rome becomes the Roman Forum (forum Romanium) - the central commercial and public square, bounded by three hills: the Capitol, the Palatine, the Quirinal.

Roman forum

The forum was built up gradually and acquired an asymmetric character. In ancient times, this area was desert swampy with numerous springs and a stream, until the middle of the 8th century BC. e. this place was used for burials. In 184 BC. The first basilica was built in Rome ( the so-called Basilica Portia) - a large indoor hall for the meeting of merchants, court hearings. However, Republican Rome, with its narrow, up to 7 m wide streets, brick apartment buildings and cramped old Forum, could not be compared with the beautiful Hellenistic cities of the East, such as Alexandria of Egypt. Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus sought to turn Rome into a beautiful, spacious, marble city.

Two new, larger Forums were built in Rome - Caesar's Forum and August Forum, monumental buildings appeared on the Field of Mars, intended for military and gymnastic exercises, and triumphal arches.

roman basilica

The Colosseum was a three-story structure (later a fourth floor was added) with a complex system of corridors, stairs and ventilation openings. Three floors were an arcade, placed one on top of the other, the fourth was a solid wall, the building was magnificently decorated with colonnades. The first gallery was intended for the privileged class, the second - for the citizens, the third was provided to the common people, on the fourth floor there were wooden benches and places to stand. On hot or rainy days, an awning was pulled over the arena. For theatrical performances, the arena was covered with a wooden floor, for gladiator fights it was covered with sand, and for scenes of a sea battle it was filled with water. The amphitheater was designed for 56 thousand spectators. For a long time, the Colosseum was for the inhabitants of Rome and visitors the main place of entertainment spectacles, such as gladiator fights, animal baiting, naval battles (naumachia). In 1349, a powerful earthquake in Rome caused the collapse of the Colosseum, especially its southern part. After that, they began to look at it as a source of obtaining building material, and not only the stones that had fallen off, but also those stones deliberately broken out of it, began to go to new structures.

The beauty of the Colosseum is in conflict with its purpose: this building was built to arrange bloody performances that amazed even contemporaries with their cruelty. The Colosseum was also a reminder of the power of the Roman Empire. The fate of a thousand people was decided inside the stone walls. Here gladiators died in battle, here criminals found their end.

At the beginning of the 2nd century in Rome, the time of the reign of the emperor comes Mark Ulpia Traiana(97-117), nicknamed the "happy age". Led by an architect Apollodorus of Damascus was built Forum of Trajan - a huge area with a length of 280 and a width of 200 meters. The forum contained the largest basilica in ancient Rome - the Basilica of Ulpia, as well as the 38-meter-high memorial column of Trajan, built of marble. The column is hollow inside, its trunk was wrapped in a spiral ribbon with reliefs depicting the military exploits of Trajan.

The relief tells of two wars between Trajan and the Slavic-speaking tribes of the Dacians. The actions of the Roman army are mainly depicted: movement, construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles. In total, there are about 2,500 human figures on the column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. Individual figures are rendered very realistically, so that the relief of the column serves as a valuable source for studying weapons, armor, costumes - both Romans and Dacians of that time. At the base of the column is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife were placed.

In 125 under the leadership of Apollodorus of Damascus was built Pantheon - the temple of all gods. The Pantheon was rebuilt from a round pool that was part of the Baths of Agrippa. The gigantic cylindrical volume was covered by a spherical dome 43.2 meters in diameter. In the center of the dome was a nine-meter lighting hole. At noon, the most powerful column of light penetrates through it, the light is very palpable, it "does not spread", but remains in the form of a giant light beam and becomes almost tangible. On November 1, 609, the pagan temple was consecrated as the Christian church of St. Mary and the Martyrs.

At the beginning of the III century. were built in Rome Baths of Caracalla. They included many structures. In addition to pools and baths, they contained palestras - playgrounds for sports exercises, recreation facilities, libraries, and shops. The baths accommodated up to 1800 people at the same time. The total dimensions of the Baths of Caracalla are 353x335 meters (11 ha).

Ruins of the Baths of Caracalla.

The main premises of the thermae included a pool with cold water, a large hall with dry hot air and a round pool with hot water. Already in the 5th century n. e. The Baths of Caracalla were considered one of the wonders of Rome. People came here not only to wash off the dirt, they rested here. Baths for the poor were of particular importance. No wonder one of the modern scientists called the terms the best gift that the emperors made to the Roman population. The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. People left with a reserve of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally.

In the hollow between the Aventine and Palatine hills was built hippodrome – circus maximus , the largest in Rome (600 mx150 m). The stands could hold about 200,000 spectators. It is believed that chariot races were first held here in the 6th - 5th centuries. BC e.

Hippodrome reconstruction

The Romans achieved great success in construction aqueducts (water conduit, lat. aqua - water, duco - lead), including those made in the form of bridges over rivers. The Romans built aqueducts in the form of canals and pipes. The total length of the aqueducts of Rome was about 440 km, however, only 47 km of them were above ground, most of them were underground.

Roman aqueduct. Scheme of work.

A lot of work was applied in ancient Rome to the construction roads. A wide network of roads was created, crossing many parts of Western Europe, consisting of approximately 370 major roads, of which about 30 led to Rome. Roman roads also passed through the Alps. Roads were built in earnest. The thickness of the roadbed, which consisted of gravel, cobblestone and hewn stone, laid in lime mortar, was approximately 1 meter. Distance markers and path crossings were used. The most famous was the Appian Way, built in the 4th century BC. BC e. and having a length of about 350 km and a very large width at that time - up to 4.3 m. The resumption of the construction of paved roads in Europe after the fall of Ancient Rome occurred only in the XIII century.

Roman road today. Road building technology.

Sculpture occupies a special place in Roman culture and, above all, sculptural portrait. The Roman sculptor set himself the task of not only conveying the physical originality of the features of the depicted person, but also expressing the originality of character. Images of business people, speakers, citizens of the republic are not idealized, they are natural and realistic. The plastic realism of the Roman masters reached its peak in the 1st century BC. BC, giving rise to such masterpieces as marble portraits of Pompey and Caesar. The author of the portraits was able to express in facial features many shades of the character of the hero, his virtues and vices. In the portrait of Pompey, for example, in his frozen wide, fleshy face with a short upturned nose, narrow eyes and deep and long wrinkles on a low forehead, the artist sought to reflect not only the momentary mood of the hero, but also his inherent ambition and even vanity, strength and at the same time, some indecision, a tendency to vacillate. Around 40 BC in Rome there were tendencies to imitate the early classical masters of Greek sculpture. Portraits of this time are characterized by classical simplicity, majesty and seriousness.

The culture of Ancient Rome had a significant impact on subsequent world and especially European culture. The Latin language formed the basis of many European languages; the legal systems of many countries of the world are based on the principles of classical Roman law; literature, fine arts, architecture of Ancient Rome inspired and continue to inspire many generations of subsequent artists.

Questions and tasks:

1. What influence did the culture of Ancient Greece have on Roman art?

2. Take a private tour of ancient Rome

3. Try to compose a story on the topic: "The Roman emperor in a sculptural portrait and in life (optional)

4. Tell us about the holidays and spectacles in Ancient Rome.

Educational film "Real Gladiator"

After getting acquainted with the presented materials, it is necessary to complete the verification and control tasks presented here. If necessary, control materials are sent to the teacher's e-mail at: [email protected]

At the end of the 1st century BC. Ancient Rome becomes a world power. Roman culture was formed as a result of the interaction of the culture of local Italic tribes and peoples, primarily the Etruscans, with Greek culture, carried out first through Great Greece (Greek colonial cities in southern Italy and Sicily), then it intensified as a result of the conquest of Greece by Rome.

The culture of Ancient Italy and Ancient Rome breaks up into three main periods:

• 1) the culture of pre-Roman Italy (3 thousand - III century BC);
• 2) the culture of the Roman Republic (III-I centuries BC);
• 3) the culture of the Roman Empire (I-V centuries AD).

The forerunner of the culture of ancient Rome was etruscan culture, whose country stretched from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Apennine Mountains in the east, and its northern border in the 7th century. BC. reached the river Po. Etruria was a union of 12 city-states with a slave system based on the undivided domination of the aristocracy. The heyday of Etruscan culture dates back to the 6th-5th centuries. BC, when she was strongly influenced by Greek culture.

Greek influences are visible in the painting and sculpture of the Etruscans (statue of Apollo from Vei, master Vulka, VI century BC; paintings of tombs in Corneto, Chiusi, Vulci, Cervetri, Orveto, VI-V centuries BC .), but there were also Etruscan traditions proper, which are most clearly expressed in monumental terracotta sarcophagi with figures of the dead (sarcophagus from Cervetri, VI century BC), bronze casting (Capitoline she-wolf, VI century BC. ), making clay vessels bucceneros("black earth").

The culture of ancient Rome developed as a synthetic one, which included Etruscan, Greek and Roman traditions and features characteristic of the culture of the peoples conquered by Rome, sometimes standing at a higher level of development. Like the Greeks, the Romans did not conceive of life outside of the civil community, to serve which is a duty and good, outside of freedom and independence, outside of connection with the gods and demigods.

Not having their own developed mythology, the Romans almost completely adopted it from the Greeks, calling the gods by their proper names: Zeus - Jupiter, Aphrodite - Venus, Ares - Mars, Dionysus - Bacchus, etc.

The Romans introduced features of a more sober worldview into ancient humanism. Accuracy and historicism of thinking, harsh prose are the basis of their artistic culture. The Romans believed that the gods needed not the feelings of people, but sacrifices (wine, blood, smoke, etc.), and the Latin word itself "religion" (religion) means originally connection between man and the gods (I give you to give me).

The practical warehouse of Roman culture is reflected in everything: in the sobriety of thinking, the normative idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe expediency of order, scrupulousness Roman law(closely associated with religion), which took into account all life phenomena, gravitation towards accurate historical facts. Scientific and philosophical ideas, literature and art - everything was rethought from the point of view of "Rome is the center of the World."

Roman law evolved over several centuries. It was a system of norms and legal laws of the slave-owning state, included private and public law, regulated property, private property and civil relations.

The Romans were equal in their responsibility before the law, but they were not equal in the political and social spheres. The nobles and the wealthy had a monopoly on rights, but they also bore duties to a greater extent. Unlike the Greeks, ordinary people could not count on high posts, but any Roman citizen had the right to land ownership.

In the heyday of Roman art, the leading role was played by architecture, which embodied the ideas of the power of the state. The main place in it belonged not to the temple (as among the Greeks), but to social and civil construction. The Romans invented waterproof concrete; widely used arched, vaulted and domed structures; introduced new engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses); improved the planning of large cities. Public life was

forum - a square decorated with temples, basilicas, merchants' shops, statues of eminent citizens, markets. The forum was the center of trade, political and social life of the Romans (Roman Forum or Forum Romanum, the forums of the emperors Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Trajan).

The needs of Roman society also gave rise to such types of structures as amphitheaters (Colosseum), baths (baths of Caracalla, Diocletian), triumphal arches (Tyaga arch) and columns (Trajan's column). In the architecture of Ancient Rome, new types of palaces, country villas and tombstones appeared.

Giant spectacular building of ancient Rome - Coliseum(from lat. colosseum- colossal) was intended for grandiose performances and gladiator fights. The Colosseum, built of tuff, could accommodate up to 50,000 spectators. He began the construction of the amphitheater, who came to power after the civil war in 68-69. AD Titus Flavius ​​Vespasian(9-79 AD). Its construction was completed during the reign of Vespasian's son - tita(from 79 to 81 AD). In honor of the opening of the Colosseum, a hundred-day gladiatorial games were arranged. In plan, the Colosseum was a closed oval (524 m in circumference), dissected by transverse and annular passages. Its central part, the arena, is surrounded by stepped benches for spectators. The appearance of the Colosseum, monumental and majestic, is determined by the ring wall, designed in the form of a multi-tiered order arcade: below - Tuscan, above - Ionic, in the third tier - Corinthian, above which Corinthian pilasters were placed.

In order to drain sewage and dirty water in Rome, an underground pipe was built - cloaca. The Romans stepped far ahead in the construction of buildings necessary for the economy. Public baths were built in Rome terms, having a constant supply of clean water; pools with warm and cold water.

The best in the heritage of Roman culture was the portrait as an independent form of creativity from the beginning of the 1st century BC. BC. The Romans showed realism in depicting the facial features of a particular person. Roman portrait painters historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their customs and ideals.

In the painting of the Roman Empire, one decorative style replaces another. The first Roman pictorial portraits created by Greek artists appear. Their distinguishing feature is the use of the form tondo - circle. Painting II century. AD - these are mainly murals of tombs, frescoes of residential buildings and nympheons (pools), which are distinguished by the severity of patterns and static figures.

In ancient Roman art, it is also worth mentioning the monumental wall painting known from the excavations of houses in the city of Pompeii in Italy. The frescoes depicted colorful paintings on mythological, historical, everyday subjects and resembled Greek ones.

roman theatre, unlike the Greek, was little associated with religious cults. The mime played the main place among the stage performances. The actors were free to improvise. Dance and gesture played an important role.

According to the Greek model in Rome were rebuilt stage performances. The authors usually took Greek tragedies and comedies as models. The comedies of Plautus and Terentius have been fully preserved. Comedy Plautus(c. 254-184 BC) were very popular. The main character of his works was a clever, inexhaustible slave who helped the owner's son to deceive his stingy father, defrauding him of money. The performances were accompanied by flute playing and masks were used. The lyric poetry of republican Rome reached its highest development in the work of Catullus(87-54 BC). The Roman poet highlights spontaneous, contradictory, emotions beyond the control of reason, addresses the inner world of a person, sings of love.

In the era of the first emperor Augustus, his associate Maecenas provided material support and patronized outstanding poets - Virgil, Horace and Ovid. Virgil

(70-19 BC) published Bucoliki, a collection in which he glorified Augustus; "Georgics" - a poem dedicated to rural life. And fame brought him the poem "Aeneid". Horace(65-8 BC) sang antiquity in verse and also praised Augustus. He wrote love poems and satires that ridiculed the vices of Roman society. Ovid(43 BC - 17 AD) became famous for love poems and the poem "Metamorphoses", built on the basis of myths.

In the 1st century BC. Philosophical works also appeared in Rome. The most prominent of the Roman thinkers was considered a materialist philosopher Lucretius Kar(c. 98-54 BC). He outlined his views on the emergence of the universe, nature, and man in the poem "On the Nature of Things", where with brilliant skill he described complex philosophical problems in an accessible form, in verse.

In the 1st century AD in the bowels of the Roman Empire Christianity was born. A tough internal struggle for power and changes in the socio-economic and political conditions of life of the peoples of Europe led the Roman Empire to decline. The Christian Church had a negative and hostile attitude towards ancient culture, considering it barbaric. This factor accelerated the death of the culture of Ancient Rome.

In 395, the Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476. The Eastern Roman Empire, called Byzantium, lasted another thousand years. Destroyed and plundered by the barbarians in the IV-VII centuries. Rome is deserted; new villages grew up among its ruins, but the traditions of Roman art continued to live.

The culture of Ancient Rome is connected with the completion of the history of ancient society. She continued the Hellenistic tradition and at the same time acted as an independent phenomenon, determined by the course of historical events, the originality of living conditions, religion and character traits of the Romans. The culture of ancient Rome is characterized by the strengthening of individualism. The individual is increasingly beginning to oppose himself to the state, traditional ancient ideals are being rethought and criticized, society is becoming more open to external influences.

The worldview of a Roman of the early period was characterized by a sense of himself as a free citizen, consciously choosing and doing his actions; a sense of collectivism, belonging to a civil community, the priority of state interests over personal ones; conservatism, following the mores and customs of ancestors (ascetic ideals of frugality, diligence, patriotism); the desire for communal isolation and isolation from the outside world. The Romans differed from the Greeks in greater sobriety and practicality.

Initially, the territory of the Apennine Peninsula was inhabited by various tribes, among which the most developed were the Veneti in the north, the Etruscans in the center, the Greeks in the south. It was the Etruscans and Greeks that had a decisive influence on the formation of ancient Roman culture.

The Etruscans inhabited these lands from the 1st millennium BC. e. and created an advanced civilization that preceded the Roman one. Etruria was a strong maritime power. Skillful metallurgists, shipbuilders, merchants, builders and pirates, the Etruscans sailed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, assimilating the cultural traditions of many peoples inhabiting its coast, while creating a high and unique culture. It was from the Etruscans that the Romans subsequently borrowed the experience of urban planning, handicraft technology, the technology of making iron, glass, concrete, the secret sciences of priests and some customs, for example, celebrating victory with a triumph. The Etruscans also created the emblem of Rome - the she-wolf, who, according to legend, nursed the twins Romulus and Remus - the descendants of the Trojan hero Aeneas. It was these brothers who, according to legend, founded the city of Rome in 753 BC. e. on the day of the celebration of the shepherd goddess Paley (April 21).

The Latins living in the west gradually reach a high level of development, conquer neighboring territories and peoples, and later form one of the largest empires of antiquity, which included European countries, the northern coast of Africa and part of Asia.

In the chronology of the history of the culture of Ancient Rome, three major periods can be distinguished:

1) monarchy - 753 - 509 BC e.;
2) republic - 509 - 29 years. BC e.;
3) empire - 29 BC. e. - 476 AD e.

Architecture

Urban planning and architecture of the Republican era go through three stages in their development. On the first (5th century BC), the city is built up randomly; primitive dwellings made of mud and wood predominate; monumental construction is limited to the construction of temples (the rectangular temple of Capitoline Jupiter, the round temple of Vesta).

At the second stage (IV-III centuries BC), the city begins to improve (paved streets, sewers, water pipes). The main type of structures are engineering military and civil buildings - defensive walls (the wall of Servius IV century BC), roads (Appian Way 312 BC), grandiose aqueducts that supply water for tens of kilometers (Appius Claudius aqueduct 311 BC), waste canals (cloaca of Maxim). There is a strong Etruscan influence (type of temple, arch, vault).

At the third stage (II-I centuries BC), elements of urban planning appear: division into quarters, design of the city center (Forum), arrangement of park areas on the outskirts. A new building material is used - waterproof and durable Roman concrete (from crushed stone, volcanic sand and lime mortar), which makes it possible to build vaulted ceilings in large rooms. Roman architects creatively reworked Greek architectural forms. They create a new type of order - a composite one, combining the features of the Ionian, Dorian and especially Corinthian styles, as well as an order arcade - a set of arches resting on columns.

On the basis of the synthesis of Etruscan samples and the Greek peripter, a special type of temple arises - a pseudo-peripter with a high base (podium), a facade in the form of a deep portico and blank walls, dissected by semi-columns. Under Greek influence, the construction of theaters begins; but if the Greek theater was cut into the rock and was part of the surrounding landscape, then the Roman amphitheater is an independent structure with a closed internal space in which the audience rows are located in an ellipse around the stage or arena (the Great Theater in Pompeii, the theater on the Field of Mars in Rome).

For the construction of residential buildings, the Romans borrow the Greek peristyle structure (a courtyard surrounded by a colonnade, to which the living quarters adjoin), but, unlike the Greeks, they try to arrange the rooms in strict symmetry (House of Pansa and House of the Faun in Pompeii); country estates (villas), freely organized and closely connected with the landscape, became a favorite vacation spot for the Roman nobility; their integral part is the garden, fountains, pavilions, grottoes, statues and a large pond. Actually, the Roman (Italian) architectural tradition is represented by basilicas (rectangular buildings with several naves), intended for trade and the administration of justice (Portia Basilica, Aemilia Basilica); monumental tombs (the tomb of Cecilia Metella); triumphal arches on roads and squares with one or three spans; terms (complexes of bathing and sports facilities).

Sculpture

Roman monumental sculpture did not receive the same development as Greek; she did not focus on the image of a physically and spiritually perfect person; its hero was a Roman statesman dressed in a toga. Plastic art was dominated by a sculptural portrait, historically associated with the custom of removing a wax mask from the deceased and keeping it together with the figures of household gods. Unlike the Greeks, the Roman masters sought to convey the individual, rather than the ideally generalized features of their models; their works were characterized by great prose. Gradually, from a detailed fixation of the external appearance, they moved on to revealing the inner character of the characters ("Brutus", "Cicero", "Pompey").

Painting

In painting (wall painting), two styles dominated: the first Pompeian (inlaid), when the artist imitated the laying of a wall of colored marble (House of the Faun in Pompeii), and the second Pompeian (architectural), when he used his drawing (columns, cornices, porticos, arbors) created the illusion of expanding the space of the room (Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii); An important role here was played by the image of the landscape, devoid of the isolation and limitation that were characteristic of ancient Greek landscapes.

Literature

History of Roman Literature V-I centuries. BC. splits into two periods. Until the middle of the III century. BC. Oral folk literature undoubtedly dominated: incantations and spells, labor and everyday (wedding, drinking, funeral) songs, religious hymns (the hymn of the Arval brothers), festennina (songs of a comic and parodic nature), saturas (improvised scenes, a prototype of folk drama), atellani (satirical farces with constant characters-masks: fool-glutton, fool-braggart, old miser, pseudo-scientist-charlatan).

The birth of written literature is associated with the emergence of the Latin alphabet, which originates either from Etruscan or from Western Greek; it had twenty-one characters. The earliest monuments of Latin writing were the annals of the pontiffs (weather records of major events), prophecies of a public and private nature, international treaties, funeral speeches or inscriptions in the homes of the dead, genealogical lists, legal documents. The first text that has come down to us is the laws of the Twelve Tables 451-450 BC; the first writer known to us is Appius Claudius (late 4th - early 3rd centuries BC), author of several legal treatises and a collection of poetic maxims.

From the middle of the III century. BC. Roman literature began to be strongly influenced by Greek. He played an important role in cultural Hellenization in the first half of the 2nd century. BC. circle of Scipios; however, she also faced strong opposition from the defenders of antiquity (the group of Cato the Elder); Greek philosophy evoked particular rejection.

Dramaturgy and theater

The birth of the main genres of Roman literature was associated with the imitation of Greek and Hellenistic models. The works of the first Roman playwright Livy Andronicus (c. 280-207 BC) were a reworking of Greek tragedies of the 5th century. BC, like most of the writings of his followers Gnaeus Nevius (c. 270-201 BC) and Quintus Ennius (239-169 BC). At the same time, Gnaeus Nevius is credited with creating the Roman national drama - pretexts (Romulus, Clastidia); his work was continued by Ennius (The Rape of the Sabine Women) and Actions (170 - c. 85 BC), who completely abandoned mythological subjects (Brutus).

Andronicus and Nevius are also considered the first Roman comedians who created the Palleata genre (a Latin comedy based on a Greek story); Nevius took material from the Old Attic comedies, but supplemented it with Roman realities. The heyday of the Palleata is associated with the work of Plautus (mid-III century - 184 BC) and Terentius (c. 195-159 BC), who were already oriented towards the neo-Attic comedy, especially Menander; they actively developed everyday topics (conflicts between fathers and children, lovers and pimps, debtors and usurers, problems of education and attitudes towards women).

In the second half of the II century. BC. the Roman national comedy (togata) was born; Aphranius stood at its source; in the first half of the 1st c. BC. Titinius and Atta worked in this genre; they portrayed the life of the lower classes and ridiculed the decline of morals. At the end of the II century. BC. Atellana (Pomponius, Noviy) also received a literary form; now it was played after the performance of the tragedy for the amusement of the spectators; often she parodied mythological subjects; the mask of an old rich miser, eager for positions, acquired special significance in it. Then, thanks to Lucilius (180-102 BC), satura turned into a special literary genre - a satirical dialogue.

Poetry

Under the influence of Homer in the second half of the 3rd century. BC. poetry develops - the first Roman epic poems appear, telling about the history of Rome from its foundation to the end of the 3rd century. BC, - The Punic War of Nevia and the Annals of Ennius. In the 1st century BC. Lucretius Carus (95-55 BC) creates a philosophical poem On the Nature of Things, in which he outlines and develops the atomistic concept of Epicurus.

At the beginning of the 1st century BC. Roman lyric poetry arose, which was greatly influenced by the Alexandrian poetic school. Neoteric Roman poets (Valery Cato, Licinius Calv, Valery Catullus) sought to penetrate into the intimate experiences of man and professed a cult of form; their favorite genres were the mythological epillium (short poem), the elegy, and the epigram. The most outstanding neotheric poet Catullus (87 - c. 54 BC) also contributed to the development of Roman civil lyrics (epigrams against Caesar and Pompey); thanks to him, the Roman epigram took shape as a genre.

Prose

The first prose works in Latin belong to Cato the Elder (234-149 BC), the founder of Roman historiography (Origins) and Roman agronomic science (On agriculture). The true flowering of Latin prose dates back to the 1st century. BC. The best examples of historical prose are the writings of Julius Caesar - Notes on the Gallic War and Notes on the Civil War - and Sallust Crispus (86 - c. 35 BC) - The Conspiracy of Catiline, the Jugurtine War and History.

Scientific prose of the 1st century. BC. represented by Terentius Varro (116-27 BC), the author of the encyclopedia Human and Divine Antiquities, historical and philological works On the Latin Language, On Grammar, On the Comedies of Plautus and the treatise On Agriculture, and Vitruvius (second half of the 1st century BC AD), the creator of the treatise "On Architecture".

Oratory

1st century BC. is the golden age of Roman oratorical prose, which developed within the framework of two directions - Asian (flowery style, abundance of aphorisms, metrical organization of periods) and Attic (compressed and simple language); Hortensius Gortalus belonged to the first, Julius Caesar, Licinius Calvus and Mark Junius Brutus belonged to the second. It reached its peak in the judicial and political speeches of Cicero, who originally combined Asian and Attic manners; Cicero also made a significant contribution to the development of the theory of Roman eloquence (On the Orator, Brutus, Orator).

Which, as a rule, is awarded the highest words and honey agarics, the ancient Roman is evaluated differently by everyone. Thus, the well-known culturologists O. Spengler and A. Toynbee do not perceive Ancient Rome as an independent and original culture and civilization, believing that it was only the final, crisis stage of Antiquity. His contribution was limited mainly to the development of the state, law and technology. In all other respects, especially in spiritual culture - religion, philosophy, science, art, literature - Rome did not introduce anything fundamentally new and original, did not go beyond borrowing and popularizing what was done by the Greeks, never rose to the heights of Hellenic culture.

However, other scholars hold the opposite point of view, believing that Roman culture and civilization are no less distinctive and original than others. This view seems to be more reasonable.

The Romans were in many ways similar to the Hellenes, but at the same time they differed significantly from them. They created own system of ideals and values, the main among which were patriotism, honor and dignity, fidelity to civic duty, veneration of the gods, the idea of ​​the Roman people being specially chosen by God, of Rome as the highest value, etc.

The Romans did not share the Greek glorification of the free individual, allowing the violation of the established laws of society. Against. they in every way exalted the role and value of the law, the immutability of its observance and respect. For them, the public interest was above the interests of the individual. At the same time, the Romans intensified the antagonism between the free-born citizen and the slave, considering unworthy for the former not only the occupation of the craft, but also the activities of the sculptor, painter, actor and playwright. The most worthy occupations of a free Roman were considered politics, war, development of law, historiography, and agriculture. The Romans in their own way and more clearly defined the qualities of a free person, excluding from them such "servile vices" as lies, dishonesty and flattery. Rome reached the highest level of development of slavery.

Unlike the Hellenes, the Romans were much more warlike. Therefore, military prowess was one of the highest virtues for them. Military booty and conquest served as the main source of livelihood. Military prowess, feats of arms and merit were the main means and basis for success in politics, for obtaining high positions and occupying a high position in society. Thanks to the wars of conquest, Rome turned from a small town into a world empire.

In general, the most significant achievements of ancient Rome are associated with civilization and material culture. Here among the generally recognized achievements are such as the famous Roman law, excellent roads, magnificent buildings, grandiose aqueducts, etc. The contribution of Rome to the development of statehood and its forms such as the republic and empire is also very significant.

Concerning spiritual culture, here the achievements of Rome look more modest, although they certainly exist. Compared to Greek Roman religious and mythological representations are more complex and less homogeneous. Many Greek gods passed to the Romans, while adopting new names: Zeus became Jupiter, Kronos - Saturn, Poseidon - Neptune, Aphrodite - Venus, Artemis - Diana, etc. The Romans also borrowed a lot from other religions. At the same time, in their mythology, the so-called “Roman myth”, or myths associated with Rome, take a special place, acting as the “Roman idea” - possession and power over the whole world, “Rome is the center of the world”, “Rome is the eternal city ".

In philosophy and science, the Romans also largely followed the Greeks. They were interested not so much in theoretical research and the search for new knowledge, but in the generalization and systematization of already accumulated knowledge, the creation of multi-volume encyclopedias that served the cause of education and enlightenment.

Artistic culture of Ancient Rome

Approximately the same picture was observed in the field of artistic culture. Many Roman painters not just imitated the Greek masters, but literally copied their works. However, this was also their merit, since many masterpieces of Greek art have come down to us precisely in Roman copies. Along with this, Roman artists were able to make their own and very significant contribution to the development of art.

AT sculpture they were the first who began to give their works unique individual features, fill them with deep psychologism and reveal in them the inner world of a person. Roman writers created a new genre in literature - the genre of the novel. Roman architects left behind beautiful monuments of architecture.

Speaking about the most common features and characteristics of Roman culture, it should be noted that, unlike Greek culture, it is much more rational and grounded, aimed at practical use and expediency. This feature was well shown by Cicero on the example of mathematics: "the Greeks studied geometry in order to know the world, the Romans - in order to measure land."

On the whole, Greek and Roman cultures were in a state of strong interaction and mutual influence, which eventually led to their synthesis, to the creation unified Greco-Roman culture, which later formed the basis of Byzantine culture and had a huge impact on the cultures of the Slavic peoples and Western Europe.

According to existing legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC. on the Tiber River by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus. From this time begins the history of the monarchical, or "royal" Rome, since it was headed by elected king, acting simultaneously as the high priest, commander, legislator and judge, and with him was senate.

The main socio-economic unit was the patriarchal family (surname). The most important public affairs, including the election of the king, reshapo people's assembly. The basis of religious and mythological ideas was made up of many gods and cults, among which a special place was occupied by the creator of the world, the two-faced Janus, as well as Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, and others. There are also numerous religious rites, rituals and holidays, the cult of ancestors.

During this period, the formation of Roman culture takes place, in the formation of which neighboring Italian cities take an active part. Etruria and Greece. The Italian influence is felt primarily in certain customs and rituals, as well as in the applied arts - ceramics and jewelry of Roman masters. The influence of the Etruscan culture was very significant. The Romans did not borrow many crafts from them, the practice of building cities and the architecture of temples, the secret sciences of fortune-telling of priests, some customs, including the custom of celebrating the victories of commanders with a triumph.

No less strong was also the influence from which the Romans adopted many gods, religious customs and rituals. In 510 BC, after the relentless confrontation between the kings and the senate, the last king, Tarquinius, was overthrown and an aristocratic republic was established in Rome. In the new society, the estates of patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (common people) have developed, between which an endless struggle immediately arises.

As a result of the successes and victories of the plebs, Rome by the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. turns into civil society, the main features of which are the equality of political and legal rights of citizens, the power of the people's assembly on all major issues, the combination of collective and private land ownership, etc.

During this period, Rome significantly expands its possessions and after the victory in the Punic Wars (264-146 BC), which ended in the destruction of Carthage, it turns into a huge power. The new sources of enrichment that have opened up stimulate the acceleration of economic development. The socio-political structure of Roman society is changing, in which nobility - circle of noble families, there is another privileged class - riders to which the wealthy and famous belonged.

Great changes are also taking place in the culture of Roman society. There is an increase in the number of educated people, the need for which is satisfied by the "import" of educated Greek slaves. In order to raise the reputation of Rome in the conquered countries, the upper stratum begins to more actively master the Hellenic culture. Rich people send their sons to Athens, Ephesus and other cities of Greece and Asia Minor to listen to the lectures of famous orators and philosophers. Some of the latter migrate to Rome, as, for example, did the historian Polybius, who wrote a multi-volume "History", where the great mission of Rome is glorified.

Under Greek influence also develops literature, a whole galaxy of playwrights and poets appears, among which Plautus and Terence, whose comedies have survived to this day, should be mentioned. From the first Roman tragedians, we know the name of Livius Andronicus, who translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Among the poets of this time, the most famous is Lucilius. who wrote poems on everyday topics, ridiculed the passion for luxury.

There is also a strong Greek influence art. Roman sculptors and painters depict scenes from Greek myths in their works. Copies of Greek sculptures are gaining immense popularity and wide demand.

It should be noted that the expansion of Greek culture did not take place without resistance from some influential Romans, who saw in it a danger to morality. However, such external opposition was not very effective. Greek culture continued its victorious march across the Roman expanses, as evidenced primarily by the change in the status of the Greek language, which became not only literary, but also colloquial.

By the middle of the 1st c. BC. The Roman Republic was in a state of crisis. In all areas, and especially in politics, renewal was required, since the vast territory of the state outgrew republican forms of government.

In 27 BC Rome, formally remaining a republic, actually turned into empire with an authoritarian form of government. The first emperor, or princeps (hence the whole empire was called principate), became Octavian, to whom the Senate appropriated the title of Augustus - "exalted by a deity", which gave his power a sacred character.

The Roman Empire lasted five centuries - until 476 AD. Of these, the first century proved to be the most prosperous and fruitful. and the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 BC) is considered golden age Roman culture.

During the period of the Empire, the main currents of the Roman philosophy Epicureanism, Stoicism and Neoplatonism. All of them, to one degree or another, continue the Greek currents, but do not remain entirely secondary, but acquire a completely independent meaning.

The main figures of the Roman epicureanism- Lucretius and Cicero - lived and worked in the 1st century. BC, under the Republic, but Epicureanism, especially in the form of simplified and crude hedonism, becomes widespread in the era of the Empire. In his famous poem "On the Nature of Things" Lucretius develops ideas about the natural origin and existence of the world and man, glorifies the human mind.

Without rejecting the existence of the gods, he believes that they are in distant spaces in a state of blissful rest and do not interfere in the affairs of people. Recognizing pleasure as the highest good of man, the philosopher specifies that it should be sought in the absence of suffering. Epicureanism called for rejoicing and enjoying life, for the main source of pleasure is the very fact of life. After death there will be no enjoyment, because there will be no life itself.

Cicero made a huge contribution to the development of Roman culture. He was a great orator, philosopher, rhetorician, writer, politician. In his writings, Cicero sought to popularize all schools and currents of Greek philosophy. In his own concept, he combined mainly Epicureanism and Stoicism, preferring the former.

Roman Stoicism represented by Seneca, Epictetus and the emperor Marcus Aurelius. All three considered philosophy primarily as a doctrine of achieving a moral ideal, inner spiritual freedom and happiness. They saw the way to this through reconciliation with external circumstances, through the pursuit of virtue and the rejection of such worldly temptations as wealth, honors and nobility. Stoicism, especially the views of Seneca, had a strong influence on early Christianity.

Roman Neoplatonism, whose founder and main figure was Plato, is a synthesis of the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, purified from scientific and rational content, with the ideas of neo-Pythagorism and Eastern mysticism. Its meaning is the doctrine of the ascent of the human soul to merge with the One in a kind of mystical ecstasy. The influence of Neoplatonism grew as the crisis of Roman society intensified.

In the era of the Empire, it is developing very successfully the science. The most prominent scientists were Pliny the Elder. Ptolemy and Galen. The first of them, being also a writer, wrote a multi-volume "Natural History" (37 volumes), which became a real encyclopedia in all areas of contemporary science. In addition to knowledge about nature, it contains extensive information on the history of ancient art, the history and life of Rome.

Ptolemy created the world famous geocentric system of the world used to determine the position of the planets in the sky. His work "Almagest" was an encyclopedia of astronomical knowledge of Antiquity. He also owns works in optics, mathematics and geography.

The doctor Galen summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient medicine and presented them in the form of a single doctrine, which had a great influence on the subsequent development of natural science. In his fundamental work "On Parts of the Human Body", he was the first to give an anatomical and physiological description of the human body as a whole. Galen experimented on animals and came close to discovering the decisive role of nerves for motor reflexes and blood circulation.

In the humanities, special attention deserves the activity historians Titus Livius and Tacitus. The first is the author of the grandiose "Roman History from the Foundation of the City" (142 volumes), which reveals the meaning of the "Roman myth" and traces the history of the transformation of Rome from a small town on the Tiber into a world power. Tacitus in his main works - "Annals" and "History" (14 volumes) - sets out the history of Rome and the Roman Empire, and also provides rich information about the life of the ancient Germans.

The greatest rise in the era of the Empire is experiencing artistic culture. Among the arts, the leading position is occupied by architecture, in the development of which the architect and engineer Vitruvius played a special role. In his treatise Ten Books on Architecture, he summarized the experience of Greek and Roman architecture and developed the concept of a city with a central forum (square), as well as methods for constructing various building mechanisms.

It should be noted that forum became a very common type of Roman building. Six such forums were built. The first, the Romanum Forum, was built in the 6th century. BC, and then five more forums were added to it - Caesar. Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan. The most grandiose was Trajan's forum. built by Apollodorus of Damascus and consisting of several structures: a courtyard surrounded by columns, a triumphal arch, a basilica temple.

The real flourishing of Roman architecture reaches under Augustus. According to the historian Suetonius, Augustus declared that, having made Rome brick, he would leave it marble. He succeeded in his task to a large extent. Under him, old temples are being restored and new ones are being built, among which the temples of Apollo and Vesta, which were part of his palace complex, became famous. He builds his own forum - the forum of Augustus, which continued the forum of Caesar and became one of the most magnificent. Under Augustus, his associate Agrippa builds the Pantheon - the temple of all the gods, which is a giant cylindrical building with a diameter of 43 m, covered with a large spherical dome. The temple has become one of the true masterpieces of architecture.

After August, the development of architecture continues. Of the created monuments, the famous Coliseum, or the Flavian Amphitheater, which could accommodate more than 50,000 spectators and was intended for gladiator fights and other spectacles.

The villa of Hadrian in Tivoli is also very remarkable. Located in a picturesque park, it is a magnificent ensemble that reproduces individual buildings and corners of Athens and Alexandria, in particular the Academy of Athens and the Lyceum. This circumstance will make the villa extremely popular today - in connection with the emergence of postmodern architecture, since it is considered the first historical monument of such architecture.

In the daily life of the Empire, fashion includes terms - public baths, which become a kind of centers of culture and recreation, since they include not only baths and steam rooms, but also libraries, reading rooms, halls for meetings, sports and games. The most grandiose and famous were the baths of Caracalla.

In the era of the Empire, favorable conditions are also developing for the development of literature, especially for poetry. The most prominent poets - Virgil, Horace and Ovid - were again associated with the reign of Emperor Augustus.

Virgil, who is the main figure of Roman poetry, created a collection of pastoral songs "Bucoliki" and a didactic poem "Georgics", which gives advice to farmers and sings of nature. The peak of Virgil's work was the unfinished epic poem "Aeneid", echoing the Homeric epic. It is dedicated to the wanderings of Aeneas, the legendary founder of Rome.

The work of Horace is surprisingly multifaceted in terms of subject matter, genre, style and metrics. He wrote lyrical poems, philosophical poems, angry satires, in which he ridiculed the vices of Roman society. In his works, epicureanism is combined with stoicism. He influenced the poetry of modern times. His treatise "The Science of Poetry" theoretical basis of classicism.

Ovid achieved great success primarily with his love lyrics, as well as the mythological poem "Metamorphoses", which tells about the transformations of people and gods into animals, plants and stars. His poem "Fasta" tells about the Roman religious holidays.

Ovid's cheerful and ironic poem "The Science of Love", containing instructions on how to find a mistress and deceive a husband, irritated Augustus, who saw it as a mockery of his marriage law. The disgraced poet was exiled to Tomy on the Black Sea coast. There he wrote "Sorrowful Elegies", in which he bitterly complained about his loneliness, hoped for forgiveness - but was never forgiven.

In general, in the era of the Empire, Roman society as a civilization continues to develop. However, in spiritual terms, already in the 1st century. AD there were symptoms of a serious crisis. The fact is that by that time the “Roman idea”, as power over the whole world, had been realised. Reaching her. Rome, as it were, has exhausted itself, it has lost the source of internal self-development. It is no coincidence that already under Augustus comes to the fore idea of ​​"eternal Rome" which is focused only on maintaining the achieved greatness and power. But without a great inspiring goal, society is doomed to perish. Anyway. the fate of Rome convinces of this.

Starting from the 1st c. AD Rome appears more and more as the first historical form of the consumer society. Famous slogan "bread and circuses" was a way of life not only for the landless plebs, but for all strata of society. Even among the elite of society, professed hedonism was increasingly turning into a cult of gross pleasures and entertainment. Emperors Caligula and Nero became symbols of cruelty and moral decay. It was the spiritual emptiness, the spiritual crisis that was the main cause of the general crisis of Roman society and its death. Again, it is no coincidence that already in the 1st c. AD Christianity arose in the Roman Empire as a counter to the spiritual disintegration of Roman society.

It has become one of three (along with Buddhism and), addressed to all people, regardless of ethnic, linguistic and other affiliation. It is based on the belief in Jesus Christ as the God-man, who atoned for the sins of people by his death, bringing salvation to the world and man. Rejecting the values ​​of Roman society, among which power, strength, power, physical pleasures and pleasures increasingly came to the fore, Christianity countered them with high spiritual and moral values.

God Himself appears in it as a spiritual entity. The main Christian value is love for God- is spiritual, it opposes physical, carnal love, declared sinful. Christianity proclaimed the equality of all people before God. It acted as a defender of the oppressed, humiliated and destitute, promising them deliverance from slavery and poverty in the future. All this was in tune with the aspirations of ordinary people, making them supporters of the new religion.

Despite severe persecution by the Roman authorities, the growth in the number of Christians continued steadily, and in the 4th century. AD Christianity seeks official recognition. However, the new religion could no longer save Roman society, the crisis of which had become too deep and irreversible. In 395, the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western, and in 476, after another defeat of the Romans by the German troops, the last emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed and the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

Concerning roman culture, then, in its best achievements, it exists today. These include Roman law, Roman architecture and literature, Latin, which for centuries was the language of European scientists. However, the main contribution of Ancient Rome to world culture was still Christianity, although it did not save Rome from destruction.

Several stages can be distinguished in the development of Ancient Rome: 1st period - royal: 754 - 510 BC; 2nd period - republican: 510 - 30 years BC; 3rd period - imperial: 30 BC -

476 AD

The most ancient population of the Apennine peninsula were the Ligures.

In the I millennium BC. the bulk of the population was made up of tribes speaking Indo-European languages, pushing back the former population - the Etruscans, who came from Asia Minor, Greeks and others. By the 1st century BC. As a result of the conquest of Italy by Rome, a single Italian people was formed.

The Etruscans, who created the first states in the Apennines, had a special influence on the culture of Rome. Their culture has many analogies with the cultures of the Mediterranean, Asia Minor and Greece.

Rome was founded, it is believed, in 754 (3) BC. and was originally a monarchy with strong remnants of tribal relations. During the tsarist period, a state was formed in the form of a policy, the socio-economic basis of which was the ancient form of ownership. Roman culture of the early period developed under the strong influence of the Etruscans and Greeks. In the 7th century BC. writing based on the Greek alphabet. The Roman culture of the early period did not have bright achievements: the Romans had a vague idea of ​​their gods, there are signs of rationalism and formalism without exaltation in religion, there was no vivid mythology like the Greeks, for whom it became the soil and arsenal of artistic creativity. There were no epic poems in Rome like those of Homer. Dramaturgy originated from rural holidays - saturnalia, whose participants performed with songs and dances. The priests kept chronicles - annals. An important manifestation of culture was law-making, which was formed on the basis of customary law, royal laws and laws adopted by people's representatives. The first written monument of Roman law was the “Laws of the XII Tables” (5th century BC), which fixed the norms of customary law and at the same time protected private property, class and estate inequality.

The life of the Romans of the tsarist and early republican times was distinguished by unpretentiousness. Houses and shrines were nondescript. From the custom of making death masks, portrait sculpture began to develop, which was very similar to the original.

In general, the early Roman culture, having accepted the fruitful influence of other peoples, retained its originality and developed local Italo-Latin foundations.

By the III century BC. Rome became the hegemon on the Apennine Peninsula. The reasons for the Roman successes: a good geographical position in the center of the Apennines; rapid socio-economic development on the basis of advanced ancient slavery; military-technical superiority, which arose on the basis of an advanced economy and culture; lack of unity among the opponents of Rome. However, the conquest of Italy by Rome did not mean the creation of a single centralized state. Rome remained a polis. At the same time, the formation of the Roman-Italian union economically and culturally brought together different regions of Italy.

In the initial period of the republic, Rome was a polis with the dominance of a political ideology: with a heightened sense of citizenship and civic community, the value of freedom, the dignity and collectivism of citizens. Gradually, as the Roman conquests, the Roman community: the city-state was replaced by a huge power. The decomposition of the ancient polis led to a crisis and the ideology of its citizens. There is a departure from collectivism and the growth of individualism, the opposition of the individual to the team, people lose their calmness and inner balance. Ancient morals and customs are ridiculed and criticized, other customs, foreign ideology and religion begin to penetrate into the Roman environment.

The Roman religion, which developed under strong Greek influence, also included foreign deities. It was believed that the reception of new gods strengthened the power of the Romans. Religion bore the seal of formalism and practicality. Much attention was paid to the external side of religion, the performance of rituals, and not spiritual merging with the deity. Therefore, the feelings of believers were little affected and dissatisfaction arose. Hence the growth of the influence of Eastern cults, often distinguished by a mystical and orgiastic character.

Holidays, accompanied by processions, sports competitions, theatrical performances, and gladiator fights, played an important role in the life of the Romans. Moreover, the importance of public performances grew all the time: they were an important means of distracting the broad masses from social activity.

Greek literature had a great influence on the formation and development of Roman literature, initially the language of literature was Greek. Of the most significant authors of the period of the republic, one can note the comedian Titus Maccius Plautus (254 - 184 BC); Gaius Lucilius (180 - 102 BC), who denounced the vices of society in satire; Titus Lucretius Cara (95 - 51 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things"; Gaius Valerius Catullus (87 - 54 BC), master of lyric poetry, who wrote

In prose, Mark Terentius Varro (116 - 27 BC) became famous, who, in fact, created the encyclopedia "Antiquities of Divine and Human Affairs" about history, geography and religion, a monument was erected to him as the only Roman writer during his lifetime; Mark Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - orator, philosopher, lawyer, writer. A major Roman writer was Gaius Julius Caesar, author of Notes on the Gallic War and Notes on the Civil War.

The growth of the power of Rome led to the rise of architecture, which expressed the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bstrength, power and greatness, hence the monumentality and scale of buildings, the magnificent decoration of buildings, decorativeness, greater interest than the Greeks in the utilitarian aspects of architecture: many bridges, aqueducts, theaters were built, amphitheatres, thermal baths, administrative buildings.

Roman architects developed new constructive principles, in particular, they widely used arches, vaults and domes, along with columns they used pillars and pilasters, and the Romans adhered to the symmetry system. Roman architects began to widely use concrete for the first time. In the 1st century BC. Rome has become a huge city with a million people, high-rise buildings and numerous public buildings.

Science developed rapidly, and with a practical roll: one can distinguish the agronomists Cato and Varro, the theoretical architect Vitruvius, the lawyer Scaevola, the philologist Figulus. I

2nd century AD - "golden age" of the Roman Empire. The peoples of the Mediterranean for the first time in history found themselves within the boundaries of one huge power. The borders between individual states, turned into Roman provinces, were destroyed, monetary systems were unified, wars and sea robbery were stopped. Conditions were created that favored the establishment of economic and cultural ties between different areas, the progress of agriculture, crafts, construction, domestic and foreign trade.

The Romans perceived, assimilated and processed the cultural heritage of the ancient Eastern and Hellenistic world. At the same time, they contributed to the familiarization with the Greco-Roman culture of different sections of the population of the western provinces of the empire, spreading Latin and Greek among them, acquainting them with economic and technical achievements, mythology, works of art, literature, architecture, with scientific knowledge and philosophical theories, with system of Roman law.

Of the creators of the culture of the "golden age" of Rome, one can note: the geographer Strabo; historians Tacitus, Titus Livius, Pliny, Plutarch; philosophers Seneca and Marcus Aurelius; poets Virgil, whose poem "Aeneid" is the crown of Roman poetry, Ovid, who wrote about love; Petronius and Juvenal - satirists; prose writers Apuleius and Long. Roman law reached a special development. Roman legal norms proved to be so flexible that they can be applied in any social system based on private property.

From the III century AD. Rome entered a period of crisis, which is based on the crisis of the slave system. Political instability increased. The crisis of traditional culture deepened, consumerism intensified, moral decay increased, the desire for pleasure and hedonism were noted.

Reflection of the crisis of traditional Roman culture was the emergence and wide spread of Christianity, which became the state religion.

In 395, the empire was divided into Western and Eastern. In 476, the Western Roman Empire fell under the onslaught of the barbarians, and Byzantium was formed in the east, transforming into a feudal state, the most cultured during the Middle Ages in Europe.

The meaning of ancient civilization.

The ancient tradition was never interrupted either in the West of Europe or in the East of Europe, although there were periods of the early Middle Ages when much was forgotten. Certain values ​​of ancient culture were absorbed by Christianity. Latin became the language of the church and science in the Middle Ages. Many achievements of antiquity were preserved and developed by the Arab-Islamic civilization (philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, medicine). The system of Roman law was adapted to medieval Europe. During the Renaissance, antique samples became the subject of study. Ancient art, literature, architecture, theater are connected with modernity by thousands of threads.

The ideas of ancient democracy had a special influence in politics. The idea of ​​Rome as a political and spiritual center that unites peoples also lived on.

The culture of the Ancient World experienced a worldview revolution or, in the terminology of Karl Jaspers, "axial time". As a result of Confucianism and Taoism in China, Buddhism in India, Zoroastrianism in Iran, the ethical monotheism of the prophets in Palestine, and Greek philosophy, for the first time two most important principles are affirmed: universal unity and moral self-sufficiency of the individual.

World religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam) have been formed, with an attitude towards the denial of patriarchal values ​​and an appeal to the individual, who goes beyond tribal norms and makes free choice. A completely new phenomenon of "conversion" to a religious or philosophical faith arises: the choice of doctrine and the norms of behavior that follow from it.

Until morality separated from sacral-tribal taboos and personal moral consciousness completely identified itself with the public opinion of the tribal, ethnic group, an independent act in which a person chooses for himself a way of thinking and a way of life was impossible: a person could violate generally accepted norms, but could not look for other norms for himself. The destruction of the automatism of the tradition of the genus made the life position of the individual a problem and cleared a place for the psychology of "conversion". The authority of tradition, which had previously dominated, came into conflict with the authority of doctrine.

During the period of ancient civilizations, the power of the idea was discovered, as something opposed to the absolutization of ritualism. Based on the idea, it was possible to re-build human behavior among people. The greatest discovery of ancient civilizations is the principle of criticism. The appeal to the idea, to "truth" made it possible to criticize the givens of human life, together with myth and ritual - the main languages ​​of the archaic worldview. Antiquity set the task: to seek the truth that makes a person free. Man has left the "uterine", pre-personal state, and he cannot return to this state without ceasing to be a man.