Historical project of literary works as. Literary work as a historical source

General wording of the topic:

The tale of P.P. Bazhov "Ermakov's swans" - a historical source for the reconstruction of the life of Ermak Timofeevich?

Organize the learning steps in a logical order

Reveal the features of fiction as a historical source

Find out the versions of the origin and life of Yermak that exist in historical science

Reconstruct the fate of Yermak based on the work of P.P. Bazhov "Ermakov's Swans"

Determine the historical component in the tale of P.P. Bazhov "Ermakov's Swans"

Read the texts - extracts from the studies of historians and highlight the stages of Yermak's life.

Remember that some materials may differ from each other due to different source base.

Arrange on the arrow in the form of brief notes the stages of Yermak's life.

Reconstruction of Yermak's fate in history and literature

Now circle on the historical arrow those stages of Yermak's life that are found in Bazhov's tale. Use a marker for this.

LITERATURE=HISTORICAL SOURCE?

What elements does P.P. Bazhov add to historical facts?

Why does P.P. Bazhov add these elements?

Think about and highlight the features of studying literature as a historical source

Reflection

Let's evaluate the effectiveness of our lesson

Evaluate your own activity in the lesson:

Stages of work in the lesson

Active member

1. Call stage. Formulation of the problem. Formulation of the topic of the lesson.

Participant

2. The response stage. Operational-executive stage. Understanding new knowledge. Work with historical and artistic sources on the life and work of Yermak.

Half participant, half spectator

3. Estimated-reflexive. The final table according to Bazhov. Conclusions on the topic of the lesson.

The inclusion of organic images of fiction in the presentation of the teacher is one of the important methods of its use in the teaching of history. The teacher uses fiction as a source from which he borrows colorful images of comparison and well-aimed words for his presentation. In these cases, the material of a work of art organically includes the teacher in the story, descriptions, characteristics, and is perceived by the student not as a literary quotation, but as an inseparable element of a colorful presentation. It is useful for a novice teacher, when preparing for a lesson, to include in the plan of his story separate, small passages, epithets, brief descriptions, vivid descriptions, apt expressions from the writer's work. In teaching practice, as one of the methods of using fiction and folklore, there is a brief retelling. Being the richest source of information, fiction contains valuable material for affirming the high moral principles developed by mankind in the minds of students. But for a long time, the scientific world had an ambiguous view of literature as a historical source.
“There is an unspoken and almost generally accepted opinion that fiction is not just subjective, but is in the realm of the author's fantasies and cannot contain any historical facts; on this basis, for a long time, traditional source studies, especially modern and recent history, did not consider fiction as a historical source. “Coming closer to fiction in terms of the nature of the impact on the reader, historical knowledge must remain scientific, that is, obtained on the basis of historical sources,” which are amenable to “reproduction and verification” [ 32, p. 40]. “The field of interaction between literature and history is an open system, and they are correlated in this system, first of all, as two domains of culture: culture changes, their interaction also changes.”
With a huge body of literature on the one hand, and a community of historians with naturally differentiated interests on the other, “it makes no sense even to think of any special cataloging of literature for the historian. After the work that has been done by the structuralist branch of social science in recent decades, today there seems to be no other possibility than to consider all literary texts of the past and even the present as historical documents” [Ibid. c. 63]. Fiction has value “as a source that reflects the mentality of its time [Ibid., p. 144]. Literature has the property of “groping” and fixing reality, capturing the moods existing in society on an unconscious level, long before they are systematized in the language of science and reflected in historiography.
The pre-revolutionary academic school (V.O. Klyuchevsky, N.A. Rozhkov, V.I. Semevsky and others), in the spirit of the traditions of positivist literary criticism, identified the history of literary types with the history of real people. So, the study of V.O. Klyuchevsky "Eugene Onegin and His Ancestors" (1887) was almost entirely built on the analysis of the libraries of Pushkin's time.
The position of Soviet academic source studies in relation to fiction was quite unambiguous for a long time: only literary texts of antiquity were considered as a historical source. The question of the historian's right to use fiction as a historical source in the study of modern and recent history was for a long time passed over in silence, although in historical works the works of this period were often used as a commentary on the events and phenomena of public life. For the first time, the question of using a literary and artistic text as a historical source was raised in the book by S.S. Danilov "Russian theater in fiction", published in 1939. In the 60-80s of the XX century, a number of works were published that testify to the desire of historians to develop clearer definitions of fiction as a historical source.
Among the key issues brought up for discussion is the possibility of using fiction as a source for establishing historical facts. So, during the discussions that took place in 1962-1963. On the pages of the journal "New and Contemporary History" a variety of opinions were expressed about the source study perspective of fiction. Starting from categorical objections to assigning to it the right to be called a historical source and ending with a notable for the Soviet era judgment that "the historian of the party has no right to neglect sources that in one form or another reflect the multifaceted activities of the party and the ideological life of society" .
For the first time, the question of the historian's right to use fiction as a historical source was raised in 1964 in an article by A.V. Predtechensky "Fiction as a historical source". The author drew attention to the expansion of the limits of source studies due to the separation of independent branches of science from the cycle of auxiliary historical disciplines. Referring to a rather extensive number of statements of public figures of the XIX-XX centuries, A.V. Predtechensky makes a conclusion about the identity of the cognitive role of fiction and the historical source as such, seeing the natural difference between one category and another in their belonging to phenomena of a different social nature. So, to substantiate scientific truth, a system of evidence is required, while in art “nothing needs to be proved,” since the criterion for the “truth” of a work of art is its “artistic persuasiveness” [Ibid., p. 81]. A.V. Predtechensky notes: “in the works of some artists<…>artistic persuasiveness is so great that the line between fiction and reality is erased, and the literary hero begins to exist as a historical one” [Ibid., p. 82].
Against the background of the above examples, the famous article by L.N. Gumilyov "Can a work of belles-lettres be a historical source?" . In this work, the author, answering the question he put in the title, noted that “Fiction is not a lie, but a literary device that allows the author to convey to the reader the thought for which he undertook his work, always difficult. And here, even in the presence of a large number of references to historical facts, the latter are only a background for the plot, and their use is a literary device, and the accuracy or completeness of the presentation is not only not necessary, but simply not needed. Does this mean that we should not use the information contained in ancient literature to supplement history? In no case! But the observance of certain precautions is obligatory”... continuing his thought about the veracity of the source, the author writes “Fiction in the works of the historical genre only sometimes involves the introduction of a hero born of the author’s fantasy into the plot outline. But there is always a transformation of real historical figures into characters. The persona is the mask of an ancient actor. This means that, unlike business prose, not real figures of the era appear in a work of art, but images under which quite real people are hidden, but not those, but others that are of interest to the author, but not directly named. It is this literary device that allows the author to express his thought with the utmost accuracy and at the same time make it visual and intelligible”; “Each great and even small work of literature can be a historical source, but not in the sense of a literal perception of its plot, but in itself, as a fact that marks the ideas and motives of the era. The content of such a fact is its meaning, direction and mood, moreover, fiction plays the role of a mandatory device.
For national history and science in 1991, an article by N.O. Dumova "Fiction as a source for the study of social psychology", dedicated to the novel by M. Gorky "The Life of Klim Samgin". In the source study context, the author divides fiction into three categories. The first includes works that reflect a distant period, from which documentary evidence has not been preserved (Homer's epic, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"). To the second - historical novels and stories written many years after the event based on the study of it from surviving sources ("War and Peace", "Peter I"). The third category consists of works of art written by eyewitnesses or participants in the events (A.T. Tvardovsky "Vasily Terkin", V.S. Grossman "Life and Fate"). Works belonging to the first category serve as a historical source. Literary texts belonging to the second category are an auxiliary source. The works of the third group are of value for the study of social psychology, the inner world of a person - his type of thinking, worldview.
In the 1990s, academic source studies represented by the Russian historian S.O. Schmidt expresses his "last word" on the issue of source study "possibilities" of fiction. Unlike the humanists, who defend the educational and propaganda role of literature or develop the traditions of studying “psychological types”, S.O. Schmidt turned to the history of mentalities, considering works of literature as "a source of formation of historical ideas" for the general reader, as valuable material "for understanding the mentality of the time of their creation and further existence ... ". The evolution of the views of the Russian humanist at the beginning of the 21st century on the source study status of fiction in connection with global changes in the methodology of humanitarian knowledge is visualized by the materials of the collection “History of Russia in the 19th–20th centuries: new sources of understanding” . Thus, among the circumstances that contribute to the convergence of historical science with fiction in solving source problems, the authors of the collection name the following:
- a shift in the emphasis in historical knowledge from socio-political to individual psychological, which is due to the growing distrust of global historical constructions, which are difficult to verify at the empirical level; - the prevailing desire of both spheres of creativity - artistic and scientific-historical - to reproduce reality; the historicity of literature as a documented expression of the country's spiritual history [Ibid. c. 63];
- the mutual inability of the writer and historian to fully “recreate all the facets of the past”, even following the “hermeneutic principle of getting used to it”, since “any person is inevitably pressured by the load of knowledge and ideas of the time in which he himself lives and acts;
- the historicity of the language of literature as a "social meta-institution", fixing "the realities, concepts and relations of its time";
- historical truth can be fully revealed only by means of art; literature has more opportunities to reveal historical truth than history itself; history-art is higher than history-science”;
Among the most important factors dividing literature and history on opposite sides of the “barrier” in relation to the problem of the source study status of fiction, historians name the following:
– “any work of art contains some pre-aesthetic reality from the field of politics, economics, social life”, but “under the influence of artistic techniques, it is so deformed that it ceases to be a source for scientific and historical research”[ Sokolov A.K. Social history, literature, art: interaction in the knowledge of the realities of the 20th century. ];
– there is an objective contradiction between the “linear” language style of historical science and the picturesque language of literary creativity, which allows for many interpretations when reading [Ibid. c. 75];
- scientific historical knowledge performs a socio-political function - "the formation of a common social memory as the basis for the unification of society and the information basis for making political decisions", and in this function it retains its sovereignty [Ibid. c. 40].
As for the historian, for him (provided that he does not intend to go beyond the traditional boundaries of his field), fiction as a source of information will be of interest only in three cases:
- if the text is a carrier of unique information not recorded in other documents;
- if its author is a direct witness to the events described in the work;
- if the information about the character contained in the work is confirmed by sources of a different kind; in this case, the literary text can be used either as an illustration of the knowledge already obtained by other sciences, or as an additional source of evidence (or refutation) of scientific hypotheses, including in relation to the historical worldview of the author of the text.
The importance of works of art in the moral education of students is great. Learning about the actions of a historical person, students often transfer themselves to the same conditions, empathizing with the hero. One of the favorite heroes is the gladiator Spartacus, the leader of the restoration of slaves in ancient Rome. Students can be asked to prove, on the basis of fragments of literary works and stories about the uprising, that Spartacus possessed such traits as purposefulness and determination, conviction, courage and courage. On the dramatic events of the slave uprising, on behalf of the teacher, the student tells. His story can take place in the form of a memoir of a gladiator from the detachment of Spartacus (fragments from R. Giovagnoli's novel "Spartacus" are included in the story).
But it is not enough to draw the attention of students to the heroic deeds of outstanding personalities. In the lessons, questions should be raised about the expediency of those forms of politics, about decency, dignity, kindness, and lasting friendship.

Literary works as a historical source. General characteristics

Travel Literature as a Source on the History of Belarus

Travel literature has always played a significant role in the process of getting to know different peoples. Although travelers in a short time could only form a superficial idea of ​​what they saw, they often took individual events as signs of certain trends, yet their notes contain a fresh look at a representative of a different culture, other traditions and values. When analyzing the notes of travelers, one must take into account the goals that were set for them.

One of the first travelers through Belarus was Gilbert de Lanois, who in 1413 ᴦ. on behalf of the Duke of Burgundy visited Novgorod on a diplomatic mission. On the way, he passed through northwestern Belarus, leaving a rather general description of it. At the same time, it is from him that we learn about the existence of Vitovt's office and its three departments: Russian, Latin and Tatar. In the XV century. Belarus was visited by two ambassadors of Venice - Ambrogio Cantarini and Josofata Barbara. Οʜᴎ also left rather modest notes.

Those who visited Belarus in the 16th century were also diplomats. Thus, some information about Belarus is contained in the memoirs of J. Garcey, a representative of the Moscow Company (an English company for trade with Muscovy, which had exclusive (semi-monopoly) rights in it; its representative was, in fact, the British ambassador to Moscow). He reports only about personal meetings at the court of the king of the Republic of Poland, describes the wealth of the Lithuanian magnates, primarily the Radziwills, and their hospitality. As a result of his ʼʼNotesʼʼ about Russia XVI - early. 17th century are of no importance to us.

His opposite is Reinhold Heidenshtern - the secretary of the Prussian prince, the most educated person who, from 1582 ᴦ. for 30 years he was in the service at the court of the kings of the Republic of Poland, Stefan Batory and Sigismund III Vasa. His work ʼʼNotes on the Moscow Warʼʼ is based not only on his own observations, but also on documents. In his narration, he justified the policy of S. Batory, as well as J. Zamoysky, to whom he treats with obvious sympathy and who took part in editing the ʼʼNotesʼʼ. To some extent, these memoirs are not of a traveler, but of a resident of Poland of foreign origin.

In this sense, a great foreigner was Sigismund Gerbenstein, who twice at the head of the embassy (in 1516 and 1526) passed through Belarus, heading to Moscow on behalf of Emperor Maximilian. On the way, he kept a diary, which he published in 1549 ᴦ. titled ʼʼNotes on Moscow Affairsʼʼ. But besides the ʼʼMoscow affairsʼʼ there is a lot of news about Belarus and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in general.

Very detailed notes at that time were left by the Venetian ambassador Fascarino (1537), the Englishman Fletcher (1584), the German Petrey, who lived in Russia for 4 years (1616-20), the Austrian ambassador Meerberg (1661), the Czech Taner (1678), the Russian Steward Pyotr Tolstoy (1697), Secretary of the Austrian Embassy Johann Korb (1698.99) and many others. Important information about Belarus during the Livonian War is contained in the notes of the papal legate Antonio Possevino, who, in his messages, resorted to data presented to him by the famous merchant Giovanni Tedaldi.

Foreigners at that time left a lot of information about the geography of Belarus, about the origin of the name Belaya Rus (Gerbenstein - from the snow, Petrei - from the white hats that men wear in summer); left a lot of information about our nature, communication routes on our lands, but at the same time they weakly touched upon the issues of the economic life of the cities and towns of Belarus, although they talked about their geography, defense structures, as well as the religious situation in them.

The inclusion of Belarus in the Republic of Ingushetia caused the appearance of a large number of notes by Russian travelers. Οʜᴎ discovered this region, which propaganda called ʼʼprimordially Russianʼʼ, and in Russian society it was designated by the terms ʼʼBelarusianʼʼ, ʼʼLithuanianʼʼ, ʼʼPolishʼʼ. At the very beginning of the XIX century. officials and priests were sent here, some of whom left their memories. From 1812 ᴦ. Russian officers (for example, I.I. Lazhechnikov) leave their notes about the events on the territory of Belarus. After the uprising of 1830-31. Belarus, so familiar and unfamiliar, attracted Russian writers, artists, people of creative professions in general. This led to a change in the content of travel literature. Surprise from the language that is unlike Russian and information about good roads is replaced by admiration for Belarusian nature, the history of Belarusian cities and temples, the study of traditions and holidays of the local population.

The fashion for travel notes led to the appearance of works and representatives of the local intelligentsia, who sought to acquaint neighbors with the history and traditions of their people. Here the most striking is a series of notes ʼʼJourney through Polesye and the Belarusian landʼʼ Pavel Shpilevsky (published in ʼʼSovremennikʼʼ in 1853-55). Shpilevsky came from a family of a priest, but abandoned his spiritual career, becoming a well-known publicist and writer. He wrote about what he knew well and saw for himself. This is information about kirmash, about Belarusian cities and towns, their population, about the life of ordinary peasants, as well as landlords. Shpilevsky did not ignore the Tatars and Jews living in Belarus. ʼʼJourney...ʼʼ Shpilevsky and similar works belong to the so-called. internal travel literature, when the author writes about his people for others. These works often differ in that they somewhat embellish reality.

Literary sources - ϶ᴛᴏ works that, based on the plot, tell about historical events and personalities. Features of the study of literary sources:

2. The presence in the source of fiction - invented events and heroes.

When working with these sources, it is necessary to separate truth from fiction, artistic descriptions from objects of reality. It should also be borne in mind that certain genres (primarily hagiography) are built according to strict canons, a departure from which is not possible, due to which various invented events appear. Literary works do not so much record facts as reflect the author's thoughts, feelings, author's thoughts about events and phenomena. These sources are very valuable for studying the history of culture and ideology.

53. The main features of literary works of the XI-XIII centuries. ʼʼThe Tale of Igor's Campaignʼʼ

The works of this period have two basic points:

1. religious literature prevails

2. journalistic nature of secular literature

In the XI-XIII centuries. on the lands of Russia, works of Christian content prevailed, the authors of which were Russian bishops and monks. The main genres and traditions of religious literature were adopted from Byzantium at the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries. in connection with the adoption of Christianity. Already in 1055 ᴦ. the first original work of the Russian metropolitan appears in 1051-1055. Illarion ʼʼThe Word of Law and Graceʼʼ, in which Prince Yaroslav the Wise was glorified. At the end of the 11th century, the monk Nestor created the first lives in Russia - ʼʼThe Life of Theodosius of the Cavesʼʼ and ʼʼThe Life of Boris and Glebʼʼ.

A good example of literature that is difficult to separate from journalism is the work of Kirill Turovsky. More than 40 works came to us from him: legends, teachings on the theme of the Gospel, the writings of the prophets, prayers and a canon about repentance, stories. Behind the religious form of his works are the real facts of the life of the contemporary writer's society, a tough struggle of social and cultural tendencies. For this reason, the literary and journalistic heritage of K. Turovsky is an important source not only for studying the writer's activity, but also for the spiritual atmosphere of that era.

One ʼʼEpistle to Presbyter Thomasʼʼ, written by Kliment Smolyatich, who in the 12th century ʼʼwas a scribe and philosopher, which was not yet ʼʼ in Russia, has survived.

An interesting source of educational, educational content (but, of course, of a secular nature) is the ʼʼTeaching of Vladimir Monomakhʼʼ, written in 1117 ᴦ., but erroneously included in the Laurentian list of PVL under 1097 ᴦ. The author gives instructions to the younger generation, shares the experience of his eventful life. The Grand Duke, sharing his memories, talks about his relationship with the princes of Polotsk and about campaigns in Belarusian lands.

One of the first secular literary sources in the lands of Russia was the ʼʼThe Tale of Igor's Campaignʼʼ, written in 1185–1187. Chernigov boyar Peter Borislavich (attribution to B. Rybakov). The source is dated by mentioning alive the Galician Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl, who died in 1187 ᴦ. The ʼʼWordʼʼ tells about the campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich of Novgorod-Seversk in April-May 1185 ᴦ. against the Polovtsy. The date of the campaign was established by a solar eclipse, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ found Igor's troops in the bend of the Don on May 1, 1185 ᴦ.

In ʼʼThe Tale of Igor's Campaignʼʼ, the activities of the Polotsk prince Vseslav Bryachislavovich (1044–1101) are mentioned. He, being in Kyiv (in a felling in 1068 ᴦ., and then a prince in 1069 ᴦ.), heard the bells of Polotsk Sophia, which indirectly indicates the construction of this temple in the 50–60s. 11th century Vseslav, having turned into a wolf, ran the distance from Kyiv to Tmutarakan (Tamatarkhi on the shore of the Kerch Strait) overnight (ʼʼ to chickensʼʼ), crossing the path of the Iranian solar deity Khors. This campaign of the prince against Tmutarakan is not reflected in the chronicles. The ʼʼWordʼʼ emphasizes the prince's magical abilities and the speed of his movements. The battle on the Nyamiga River on March 3, 1067 ᴦ is colorfully described in the ʼʼSlovʼʼ, which is compared with a bloody harvest and threshing with ʼʼcaps of haraluzhnyʼʼ (steel).

Mentioned in the ʼʼWordʼʼ is the struggle of Prince Izyaslav Vasilkovich against the ʼʼfilthyʼʼ (pagans) Lithuanians, who were located in the marshes along the (Western) Dvina.

The list of ʼʼWordsʼʼ was found by Musin-Pushkin in the monastery of Yaroslavl. Further, a copy was made from this list for Catherine II. In 1800 ᴦ. ʼʼSlovoʼʼ was published with a parallel text in Old Russian and Russian. The list of ʼʼWordsʼʼ, which was in the library of Musin-Pushkin, died during the fire of Moscow in 1812 ᴦ.

Literary works as a historical source. General character - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Literary works as a historical source. General characteristics" 2017, 2018.

KAZAN STATE UNIVERSITY

As a manuscript

1 In DVG 1998

Marina B. MOGILNER

ART LITERATURE AS A SOURCE ON THE HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN RADICAL INTELLIGENTIA OF THE EARLY XX CENTURY

07.00.09 - Historiography, source studies and methods of historical research

Kazan - 1998

The work was done at the Department of Historiography, Source Studies and Methods of Historical Research of Kazan State University.

Scientific adviser - Doctor of Historical Sciences,

Professor A. L. Litvin.

Official opponents - Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor

in History, Professor S. M. Kashtanov, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor I. A. Gilyazov.

Leading organization - Samara State

university.

The defense will take place on June 11, 1998 at 10 o'clock at a meeting of the Dissertation Council D.053.29.06. for the award of the degree of candidate of historical sciences at the Kazan State University at the address: 420008, Kazan, st. Kremlin, 18, second building, room. 1112.

The dissertation can be found in the scientific library. N. I. Lobachevsky Kazan State University. The abstract was distributed on "_[_" May 1998.

Scientific Secretary of the Dissertation Council Candidate of Historical Sciences,

Associate Professor L9 "--" R. G. Kashafutdinov

1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK

Relevance and rationale for the choice of topic. Among the many sources on the history of the Russian intelligentsia, fiction occupies a special place. Due to certain historical and political circumstances, literature appropriated to itself very special functions: while fulfilling a religious and ethical mission, it also spread into the sphere of philosophy, journalism, politics, taking on the “universal function of the universal language of culture.”1 This role of literature manifested itself especially clearly. on the historical fate of the radical left wing of the Russian intelligentsia. Through literary activity, they compensated for the natural political and social frustration, making literature not only a means of self-identification as a socio-cultural community, but also a tool to fight the existing order.

Chronologically, the study is limited to two incomplete decades - 1900 - 1914. This short time period turned out to be extremely saturated with both cultural and political events in which the radical intelligentsia took an active part, and which were reflected in a peculiar way in the created - [ her literary texts. According to V. V. Shelokhaev, at the beginning of the 20th century, the radical intelligentsia reached the peak of its | organizational maturity and ideological standardization.2 Regardless of party and program demarcations, opposition parties, along with periodicals and literature close to them -

oh, and their wide Ch1gatelian audience, spoke one-

om language - the language of a certain unity that opposed itself to re-sim. At the same time, this unity was called "Underground Russia".

1 Lotman Yu. M. On the dynamics of culture // Semiotics and history. Works on sign systems XXV. - Issue. 936 - Tartu, 1992. - S. 21.

2 Shelokhaev V.V. The phenomenon of a multi-party system in Russia // Extremes of history and extremes of historians. Sat. articles. - M., 1997. - S. 11.

sia" (borrowed from the fictional essays of the same name by the terrorist and writer S. M. Stepiyak-Kravchinsky, 1882): a capacious characterization, often found in the press of those years, describing the world of professional revolutionaries, members of left-wing political parties and the socio-cultural environment that nourished radicalism. The policy of the period of "Underground Russia" was finally realized as a systematic forceful impact on the state. The intelligentsia, whose humanistic values, in principle, contradicted violence, and even systemic violence, had to work on self-justification, and that is why the concept of "Underground Russia" should include not only professional revolutionary groups and parties, but necessarily - texts that described these organizations and their members, imposing their image on both the radicals themselves and legal Russia.

An additional factor that determined the chronological framework of the study was the state of historiography on the chosen topic. Unlike the radical intelligentsia of the 20th century, their predecessors - raznochintsy and populists - are represented in historiography by more in-depth and large-scale studies. The significance of the cultural and psychological context, and hence literary sources, for understanding the essence of these stages in the history of the intelligentsia, was widely recognized by historians.

3 See: Russian literature and populism. Collection of articles / Otv. Ed. I. G. Yampolsky. - JI., 1971. - 191 e.; Sokolov N. I. Russian literature and populism. Literary movement of the 70s XIX century. - L., 1968. - 254 e.; The revolutionary situation in Russia in 1859 - 1861 / Ed. M. V. Nechkina. - M., 1970. - 375 e.; Essays on the history of the revolutionary movement in Russia in the 60-80s of the XIX century. - Kirov, 1979. -102 e.; Development of revolutionary morality from noble revolutionaries to proletarian // Political exile and revolutionary movement in Russia. Late XIX - early XX century. Sat. Scientific works. - Novosibirsk, 1988. - S. 152 - 164; Alekseeva G. D. Populism in Russia in the 20th century. Idea evolution. - M., 1990. - 246 p. ; Wortman R. The Crisis of Russian Populism. -Cambridge, 1967; Ventury F. Roots of Revolution: A History of the Populist and Socialist Movements in Nineteenth Century Russia. -New York, 1960, etc.

oe with the historical development of fiction. Along with the literary controversy of those years and the activities of various literary circles and student libraries, where "the political education of raznochintsy students took place"4, researchers filmed the history of the creation and social existence of individual revolutionary literary works.5 We are trying to apply and develop the accumulated forerunners of attempting a socially oriented analysis of artistic tech-gov to study the next generation of radicals.

Vulfson G. N. Raznochinno-democratic movement in the Volga region and in the Urals during the years of the first revolutionary situation.

Kazan, 197 4. - 352 p. See also: Litvina F. Legal yurma propaganda of raznochintsy-democrats in the 60-70s XIX . - Kazan, 1986. - 133 e.; Her own: Literary Evenings "Pohi of the fall of serfdom (From the history of social; movements and cultural life in Russia / Diss. for the degree of Candidate of Historical Sciences. - Kazan, 1970. - 260 p.

In a special interdisciplinary direction stood out [the historical and literary study of the anti-nihilistic yuman. See: Belyaeva L. A. "Spark" and "Anti-nihilistic yuman // Russian literature and the liberation movement. IV

Issue. 129. - Kazan, 1974.-S. 17 - 35; Sorokin Yu. S. dtinigilistic novel // History of the Russian novel. - T. .1. - M.-L., 1964. The social functions of illegal poetry: the end of the 19th century are comprehensively studied in the works of the Kazan [investigator E. G. Bushkants. See the following works of this 1 Deut: Revolutionary poems - proclamations of the late 850s - early 1860s / / The revolutionary situation in > Russia in 1859 - 1961. - M., 1962. - S. 389 - 417; [legal poetry of revolutionary circles of the late 50s -[early 60s of the XIX century. - Kazan, 1961. - 41 e.;) features of the study of monuments of illegal revolutionary Yuezia of the XIX century. - Kazan, 1962. - 53 e.; In search of a curtain (On the attribution of monuments of free Russian poetry I on documentary data // Russian literature and the movement of freedom. Scientific notes of the KSPI. - Issue. SSU. - Sat. 1. - Kazan, 1968. - P. 3 - 24; Revolutionaries 1.870 -s and the journal "Slovo" // Russian literature and the zevoboditelnoe movement. Scientific notes of the KSPI. - Issue ¡5. - Sat. 2. - Kazan, 1970. - P. 29 - 45; and other works. The same the theme received an interesting embodiment in the collection "The Revolutionary Situation in Russia in the Middle of the 19th Century: Figures and Historians" edited by M.V. Nechkina (Moscow, 1986).

In a similar way, the dissertation makes a critical use of the experience of pre-revolutionary intellectual self-reflection, which in Russia traditionally had much in common with socially oriented literary criticism.6

And yet, methodologically, we cannot rely on the attempts of pre-revolutionary authors to replace the history of real people with the history of literary types,7 or on the study of literature practiced in Soviet historiography from the point of view of its reflection of objective reality (this is how the source study adaptation of Lenin's theory of reflection looked like). In domestic source studies, interest in a literary text arose sporadically, since, in principle, the question of its auxiliary

6 Avdeev M. V. Our society (1820 - 1870) in the heroes and heroines of literature. - St. Petersburg, 1874. - 291 e.; Social self-consciousness in Russian literature. Critical Essays. - St. Petersburg, 1900. - 302 e.; Pyiin A.N. Characteristics of literary opinions from the twenties to the fifties. Historical essays. - Ed. 4th, add. - St. Petersburg, 1909. - 519s.; Voitolovsky JI. The Current Moment and Current Literature: Toward the Psychology of Contemporary Public Sentiment. - St. Petersburg, 1908. - 48 e.; Ovsyaniko-Kulikovskiy D.N. History of the Russian intelligentsia // Ovsyaniko-Kulikovskiy D.N. Sobr. Op. - v. 9. - St. Petersburg, 1911. - 224 e.; Ivanov-Razumnik. History of Russian social thought: individualism and philistinism in Russian literature and life in the 19th century. - T. 1.-SP6., 1911 -414 e.; T. 2 - 520 e.;

7 In this sense, academic historiography methodologically did not differ from the tradition of intellectual self-reflection. Socio-psychological characteristics, "ideas, views, feelings, impressions of people of a certain time" were searched in fiction by V. O. Klyuchevsky, followed by N. A. Rozhkov, S. F. Platonov, V. I. Semevsky and others And although their methods of working with literary texts are outdated today, and sometimes do not stand up to criticism, the general understanding of the possibilities of a literary source, proposed by these historians, dominates modern Russian historiography. Klyuchevsky V. O. Review of the study by S. F. Platonov "Old Russian legends and stories about the troubled times of the 17th century as a historical source" // Klyuchevsky V. O. Soch. In 9 vols. - M., 1989.- T. 7.- P. 124. See also: Klyuchevsky V. O. Eugene Onegin and his ancestors // Ibid. - T. 9. - S. 84 - 100; Undergrowth of Fonvizin: the experience of a historical explanation of the educational play Ibid., pp. 55 - 76; Rozhkov N. A. Pushkinskaya Tatiana and Griboedovskaya Sophia in their connection with the history of Russian women of the 17th - 18th centuries. And a Journal for All. -1899. - No. 5. - S. 558 - 566; Semovsky V. I. Serfdom and peasant reform in the works of M. E. Saltykov (Shchedrin) // History of the USSR. - 1978. - No. 1. - S. 130.

telny character was resolved. In the 1930s, source scholars recognized the independence of literary sources only in relation to eras that left few other sources.8 Then the thaw of the 1960s touched on this problem, and the potential possibilities of literary texts in the field of psychological generalizations received limited recognition in the context of the history of the Soviet period.9 Finally, perestroika stimulated the creation of a "history with a human face", which, in turn, contributed to the awakening of interest in literary sources.10 During these years, the well-known Russian source specialist S.O. a word of academic source study on the issue of a literary text. Unlike other historians who turned to literary sources (N. I. Mironets, who emphasizes the educational and agitational role of literature, and N. G. Dumova, who develops a gradual study of "psychological types"), Schmidt takes into account the experience of the history of mentalities, considering works to be literature -

8 Saar G. P. Sources and methods of historical research. - Baku, 1930. - 174 p.; Mironets N. I. Fiction as a historical source: to the historiography of the issue / / History of the USSR. - 1976. - No. 1. -I 125-176.

9 Mnukhina R. S. On teaching the source study of modern history // Calling and modern history. -1961. - No. 4. - S. 127 -132; On the source of modern and recent history: to the results of the discussion // New and modern history. - 1963. - No. 4. - S. 121-125; Varshavchik M.A. On some surveys of source studies of the history of the CPSU // Questions of the History of the CPSU.

1962. - No. 4. - S. 170 - 178; To the results of the discussion of some issues of the study of the history of the CPSU / / Questions of the history of the CPSU. - 1963. - No. >. - S. 101 - 105; Seleznev MS On the classification of historical sources in connection with the construction of a course of source studies in higher education. - m., 1964. - S. 322 - 340; Ztp<"л,.с:::;й а. И. Теория и методика источниковедения истории СССР. -Сиев, 1968 . - С. 51 - 52.

10 Mironets N. I. Revolutionary poetry of October and civil war as a historical source. - Kyiv, 1988. - 176 s; Dumova N. G. O. Dodzhestveshyuy literature as a source for the study of social psychology // On the authenticity and reliability of the historical source. - Sazan, 1991. - S. 112 - 117.

ry and art "an important source for understanding the mentality of the time of their creation and further existence ...". Obviously, when working with literary texts today, it is impossible to ignore the experience of world historiography, the research of culturologists and literary theorists - in a word, the whole complex of interdisciplinary knowledge , which was formed in the humanities in the postwar period.

Methodological foundations of the study. Against the background of the blurring of disciplinary boundaries between history, anthropology, linguistics, literary criticism and philosophy, the literary text emerged as an object of a new interdisciplinary search. In the 1960s, structuralism, which dominated philosophy, linguistics and history (the Braudelian generation of the Annales school), put forward the study of static processes in the first place, which, in relation to literary documents, was expressed in the dictate of the literary approach (absolutization of the text; taking it out of context, etc.). ). But at the end of the 1970s, a change in philosophical paradigms took place, the diachronic side of historical documents was rehabilitated. At this stage, proper historical methods of working with literary texts arise and works that have already become classics based on literary sources are created. semiotics.13

11 Schmidt S. O. Fiction and art as a source of the formation of historical ideas (1992) / / Schmidt S. O. The path of the historian. Selected works on source studies and historiography. - M., 1997. - S. 113 - 115. See also: Schmidt S. O. Historiographic sources and literary monuments / / Ibid, S. 92 - 97.

12 Ginzburg C. The Cheese and the Worms. The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller.-London and Henley., 1981; Darnton R. The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes of French Cultural History.-New York., 1984; Hunt L. The Family Romance of the French Revolution. - Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1992.

This study develops this methodological trend in relation to the history of the Russian radical intelligentsia. The semiotic model is based on the idea of ​​the text as the intersection of the points of view of the creator of the text and the audience. The third component is the presence of certain structural features perceived as signals of the text.14 Thus, the historian's interest in what in literary criticism was somewhat disparagingly called "context" is legitimized. If the text is thought of as a communicative event, then the context is an organic part of the text. Accordingly, the thesis about the mechanical reflection of the context in the text is removed, and the historian faces the problem of the functioning of the text in the context, the problem of the literary text as a reality that forms the ideas and ideas of people.15 Any literary text appears to the historian as a valuable compaction of the world (M. Bakhtin ), built around literary heroes. Interpre-

13 In the West, this transition can be personified by the talented historian and writer Umberto Eco, while in Russia a parallel process is associated with the name of Yu. M. Lotman. See: Eco U. A Theory of Semiotics. -London., 1977; Idem. The Role of the Reader. - Bloomington., 1979; Idem. Six Walks in the Fictional Woods. - Cambridge, Mass. and London., 1994; Yu. M. Lotman and the Tartu-Moscow semiotic school. - M., 1994. - 547 pages of the aspiring historian and writer Umberto Eco, while in Russia a parallel process is associated with the name of Yu. M. Lotman. See: Eco U. A Theory of Semiotics. -London., 1977; Idem. The Role of the Reader. - Bloomington., 1979; Idem. Six Walks in the Fictional Woods. - Cambridge, Mass. and London., 1994; Yu. M. Lotman and the Tartu-Moscow semiotic school. - M., 1994. - 547 p.

14 Lotman Yu. M. Culture and explosion. - M., 1992. - S. 179; Uspensky B. A. History and semiotics: perception of time as a semiotic problem. Article one. // Mirror. Semiotics of mirroring. Works on sign systems. - Issue. 831. - Tartu, 1988. - S. 67.

15 In Russian historical science, this approach was first substantiated by M. V. Nechkina, who proposed to study "not just an artistic image as such, but precisely the function of an artistic image in the reader's mind." Nechkina M.V. The function of an artistic image in the historical process. - M., 1982. - 318 p. See also: Literature and History (The Historical Process in the Creative Consciousness of Russian Writers of the 18th-20th Centuries). - St. Petersburg, 1992. - 360 p. Bely O. V. Secrets of the "underground" person. Artistic word - everyday consciousness - semiotics of power. - Kiev, 1991. - 312 p.

The traditional intrigue lies in the “unwinding” of this value consolidation, in building a system of value orientations of the author, characters, and readership within their cultural and historical context.

Accordingly, we do not consider it possible to talk about the secondary, auxiliary nature of literary sources. The nature of a particular study determines the relative importance of the sources, and in our case, literary texts are the main element of the source base of the work. It is necessary to make a reservation that by literary sources we mean only those works of belles-lettres that are contemporary in time with the events under study, i.e. made "as if from within the described state ..., using exclusively the metalanguage that has been developed within a given tradition ..." and a given time.17 Artistic works that, in relation to the period under study, represent a later reflection (historical literary and philosophical essays) are historiographical sources and should be considered in a completely different context.18 Actually, a literary source is a special type of written sources, differing in the type of information encoding inherent in artistic discourse.

Since the historical use of literary sources is meaningless without regard to context, literary studies

16 Tyupa VI Towards a new paradigm of literary knowledge II Aesthetic discourse: semiotic studies in the field of literature. - Novosibirsk, 1991. - S. 4 - 16; Fukson L. Yu. The world of a literary work as a system of values ​​// Ibid., pp. 17 - 24.

17 Toporov VN On the cosmological sources of early historical descriptions II Collection of scientific articles in honor of MM Bakhtin. Works on sign systems. VI. - Issue. 308. - Tartu, 1973. - S. 109.

18 Shmidt S. O. Historiographic sources and literary monuments // S. O. Schmidt. The path of the historian. - S. 92 - 97.

Sifications that ignore the context and are based solely on the structural and genre characteristics of the works of art themselves can hardly be useful. In our opinion, the most instrumental in the context of historical research is the typology of texts according to the possibility of their functioning, developed by Yu. M. Lotman. intentions of at least two poles: the author and the reader. The relevance of this typology for this study is obvious, since we are dealing with a special literature and a special readership. As noted above, the radical intelligentsia ascribed functions to literature that went far beyond the aesthetic. Accordingly, in most cases one can speak of a fairly direct connection between the authors of the literature of Underground Russia and its readers. Thus, we methodologically justified our right to emphasize those aspects of this cooperation that are far from purely aesthetic.

Purpose and objectives of the study. The formulation of the purpose of this dissertation essay - the study of the possibilities of a literary source in the context of a historical study on Russian radicalism at the beginning of the 20th century - involves the solution of the following tasks:

Development of the concept of a literary source and methodology for its analysis in the context of historical research;

Identification and source study interpretation of literary texts generated by the subculture of Russian radicalism at the beginning of the 20th century;

Involving them to create the history of the radical intelligentsia of the beginning of the century as the history of the formation and evolution of the

19 Lotman Yu. M. The structure of a literary text. - M., 1970. - S. 347.

a lexicon of ideas, values ​​and stereotypes of thinking that determined Russian radicalism.

Scientific novelty. The novelty of the dissertation essay, which is based on literary texts, is obvious from the point of view of the theory and practice of domestic source studies. Having given literary texts the status of literary sources and proposing a multidisciplinary methodology for their comprehension, we have studied the possibilities of literary sources in relation to the history of Russian radicalism at the beginning of the 20th century. This made it possible to withdraw the study of values, ideas, ethical preferences of a social group from the sphere of speculation and conjecture into the sphere of strictly scientific analysis, verified within the framework of the source study approach.

Source base of the dissertation. The understanding of a literary text as a communicative event determined the source base of the dissertation. In addition to literary sources, the dissertation used: newspaper and journal journalism and criticism; memoirs and diaries of individual representatives of the radical intelligentsia; documentary sources (protocols of police inquiries on cases of underground printing houses, lists of prohibited literature, case histories, etc.). When working on the dissertation, materials from the funds of the following archives were used:

State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF): f. No. 1167 (Collection of material evidence confiscated by the Gendarmes during searches of the editorial offices of magazines, newspapers and individuals); f. 6753 (Konchevskaya Nadezhda Viktorovna); f. 5831 (Savinkov Boris Viktorovich); f. 328 (E. Sakharova-Vavilova). These funds contain documents covering the creative history of the creation of certain literary works, diary entries, as well as manuscripts confiscated during searches in the editorial offices of popular magazines of the early 20th century.

National Archives of the Republic of Tatarstan (NART): f. 199 (Kazan Provincial Gendarmerie Directorate); f. 977 (Kazan Imperial University). The documents of the NART that we have attracted are protocols of searches of underground printing houses, lists of prohibited and confiscated literature.

Archive of the Republican Psychiatric Hospital, Kazan. In this archive, case histories of the period of the first Russian revolution have been preserved, containing information about the reproduction, even at the level of uncontrolled mental manifestations, of the normative behavioral pattern, vocabulary and imagery set by revolutionary fiction.

Bakhmeteff Archive (New York, USA), collection "S. R. Party". The materials of this collection were used in the study of the fate of one of the most famous characters of Underground Russia, the terrorist and writer B. Savinkov (literary pseudonym - V. Ropshin).

Slavonic Library, Helsinki University, manuscript department (former "Storage of the Russian Library of Alexander University in Helsingfors"). The manuscript collections of this library contain autographs of student poems and songs of the late 19th century, which are necessary for understanding the origins of the specific literary creativity of the radical intelligentsia. In the dissertation essay, we offer a more detailed description of the historical sources we use.

The bulk of the literary sources used in the work are fiction and poetry, published in numerous journals and literary collections of the beginning of the century. As a rule, the artistic level of these works is low, although there are exceptions. Most of the literary works used by us have never been involved in scientific circulation either by literary critics (due to the lack of artistic value) or historians (due to the lack of interest and adequate methods). The authors of these works are characterized by varying degrees of involvement of Underground Russia: from

direct membership in any political party to the ideological support of the left opposition to the regime. Most party authors acted under pseudonyms, which gave them the opportunity to overcome party censorship and self-censorship of the intellectual, using the form of a work of art to express their individual attitude to the world around them. In some cases (first of all, this concerns the manuscripts found in the archive), it was not possible to establish the authorship of the texts, but this did not deprive the texts themselves of source value, since we consider a literary source as a mass source. Only the identification and assimilation of a significant number of fiction and poetic texts allowed us to talk about the stereotypes of thinking and stable values ​​of the radical intelligentsia.

The most "transparent" for the historian is that part of the literary documents we have collected, which was created on the eve of and during the years of the first Russian revolution - i.e. actually classical works of Underground Russia. "Classical" in the sense that they most fully corresponded to the canon: the positive hero of these works was almost always the core of the plot, literary characters were identified with a specific function, positive and negative poles were clearly marked. Our method of working with this kind of literature is partly reminiscent of the approach proposed by V. Propp in his famous "Morphology of a Fairy Tale".20 We also analyze the structural elements of a significant group of texts of the same order, isolating the main functions of characters and plots. But unlike Propp, we are interested in the cultural and historical context, part of which were the literary texts of Underground Russia. Therefore, it is so important for us to separate post-revolutionary texts into a special group, where the identity between the hero and the function disappears. It was on the basis of this discrepancy, which signaled the maturing of the crisis of radicalism, that new meanings, new meanings were created.

20 Propp V. Morphology of a fairy tale. - L., 1928. - 151 p.

and new ideas. Artistic texts of the post-revolutionary decade were an instrument of cultural regulation, indispensable in times of crisis and transformation. It was precisely in the destruction of the poetics of Underground Russia and in the search for ways to a new idea, to a new tradition that the historical mission of post-revolutionary literary texts consisted, which not only makes them a special group, but also puts them in direct opposition to the classical literature of Underground Russia.

Dissertation structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, notes, a list of references and sources.

2. MAIN CONTENT AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE RESEARCH

The introduction substantiates the topic of the dissertation, its scientific relevance and novelty, offers an analysis of historiography and the source base of the study, defines a literary source, and the methodology for using it as historical evidence.

First chapter. "Literature and Tradition of Radicalism in Russia" chronologically covers the period from the turn of the century to 1907 and is a basic description of the structural, qualitative and functional characteristics of the "classical" literature of Underground Russia. The chapter consists of three paragraphs.

The first paragraph discusses the causes and mechanism of the formation of the literary mythology of radicalism, the most influential works of art that contributed to the radicalization of the intelligentsia, the relationship between the authors and readers of this literature. The paragraph traces how fiction imposed images and metaphors of reality, while becoming an ideal, normative reality into which radical in-

intelligentsia fit in more organically than in the present. The main conclusion under Paragraph 1 is that the literature of Underground Russia not only reflected the existence of a radical subculture in society, but was its most important formative component.

In the second paragraph, the main value core of underground fiction is considered - the revolutionary hero, and on the eve of 1905, more and more often, the terrorist hero. The semantics of the sacrificial perception of the radical hero was set by the essays of Stepnyak-Kravchinsky, and later it was strengthened in a variety of different texts. The hero of radical fiction was created as a mythological hero - the first among equals, and in accordance with the logic of myth, he removed the contradictions in the perception of the real figure of the radical movement. Behind the hero of radical fiction almost always stood a recognizable real prototype, but it was the fictional template that often dictated the assessment of the activities of a real person. We managed to trace this by comparing various texts where the same prototypes stood behind the characters (the most popular "models" are Maria Spiridonova and Ivan Kalyaev), and comparing the images of fictional characters with contemporary documentary publications in the illegal party and legal "directional" press . Thus, Paragraph 2 demonstrated the mechanism of romanticizing and justifying revolutionary violence through the medium of a fictional character, who was both an ideal and a justification for Russian radicalism, its offspring and its myth.

The third and final paragraph of Chapter 1 depicts the clash between the literary myth and the real mass revolutionary movement. The paragraph examines the mass mobilization of society, the reproduction of fictional patterns of normative behavior at different social levels: from school and student protest, then specific "revolutionary" psychoses and neuroses. The first Russian revolution for the first time demonstrated the distance between literary myth and reality, between terrorist

rum fictional and real. The material presented in the paragraph made it possible to conclude that literary texts that set normative life scenarios, formed ideas about radical politics and those who implemented it, did not pass the test for reliability.

In general, the central source conclusion of Chapter 1 is the thesis about the fundamental importance of literary sources in the study of the structure of radical consciousness. If radical philosophy or ideology should be studied on the basis of a traditional complex of sources, then the basic components of radical consciousness (ideas of good and evil, heroism, normative behavior, etc.) are most fully and adequately presented in 1 literary sources of the late 1890s - x - 1907.

Second chapter. "The literary process in timelessness (1907-1914) and the crisis of radical consciousness in Russia: the hero and the party", consists of 13 four paragraphs. The first paragraph analyzes the productions created directly in the wake of the revolution of 1905-1907, and the reader's reaction to them. In conclusions on the paragraph, we note that it was in the reviews of fiction publications (the first) that the main topics of post-revolutionary intellectual discussions were outlined: the crisis of the political doctrine of radicalism, the oral and ethical foundations of radical politics; the essence of the phenomenon of the Russian intelligentsia.

The next paragraph is devoted to the story of the Socialist-Revolutionary terrorist B. Sa-(Inkov (who wrote under the literary pseudonym V. Ropshin) "Pale Horse" (1909). The spectrum of reactions to the publication of the story took into account the suicides of militants, the regrouping of forces in the [arties of socialist revolutionaries , ardent support of a significant part of the radical and liberal intelligentsia, complete> denial of the other. The characters of Ropshin's story were present in all later discussions about political terrorism, [turning into signs of the decay of the radical hero. Accordingly, we made a fundamental conclusion about the need to

the attraction of the story "Pale Horse" in the study of the evolution of the terrorist doctrine and the attitude of the intelligentsia to power politics after 1907.

Paragraph 3 is devoted to M. Artsybashev's novel "Sanin" (1907) and the movement of "Sanin" individualists provoked by it. Vulgarized, reduced Sanin's Nietzscheanism was the catalyst for broad discussions about individualism, about the human right to live today. The literary hero Artsybashev spawned a wave of imitators, he also offered a language, imagery, context for more serious reflections on the philosophy of individualism, alien to the radical subculture. In this sense, the literary source - the novel "Sanin" - has priority over other historical documents traditionally used to study the individualization of the consciousness of the Russian intelligentsia.

The final, fourth paragraph is devoted to the second work of the terrorist writer Ropshin-Savinkov, which was published in 1912. The novel "That which was not" touched upon the themes of the limited existence of the party and provocation, as a generic feature of the underground world. In the paragraph, we compare the fictional myths about Azef, created before the speech of Ropshin the novelist (among the creators of the latter was the mother of B. Savinkov), with his version, analyze the reactions of the readership, party interpretations, the influence of the popular novel on the perception of the "Azef case" and the post-revolutionary crisis of radical political parties. Thus, all the plots of the second chapter demonstrate the need to involve a specific work of art in the study of one or another aspect of the political and social existence of the radical intelligentsia after 1907. The historian has no right to ignore the literary document, which at one time set the perspective of the perception of reality, within which a new worldview was developed, which ultimately undermined the harmony of the world of the radical intelligentsia.

In the third chapter. "The fate of the mythology of Underground Russia in timelessness (1907 - 1914): literary revelations", three paragraphs.

The first deals with imitations and modifications of V. Ropshin's themes. We proceed from the assumption that it is possible to trace the process of adaptation, assimilation of an idea through its reproduction in other texts. In the logic of the subculture of radicalism, some writers tried to mythologize the excesses of the revolution, while appealing to the authority of Ropshin. A certain division of "spheres of influence" took place around the "Roshish themes": for example, the Social Democrats created the most interesting works about the limited existence of the party, while the Socialist-Revolutionaries continued to write about terror and provocation. Non-party authors have priority in creating a new genre - the "revolutionary" detective story. They were the first to allow themselves ironic notes in relation to classical heroes and plots, the apotheosis of which was a parody of a terrorist act committed, according to the author's intention, in a psychiatric hospital. It was the ironic attitude brought in from outside that helped finally overcome the hypnosis of radical mythology.

The second paragraph describes literature and near-literary controversy around the spatial "emanations" of Underground Russia - exile and emigration. The paragraph establishes the priority of fiction in raising painful topics related to the idealization and de-ideologization of exile and political emigration.

The third paragraph poses the problem of overcoming the crisis of a radical worldview. The material we have collected testifies to the coexistence of two tendencies: leaving life or an attempt to reconcile with it. The epidemic of youth suicides, which we track both statistically and descriptively, on the basis of notes and letters of suicides and numerous fiction and poetry about death and suicide, characterizes the first trend. Quite in the logic of the subculture of radicalism, the intelligentsia passed away with the end of Underground Russia. Without and outside the letter-

she could not and did not want to live in the mythical myth. Paradoxical as it may sound, but the rehabilitation of the present, an attempt to build one's own biography outside of myths and total ideological systems, required, at times, more courage than suicide. In 1912-1913, the theme of the rehabilitation of life comes to the fore in mass intellectual fiction and criticism. There are works that summarize the entire post-revolutionary experience, connecting all themes, synthesizing them on a new, life-affirming basis. Literature no longer stood between life and its perception as an ideal reality that could replace life. Accordingly, we came to the conclusion that the fictionalization of reality as a mass phenomenon of a radical worldview has ceased. This, in turn, indicates a relative decline in the value of literary sources for understanding the history of the intelligentsia in the period that began with the First World War. The World War, which gave the entire society an additional impetus to unite around the state idea, ended with the complete collapse of the old Russian statehood. In the fire of war, the sprouts of a new attitude to life, which the intelligentsia suffered through suffering, burned out. Wars and revolutions radicalize even moderate people, not to mention those whose conscious life was spent in the struggle for this very revolution. But the evolution of the radical intelligentsia of the early 20th century, traced by us on the basis of literary sources, points to another possible outcome - less painful both for the intelligentsia itself and for the country as a whole.

In conclusion, it is indicated that the conclusions of this dissertation work relate both to the informational features of literary sources created within the subculture of Russian radicalism at the beginning of the 20th century, and to the general methodological foundations for the use of literary texts in historical research.

The semiotic model of a literary text justified itself

during testing on specific historical and literary material. We presented the text as a function existing at the intersection of the points of view of the creator, the reader, and the text itself. The text was conceived by us as a communicative event, and, accordingly, its study seemed impossible without analyzing the context, without studying the social functioning of a work of art, and finally, without reading it in terms of the readership, the cultural environment to which it was addressed. Not the opposition of the "subjective" artistic text to the "objective" reality, but the analysis of their interaction, the social functions that literature performed in a specific temporal and historical continuum, the influence of artistic models on the perception of reality made it possible to overcome the difficulties associated with the type of information encoding inherent in literary sources.

Implementing this methodological orientation in practice, in each chapter of the dissertation we have risen from the basic and necessary level of external and internal source criticism to the level of semiotic analysis. If at the first level we analyzed the external characteristics of handwritten and published literary sources on the topic, established the authorship, political orientation and party affiliation of writers, the degree of documentary nature of their work, then at the second level of analysis we were interested in the intentions of the author, his picture of the world, his image of reality and understanding fiction; the role of a particular work of art in the process of formation and functioning of a radical consciousness and a radical type of politics. Ultimately, we were interested in the mechanism of turning a work of art into a stimulus for direct ideological or political action. To answer this question, we have studied in detail the entire path from the appearance of a work of art to its passage through the "filters" of legal and illegal publications, critical articles in the party and non-party press - to a specific reader.

This study demonstrates that in a historical perspective, a literary source is especially productive precisely as a mass source. The creation of a history of ideas and values, a history of the circulation of ideas is possible only on the basis of an analysis of the interaction of many texts: high and low, addressed to different categories of readers, etc. In carrying out this work, we again rose from the basic level of comparative source analysis to semiotic interpretation. As a result, we were able to substantiate the thesis about the existence of a literary mythological space of the radical world ("Underground Russia"), where many literary texts of various orders were united by a single figurative structure and value scale, a common ethical attitude, and a high degree of interchangeability.

Artistic works of Underground Russia performed a certain ideological function of creating and updating radical mythology, which is fundamentally important for understanding the essence of Russian radicalism at the beginning of the 20th century. These texts required a specific audience and a specific type of writer, backed by an extra-literary political biography. Given the high degree of structural and functional similarity of the literary sources we identified, we considered them as a kind of single text in which the process of semiosis took place (the development of new information and its translation into the language of a given cultural community, the process of cultural self-identification), which interests us.

Taking into account the methodological complexity of working with literary texts, we made different methodological accents in each of the three chapters of the dissertation. Despite the fact that the structure of the work reflects the stages in the history of the formation and development of the radical subculture in Russia in the late XIX - early XX, each individual chapter also acts as a testing ground for testing a certain methodological principle. Thus, in Chapter 1 we carried out a structural analysis of literary sources, presenting them

as a single text, and also used the methods of the sociology of reading necessary to study the readership and its relationship with writers.

In Chapter 2, we were especially interested in the mechanism of transformation of an artistic image into a subject of reality, into a stimulus for explicit political and ideological actions, into a tool for structuring and describing reality. Chapter 3 is methodologically focused on the study of the relaying of ideas, their passage through the "filters" of other texts. It was precisely such a multifaceted, multidisciplinary reading of literary texts that was necessary in order to turn them from illustrative and auxiliary historical sources into sources of information about the spiritual, moral, moral and ethical aspects of the existence of people of the past.

Thus, the literary sources created by the radical intelligentsia of the early 20th century contain unique information about the spiritual and value world of its creators, about the mythological and utopian aspects of their consciousness, about the radical understanding of politics. The literary myth, structurally and semantically defined by S. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky's essays "Underground Russia", removed the fundamental contradictions of intellectual radicalism by romanticizing violence and isolating only one, sacrificial, side of terrorism. Studying the process of folding and destroying myths about a radical hero, about a pure victim, exile, emigration, made it possible to see how the space of Underground Russia unfolded, controlling more and more aspects of the life of the radical intelligentsia.

An analysis of the mythology of radicalism clearly demonstrated that Russian society gave its moral sanction to the romanticized image of the underground world, accepting the literary myth as reality. The massive nature of the fiction of Underground Russia, which created this myth, its popularity among people who are far from the underground, corrects the notion existing in historiography that "revolutionary subculture

The tour flourished among a small group of radical intellectuals and industrial workers..."21

Advances in the radical picture of the world appeared when literature overcame the symbolic, value, genre structures set by the radical subculture. Here creativity began, old ideas about the norm broke down, and the search for ways out of the crisis began. After 1907, the radical intelligentsia learned to use this relative freedom, making literature one of the mouthpieces of their experiences, transforming it from the creator of radical mythology into the destroyer of old myths. This study demonstrates that without literary sources containing unique information about the evolution of values ​​and ideals of the radical intelligentsia of the early 20th century, it is impossible to understand either its social existence or its political existence.

Obviously, literary sources not only bring us closer to understanding the inner world of a person as the main object of interest of the historian, but also humanize historical knowledge itself, offering another, albeit complex and ambiguous, tool for dialogue with the past. This provision is quite organically woven into the fabric of modern source studies, for which "the key is the definition of culture in the broadest sense," and which studies "not just a historical source. It studies the system of relationships: man-work-man."22

Scientific testing. The main provisions of the dissertation were reported at the conference "Historical Science in a Changing World" (Kazan, June 1993), the international conference "Theoretical Problems of Source Studies" (Kazan, May 28 - 29, 1996), in

21 Stites R. Russian Popular Culture and Society since 1900. - Cambridge, Great Britain, 1992.

22 Medushevsky O. M. Source study. Theory, history and method. - M.: Publishing House of the Russian State Humanitarian University, 1996. - S. 16; twenty.

ode of the research seminar at the Institute of Eastern European History of the University of Justus Liebig (Giessen, Germany), as well as at the final scientific conferences of KSU in 1992 - 1998.

Separate plots of the dissertation are reflected in the following publications:

1. Mogilner M. Russian radical intelligentsia in the face of death // Social Sciences and Modernity. - 1994. - No. ¡. - S. 56 - 66;

2. Mogilner M. B. Fiction text as a source of information about the mentality and value orientations of society // Istorical science in a changing world. - Kazan: KSU, 1994;

3. Mogilner M. B. Boris Savinkov: “underground” and “legal” Russia in the vicissitudes of one fate // Social sciences and modernity. - 1995. - No. 4. - S. 79 - 89.

4. Mogilner M. B. Transformation of the social norm in the transitional period and mental disorders // Social sciences [modernity. - 1997. - No. 2. - S. 70 - 79.

5. Mogilner M. B. On the way to an open society: the crisis of the “adical consciousness in Russia (1907-1914). - M.: Publishing house Ma-istr, 1997. - 56 p.

Fiction as a historical source

Fiction includes works of writing that have social significance, aesthetically expressing and shaping public consciousness.

It is generally recognized that the historical ideas of a person are not formed under the influence of the work of professional historians, but are based on works of fiction and folklore sources. According to S. O. Schmidt, "the influence of the science of history on society is determined to a greater extent not directly by the research (or educational) works of historians (calculated, as a rule, for a narrow circle of readers - mainly specialists), but by their essays that are journalistic in form or their concepts, conclusions and observations expressed in the writings of other publicists and masters of fiction".

In traditional source studies, only the most ancient literary texts were considered as a historical source. One of the reasons for the lack of attention on the part of professional historians of modern and recent times to fiction lies in the belief that the latter represents an extremely subjective, often biased, and therefore distorted picture of life that does not meet the source criteria of reliability.

Supporters of the so-called "new intellectual history", a trend that arose in the 1970s. in foreign historiography, called into question the usual understanding of historical truth, assuming that a historian would create a text in the same way as a poet or writer. In their opinion, the historian's text is a narrative discourse, a narrative that obeys the same rules of rhetoric that are present in fiction. E. S. Senyavskaya also rightly notes that not a single historian, like a writer, is able to completely recreate the past (even following the principle of “getting used to” it), since the burden of knowledge and ideas of his time inevitably weighs on him.

In Russian historiography, the question of the possibilities of using fiction as a historical source has been raised before. Back in 1899, V. O. Klyuchevsky, in a speech on the occasion of the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow, called everything written by the great poet a “historical document”: “Without Pushkin, one cannot imagine the era of the 20s and 30s, as it is impossible to write the history of the first half of our century without his works. In his opinion, only incidents cannot serve as factual material for a historian: "... ideas, views, feelings, impressions of people of a certain time - the same facts and very important ..."

The author of one of the first Soviet textbooks on source studies, G. P. Saar, included fiction and poetry among historical sources, but preferred "social novels" created by contemporaries of the events described. In subsequent years, the point of view prevailed that works of art can be used in the study of social relations only in those historical epochs from which a sufficient amount of other evidence has not been preserved.

During the discussions that took place in 1962-1963. On the pages of the journals "New and Contemporary History" and "Questions of the History of the CPSU", a variety of opinions were expressed about the source study perspective of fiction: from categorical objections to a call not to neglect sources reflecting "the multifaceted activity of the party and the ideological life of society."