("Quiet"), Fedor Alekseevich, princes Peter and Ivan under the regency of Princess Sophia.
Agriculture remained the main branch of the Russian economy, and the main agricultural crops were rye and oats. Due to the development of new lands in the Volga region, in Siberia, in the south of Russia, more agricultural products were produced than in the last century, although the methods of cultivating the land remained the same, with the help of a plow, a harrow; the plow moved slowly.
In the 17th century, the first manufactory was born, trade developed, but very poorly, because. Russia did not have access to the sea.
Russian culture of the 17th century was characterized by a gradual departure from church canons, the spread of secular knowledge, the secularization of architecture, painting, and sculpture. This happened because of the weakening of the influence of the church, its subordination to the state.
At the end of the 16th century, after his death, his son Fedor, who was weak-minded, and the young prince Dmitry remained after his death. Fedor could not rule, because. because of his dementia, he "could not keep facial expressions," so the boyars began to rule instead of him, among whom he stood out. He had great fame, tk. was a Tatar khan, brother-in-law of Fedor and son-in-law of Malyuta Skuratov, i.e. had rich family ties.
Boris Godunov did everything quietly, but "with meaning", therefore he received the nickname "Cunning Demon". In a few years, he destroyed all his opponents and became the sole ruler under Fedor. When Tsarevich Dmitry died in Uglich in 1591 (according to the official version, he himself ran into a knife), and in 1598 Tsar Fedor died, Boris Godunov was crowned king. The people believed him and shouted: "Boris to the kingdom!" With the accession of Boris to the throne, the Rurik dynasty came to an end.
Many of the activities carried out during the period of his reign were reformatory and resembled a reign. The positive transformations of the king include the following:
- He was the first to invite foreign specialists, while all foreigners began to be called Germans, not only because there were more Germans among them, but also because they did not speak Russian, i.e. were "dumb".
- He tried to calm society by uniting the ruling class. To do this, he stopped persecuting the boyars and elevating the nobles, thereby ending the civil war in Russia.
- Established the outside world at the negotiating table, tk. virtually no wars.
- He sent several hundred young nobles to study abroad and tried to be the first to shave off the beards of the boyars (although only Peter I succeeded).
- He began the development of the Volga region, in his reign the cities of Samara, Tsaritsyn, Saratov were built.
The tightening of serfdom was negative - he introduced a five-year term for the investigation of fugitive peasants. The difficult situation of the people was aggravated by the famine of 1601-1603, which began due to the fact that in 1601 it rained all summer, and frost hit early, and in 1602 a drought set in. This undermined the Russian economy, people were dying of hunger, and cannibalism began in Moscow.
Vasily Shuisky photo
Boris Godunov is trying to suppress the social explosion. He began distributing bread for free from state stocks and set fixed prices for bread. But these measures were not successful, because. bread distributors began to speculate on it, moreover, the stocks could not be enough for all the hungry, and the restriction of the price of bread led to the fact that they simply stopped selling it.
In Moscow, during the famine, about 127 thousand people died, not everyone had time to bury them, and the bodies of the dead remained on the streets for a long time. The people decide that hunger is the curse of the Lord, and Boris is Satan. Gradually, rumors spread that he ordered to kill Tsarevich Dmitry, then they remembered that the Tsar was a Tatar. This situation was favorable for further events that took place in.
In 1603, Grigory Otrepiev appears - a monk of the Savvino-Storozhevsky monastery, who declared that he was "miraculously saved" Tsarevich Dmitry. People believed him, Boris Godunov nicknamed him, but he could not prove anything. The Polish king Sigismund III helped to get to the Russian throne. False Dmitry made a deal with him, according to which Sigismund gives money and an army, and Grigory, after accession to the Russian throne, was to marry a Pole, Marina Mnishek. In addition, False Dmitry promised to give the Poles the western Russian lands with Smolensk and introduce Catholicism in Rus'.
The campaign of False Dmitry to Moscow lasted two years, but in 1605 he was defeated near Dobrynichy. In June 1605, Boris Godunov dies, his 16-year-old son Fyodor was thrown out of the window of the fourth floor. The whole family of Boris Godunov was killed, only Boris's daughter, Ksenia, was left alive, but she was destined for the fate of False Dmitry's mistress.
Alexey Mikhailovich photo
Tsarevich False Dmitry was elected to the kingdom by all the people, and in June 1605 the tsar and Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich solemnly entered Moscow. False Dmitry was very independent, he was not going to fulfill the promises made to the Polish king (except for marrying Marina Mnishek). He tried to introduce etiquette in Russian canteens, a fork, and he himself used it very cleverly at dinner.
Watching this, his close associates decided that he was False Dmitry, because. Russian tsars did not know how to use a fork. In May 1606, during an uprising that broke out in Moscow, False Dmitry was killed.
At the Zemsky Sobor in 1606, a boyar was elected tsar. It was during his reign that a Polish mercenary appeared, who gathered an army of peasants and moved to Moscow. At the same time, he said that he was leading Dmitry to the throne. In 1607, the uprising was crushed, but soon a new impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. Marina Mnishek (for 3 thousand rubles) even "recognized" him as her husband, but he failed to ascend the throne, in 1610 he was killed in Kaluga.
Dissatisfaction with Shuisky grew in the country. The nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov, overthrew Shuisky, and he was tonsured a monk. Power passed to the oligarchy of the seven boyars, called "". The boyars, led by Fedor Mstislavsky, began to rule Russia, but they did not have the people's trust and could not decide which of them would rule.
Patriarch Nikon photo
As a result, the Polish prince Vladislav, the son of Sigismund III, was called to the throne. Vladislav needed to convert to Orthodoxy, but he was a Catholic and was not going to change his faith. The boyars begged him to come "look", but he was accompanied by the Polish army, which captured Moscow. It was possible to preserve the independence of the Russian state only by relying on the people. In the autumn of 1611, the first people's militia was formed in Ryazan, headed by Prokopiy Lyapunov. But he failed to negotiate with the Cossacks and he was killed in the Cossack circle.
At the end of 1611, Kuzma Minin donated money for the creation. It was headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In October 1612, the Polish garrison in Moscow fell.
At the beginning of 1613, a Zemsky Sobor was held, at which a tsar was to be elected. All social classes were represented on it, there were even Cossacks. He was elected to the kingdom with the filing of a loud cry of the Cossacks. The Cossacks thought that the king could be easily manipulated, because. he was only 16 years old and did not know a single letter. Mikhail's father, Metropolitan Philaret, was in Polish captivity, his mother was in a monastery. The first wife of Ivan the Terrible was Romanov, besides, the Romanovs were not "smeared" with oprichnina, which also played an important role in the election of Mikhail as Tsar.
After his accession to the throne, a struggle begins between the boyars. They decided who to marry the young monarch. However, when the bride was selected, she was dying. Mikhail married only 13 years later to Evdokia Streshneva, and the boyars were still able to gain influence over him.
In 1619, Mikhail's father returned from captivity, as a result, dual power was established in the country. Formally, Michael ruled, officially - Filaret, and this continued until the death of Filaret in 1633. Michael's reign was fair and wise. Taxes were lowered, the Russian people paid the so-called "fifth money" to the treasury, and kept 4/5 for themselves. Foreigners were granted the rights to build factories in Russia, and the development of the metallurgical and metalworking industries began.
Peter 1 photo
Mikhail Fedorovich almost did not wage wars, calm came in Russia. In 1645 he died quietly, and his son Alexei ascended the throne. For his kindness and gentleness, he was nicknamed "The Quietest". He had two wives, from the first, Maria Miloslavskaya, the son Fedor was born, from the second, Natalya Naryshkina, the sons Peter and Ivan, and the daughter Sophia.
During his reign, Alexei Mikhailovich carried out moderate transformations, and also carried out church and urban reforms. An important act is the publication of the Council Code of 1649. It was a set of laws on all issues from the economy to the state system (autocracy).
The most important part was the articles "On the sovereign's honor." No one could encroach on the power of the king, but the king had to consult with the boyars. The punishment for attempted assassination of the sovereign "in word and deed" was the death penalty.
Chapters devoted to the peasant question - "The Court of the Peasants". Serfdom was formalized, the peasants were the property of the owner, they could be bought and sold. The serfs were judged by their landowner. The serf peasant had only one right to complain to the sovereign.
According to the chapter "On Estates", estates were allowed to be inherited, they could not deprive a nobleman of the estate, i.e. the role of the nobility increased.
Church reform
Before Alexei Mikhailovich, the church was independent of the state. The king subordinated the church to the state through the following measures:
- the church began to pay taxes to the state, i.e. was deprived of financial privileges;
- the king became the judge over the church;
- monasteries were deprived of the right to buy land.
He proposed his own reform: to be baptized not with two fingers, but with three; bow down in church. This caused discontent among the clergy and the secular nobility. There was a church split, a movement of Old Believers appeared, headed by Archpriest Avaakum.
Alexei Mikhailovich managed to break the church and subjugate it to himself. In 1666, Patriarch Nikon was deprived of his dignity and imprisoned in a monastery prison, and Archpriest Avaakum was stripped and cursed at a church council. After that, the brutal persecution of the Old Believers began.
Urban reform
The townspeople were recognized as a special, independent class, but they were attached to the cities. The rights of the townspeople to trade were protected: the peasant had to wholesale his products to the townspeople, and the townspeople could sell them at retail.
At the end of the 17th century, after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, leapfrog began on the throne, because. he had three sons and a daughter. In 1676, his eldest son, 14-year-old Fyodor, ascended the throne, but he was ill, could not walk on his own, and power was in the hands of his relatives on his mother's side. In 1682, Fedor died, and under the juvenile Ivan and Peter, Princess Sophia began to rule. She ruled until 1689 and managed to do a lot of useful things:
- gave freedom to cities;
- realized the need to break through to the sea for the development of trade, for this two (though unsuccessful) Crimean campaigns were undertaken, in 1687 and 1689.
Sophia tried to seize all power, but the 17-year-old tsar was already ready to assume power.
Results
So, the 17th century in is not only "", a troubled age, but also a century of contradictions. In the Russian economy, the dominant position was occupied by the feudal structure, and at the same time, the capitalist structure of the economy was emerging. Despite the fact that the situation of the people was extremely difficult, serfdom was formalized, nevertheless, it was the people who could help one or another candidate for the Russian throne become king, believe him and follow him.
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
GOU VPO and State Pedagogical University. K.D. Ushinsky
Faculty of Physics and Mathematics Department of Correspondence Education
in history
theme: Russia in the 17th century
Completed:
student 212 group
Yaroslavl - 2010
Introduction
century - one of the most difficult periods of national history. A comprehensive political crisis struck society at the beginning of the century, feudal exploitation intensified, the legalization of serfdom was completed, changes in the church led to a deep social split, popular riots of unprecedented strength shook the country, the monarchy evolved towards absolutism, feudal landownership developed, the beginnings of bourgeois relations took shape. The old came into conflict with the new, the need for change was brewing in society.
This topic attracted me because of the richness of the socio-economic events that took place in this "rebellious age". After all, it was in the 17th century. Russia has entered a new period in its history, characterized by the beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market and the emergence of elements of bourgeois relations.
The purpose of the work is to identify and consider the main directions of Russia's development in the 17th century, the most important social upheavals of the population of that century, to clarify the socio-economic situation of the country at the turn of the 18th century, the "century of palace coups".
1. TROUBLES IN RUSSIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 17TH CENTURY
1 False Dmitry I
In 1602, a monk of the Kremlin Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev, a descendant of a noble family, later a serf of the Romanov boyars, fled from Russia to Poland.
Asking for help in seizing the throne of Moscow, False Dmitry promised the Polish king to cede Chernigov-Seversky lands to him and introduce Catholicism in Russia. The impostor did not receive official assistance, but the king allowed the Polish gentry to join his army. Polish magnates supported False Dmitry with money, especially Yuri Mnishek, whose daughter became the bride of the "tsarevich". Willingly joined the impostor and the Russians, especially the Cossacks, for various reasons (due to hunger, fear of persecution after the uprising of Khlopok, etc.) fled to Poland.
In the autumn of 1604, False Dmitry invaded Russia, having only about 4 thousand Cossacks and Poles. Despite the failures in the first clashes with government troops, his forces quickly grew due to the influx of discontented. The servicemen went over to his side, the cities opened their gates without a fight.
In April 1605, Boris Godunov died of shocks. His 16 year old son Fedor was deposed and killed. In June 1605, "Tsar Dmitry Ivanovich" entered Moscow.
We can say that False Dmitry took possession of Moscow on the crest of the beginning civil war. In this situation, people willingly believed in the miraculous salvation of Dmitry - the return of the legitimate tsar promised an end to disasters.
Having ascended the throne, False Dmitry behaved unusually for a Russian tsar. He personally accepted petitions, wandered around the city alone, convinced the boyars of the need to educate the people, offered to send nobles abroad for education, did not observe sedate palace customs, dressed in European dress. Perhaps if his reign had lasted longer, Russia would have begun rapprochement with Western Europe.
But False Dmitry lost his support, because by his actions he pushed all political forces away from him. He did not fulfill his promises to the king: there was no talk of territorial concessions or the introduction of Catholicism.
The king did not even allow the construction of Catholic churches. The Poles were unhappy with him. The Orthodox clergy were afraid of the tsar, who neglected Orthodoxy, who wore a European dress, who was married to a Catholic. The servants were offended by the proximity of the Poles and Cossacks to the tsar. The peasants were deceived in their hopes for the restoration of St. George's Day.
In May 1606, shortly after his marriage to Marina Mnishek, False Dmitry was overthrown and killed.
2 Vasily Shuisky
The Zemsky Sobor elected the boyar Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky as the new tsar, who led the conspiracy against the impostor.
Assuming the throne, V.I. Shuisky swore allegiance to his subjects for the first time - he gave a "cross-kissing record", promising not to impose disgrace without a boyar court, not to listen to false denunciations, not to persecute the relatives of the disgraced. Legal guarantees extended not only to the boyars and the nobility, but even to black people. If Ivan the Terrible considered all subjects to be serfs, that is, slaves, then the cross-kissing record for the first time in Russian history affirmed the principle of an agreement between the tsar and subjects. The "cross-kissing record" reflected the weakening of the royal power in connection with the termination of the legitimate dynasty and its increased dependence on the "land" - society.
The election of V.I. Shuisky to the kingdom could not prevent the escalation of the civil war. Cossacks, many peasants, townspeople and even servicemen opposed the oath to the new tsar, believing in the miraculous new salvation of "Dmitry". Such sentiments were especially widespread in the southern outskirts, the population of which was afraid of the revenge of V. Shuisky for helping False Dmitry I to seize Moscow.
3 Bolotnikov's uprising
In 1606, the rebellious Cossacks were led by Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov, a former military serf, Prince. Telyatevsky. Having been captured by the Crimeans in one of the campaigns, he was sold into slavery and spent a number of years as a rower on a galley. Freed, Bolotnikov returned to his homeland through Germany and Poland. In Poland, he met another contender for the role of "Tsar Dmitry" - M. Molchanov and was sent by him to Russia as the chief governor. From Putivl, he led the rebels to Moscow. Along the way, Bolotnikov's army united with detachments of Ryazan and Tula service people under the command of P. Lyapunov and I. Pashkov.
In social terms, Bolotnikov's army was heterogeneous - peasants, Cossacks, serfs, service people. All of them were united by faith in the legitimate Tsar Dmitry. However, their own interests did not coincide, and often were opposite.
Having occupied Kaluga and Kashira, Bolotnikov approached Moscow at the end of October and began its siege, camping in the village of Kolomenskoye. The siege lasted over a month. During this time, the leaders of the rebel nobles became convinced that Bolotnikov was speaking on behalf of an impostor. In addition, contradictions between the Cossacks and service people were growing in the camp of the rebels. All this led to the transition of the nobles to the side of Shuisky. In the decisive battle near Kolomenskoye in December 1606, Bolotnikov was defeated and forced to retreat to Kaluga. There he united with the detachments of the self-styled "Tsarevich Peter" - the Murom townsman Ilya Gorchakov ("Ileyka Muromets"), posing as the son of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich. Bolotnikov and Gorchakov successfully repulsed the attacks of the tsarist troops several times, but in the end they were forced to retreat to Tula, which was besieged by Shuisky's troops. The siege continued for more than three months. The rebels capitulated only after government troops built a dam on the river. Upe and flooded Tula. Shuisky promised to save the lives of the leaders of the uprising, but did not keep his word: Ileika of Muromets was hanged, Bolotnikov was blinded, exiled to Kargopol and drowned there.
4 False Dmitry II
In 1608, a new impostor appeared near Moscow - False Dmitry II. He was sent by the Poles to Bolotnikov's camp in order to strengthen the shattered faith of the rebels in "Tsar Dmitry". However, he did not have time to connect with Bolotnikov and laid siege to Moscow, camping in the village of Tushino near Moscow. Contemporaries called him "Tushino thief." In the Tushino camp there were Cossacks, peasants, serfs, service people, even noble boyars. However, the main role was played by the Poles, on whom the new impostor, unlike his talented predecessor, was completely dependent.
In September 1608, Polish detachments besieged the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, but they could not take it for 18 months.
Gradually, the authority of False Dmitry II began to fall. The robberies of the Cossacks and Poles pushed the population away from the "Tushino thief". The peasants began to create partisan detachments to fight the Tushins. However, the Shuisky government did not have the strength to defeat the Tushins.
Under these conditions, the tsar asked Sweden for help, promising to transfer to her the Korelsky volost, which Russia regained under the Tyavzin Peace of 1595. In 1609, the Russian troops of M.V. Skopin - Shuisky and the Swedish detachment of General Delagardi defeated the Tushino people near Tver. But the Swedes evaded further assistance to Russia. To pay salaries to the Swedes, new taxes were introduced, which worsened the situation of the population and set it against V.I. Shuisky.
In addition, Russia's appeal to Sweden for help gave Poland a pretext for open intervention in Russia, because. Poland and Sweden were at war.
5 Polish intervention
In September 1609, Polish troops invaded Russia and laid siege to Smolensk. King Sigismund recalled all the Poles from the Tushino camp, which then disintegrated. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed.
In January 1610 M.V. Skopin-Shuisky liberated the Trinity-Sergius Monastery from the siege. But he soon died under mysterious circumstances. Rumor accused the brother and heir of the tsar, Prince D.I., of his murder. Shuisky. Meanwhile, the troops of the Polish hetman S. Zolkiewski were approaching Moscow. In the battle near vil. Klushino near Mozhaisk, the royal governors were defeated.
In this situation, in the summer of 1610, a group of boyars and nobles forced V.I. Shuisky to abdicate and take the veil as a monk. Power passed into the hands of the Seven Boyars.
Not wanting to re-select a tsar from among the boyars and seeking to reconcile with the Poles, the Seven Boyars turned to S. Zholkevsky with a proposal to call the son of the Polish king Vladislav to the Russian throne. (Earlier, the Tushino boyars offered the same). In the Russian-Polish treaty, the cross-kissing record was confirmed, the observance of Russian customs was guaranteed. Vladislav had to convert to Orthodoxy. Having concluded an agreement, the boyars let the Poles into Moscow, and the Russian embassy headed by F.N. Romanov. However, the king did not approve the treaty, not wanting his son to betray Catholicism.
Negotiations reached an impasse, and the Russian ambassadors found themselves in the position of captives. Moscow swore allegiance to Vladislav.
The time of anarchy has come in Russia. Everyone decides for himself what kind of power he recognizes. The same lands were complained by different authorities to different people and as a result had several owners. This situation was intolerable. The way out was the convocation of a national militia to liberate Moscow.
6 First militia
In February 1611, the militia moved towards Moscow. It was headed by the "Council of the Whole Earth". The main role in the militia was played by the Cossacks under the leadership of Ataman I. Zarutsky and Prince D.T. Trubetskoy and the nobles, led by P. Lyapunov. The militia managed to capture the White City (the territory inside the current Boulevard Ring), but the Poles kept Kitai-Gorod and the Kremlin.
The siege dragged on. In the camp of the besiegers, contradictions grew between the nobles and the Cossacks. Adopted on June 30, 1611, on the initiative of P. Lyapunov, the "Sentence of the Whole Land" forbade the appointment of Cossacks to positions in the management system and demanded that fugitive peasants and serfs be returned to their owners. This caused indignation of the Cossacks. Lyapunov was killed. In response, the nobles abandoned the militia, and it disintegrated.
June 1611 Smolensk fell. Sigismund announced that not Vladislav, but he himself would become the Russian Tsar. This meant that Russia would be included in the Commonwealth. In July, the Swedes captured Novgorod and the surrounding lands.
1.7 Second militia
In the autumn of 1611, at the call of the Nizhny Novgorod merchant head K. Minin, the formation of the Second Militia began. Townsmen played the main role in it. Prince D.M. became the military leader of the militia. Pozharsky. Minin and Pozharsky headed the Council of the whole earth. Funds for arming the militia were obtained thanks to voluntary donations from the population and mandatory taxation on a fifth of the property. Yaroslavl became the center for the formation of a new militia.
In August 1612, the Second Home Guard united with the remnants of the First Home Guard, still besieging Moscow. At the end of August, the Russians did not allow the Polish hetman Khodkevich, who was going to the aid of the garrison with a large convoy, to break into Moscow. At the end of October, Moscow was liberated.
8 Election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom
In 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected a new tsar, Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov. Formally, the Romanovs had the right to the throne as relatives of the former dynasty: Mikhail's grandfather, Nikita Romanovich Yuryev, was the brother of Ivan the Terrible's first wife, Anastasia Romanovna. In fact, their election suited everyone.
N.R. Yuryev was close to Grozny, but he was not a member of the oprichnina, he was even considered an intercessor for the innocent. Therefore, both the former guardsmen and the former zemstvos saw their own in the Romanovs. Mikhail's father Fyodor Nikitich (after tonsure - Filaret) was a prisoner in Tushino, but in fact he was there in the position of an honored guest. The people of Tushino even called him patriarch.
The election of M.F. Romanov to the kingdom was not accompanied by the signing of a document such as a "cross-kissing note". Royal power again became unlimited.
9 End of Troubles
The country at the end of the Troubles was in an extremely difficult situation. There were no forces to continue the war with the interventionists. In 1617, Russia concluded the Peace of Stolbovsky with Sweden. Novgorod and some other cities captured by the Swedes were returned, but Ivangorod, Oreshek, Yam and Koporye remained in the hands of Sweden. Russia finally lost access to the Baltic Sea.
In 1618, the Deulino truce was concluded with Poland. Russia retained its independence, but lost Smolensk and Chernigov-Seversky lands.
In the period of troubled times, the relationship between the internal political crisis in Russia and external aggression is very clearly visible. There was an ideological crisis caused by the fall of the authority of the royal power and the shock of the traditional foundations of society.
Troubles are not only a time of crisis and disasters. This is also the time when various paths for further development opened up before the Russian state. As a result, alternative opportunities were not used, but still, the Time of Troubles testified that Russia was on the verge of renewal.
2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY
1 Agriculture and land tenure
In the 17th century The basis of the Russian economy was still agriculture based on serf labor. Agrotechnics remained virtually unchanged for centuries, labor remained unproductive. Yield growth was achieved by extensive methods - mainly due to the development of new lands. The cessation of the Crimean raids made it possible to fearlessly develop the territories of the modern Central Black Earth region, where the yield was twice as high as in the old arable regions.
The economy remained predominantly natural - the bulk of the products were produced "for themselves." Not only food, but also clothes, shoes, household items were mostly produced in the peasant economy itself. The quitrent paid by the peasants was used by the landowners to meet the needs of their families and households.
At the same time, the growth of the territory, the differences in natural conditions brought to life the economic specialization of different regions of the country. So the Chernozem center and the Middle Volga region produced marketable grain, while the North, Siberia and the Don consumed imported grain.
The landowners, including the largest ones, almost did not resort to running an entrepreneurial economy, being content with collecting rent from the peasants. Feudal tenure in the 17th century continued to expand due to grants to the service people of black and palace lands. At the same time, the Church, according to the Code of 1649, lost the right to buy or accept new lands as contributions to the remembrance of the soul.
1.2 Industry
Much more widely than in agriculture, new phenomena have spread in industry. Its main form in the XVII century. craft remained. However, the nature of handicraft production has changed. In the 17th century artisans increasingly worked no longer to order, but to the market. Such a craft is called small-scale production. Its spread was caused by the growth of economic specialization in various regions of the country. So, Pomorye specialized in wood products, the Volga region - in leather processing, Pskov, Novgorod and Smolensk - in linen. Salt-making (North) and iron-making production (Tulsko-Kashirsky region) first acquired a small-scale commercial character, since these crafts depended on the availability of raw materials and could not develop everywhere.
In the 17th century along with handicraft workshops, large enterprises began to appear. Some of them were built on the basis of the division of labor and can be attributed to manufactories. For others, there was no division of labor, and they should be attributed to simple cooperation.
The first Russian manufactories appeared in metallurgy. In 1636, A. Vinius, a native of Holland, founded an ironworks that produced cannons and cannonballs for state orders, and also produced household items for the market. The plant was granted loans, palace peasants were assigned to it, performing auxiliary work (the main workers were hired). Following Vinius, other owners of metallurgical plants appeared.
Manufactories began to appear in light industry only at the very end of the 17th century. For the most part, they belonged to the state and produced products not for the market, but for the treasury or the royal court.
Manufacturing production based on wage labor is no longer a feudal, but a bourgeois phenomenon. The emergence of manufactories testified to the formation of capitalist elements in the Russian economy.
However, these were precisely the elements of the new, still extremely fragile. The number of manufacturing enterprises that simultaneously worked in Russia until the end of the 17th century did not exceed 15. Along with hired workers, forced laborers worked at Russian manufactories - convicts, palace artisans, and ascribed peasants. Most manufactories had little connection with the market. Finally, at the beginning of the 18th century, in the era of Peter I, wage labor in Russian manufactories was completely replaced by forced labor for a long time.
Based on the growing specialization of small-scale crafts (and partly agriculture), the formation of an all-Russian market began. If in the 16th century and earlier trade was carried out mainly within one district, now trade relations began to be established throughout the country. Moscow was the most important trading center. Extensive trade operations were carried out at fairs. The largest of them were Makaryevskaya near Nizhny Novgorod and Irbitskaya in the Urals.
Wholesale trade was in the hands of big merchants. The top of it was made up of guests, merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. They were exempted from taxes, township services, standing troops, had the right to acquire estates. Guests could even travel abroad for business purposes. (All other subjects of the Russian state, except for merchants, were not allowed to travel abroad). Retail trade was carried out by small shopkeepers or peddlers.
Russia conducted extensive foreign trade. The main demand for imported goods was made by the royal court, the treasury, the top of the service people.
They traded with the countries of the East along the Caspian and Volga. Astrakhan was the center of eastern trade. Carpets, fabrics, especially silk were imported into Russia.
From Europe, Russia imported metal products, cloth, paints, wines. Russian exports were hemp, flax, furs, leather, lard, and other products of agriculture and forestry.
Trade with European countries was hampered by the lack of access to the Baltic and Black Seas. The only seaport in Russia was Arkhangelsk, which was under ice for 8 months a year. It accounted for 3/4 of Russia's foreign trade turnover. They traded with the countries of Eastern Europe by land - through Smolensk, with Sweden - through Pskov and Novgorod. Foreign trade was mainly in the hands of foreign merchants, since the Russian merchant class had neither ships, nor sufficient capital, nor the organization necessary for foreign trade operations. Foreign merchants also penetrated the domestic market of Russia.
Under the pressure of the merchants, in 1653 the government adopted the Trade Charter, which replaced numerous trade duties with a single duty in the amount of 5% of the value of the goods. The duty on foreign merchants was raised to 6%, and on the sale of their goods not in Arkhangelsk, but within the country - 8%. In 1667, on the initiative of the prominent statesman A.L. Ordina - Nashchokin, the Novotrade Charter was adopted. From now on, foreign merchants had to pay a double duty for the sale of goods within Russia, they could only conduct wholesale trade and sell their goods only to Russians. Trade in Russia between foreigners was prohibited. The new trade charter protected the Russian merchants from competition and increased the revenues of the treasury. Thus, the economic policy of Russia became protectionist. The heyday of protectionism came in the next era - the reign of Peter I.
1.4 The final establishment of serfdom
In the middle of the XVII century. serfdom finally took shape. The process of its formation has been going on since the 80s. 16th century, when reserved summers were introduced. In 1597, a 5-year investigation of fugitives was established (the so-called "lesson summers"). In 1607, V. Shuisky increased his term to 15 years. But in the conditions of the Time of Troubles, this extension of the investigation could not be realized. During almost the entire reign of M.F. Romanov, a 5-year investigation was kept. Service people stubbornly sought the abolition of "lesson years" and an indefinite investigation. However, the government did not go for it, fearing the discontent of the peasants. In addition, the increase in the duration of the investigation was unprofitable for large landowners, in whose estates fugitives often took refuge. Only in 1645 was a 10-year investigation established.
However, the Salt Riot of 1648 frightened the government and forced it to accept the demands of the nobility. According to the "Cathedral Code" of 1649, "lesson years" were canceled, the investigation became indefinite. Harboring fugitives was punishable by fines. A fugitive who got married was returned to the former owner with the whole family, even if the other spouse was previously free or belonged to another owner. The property of the peasant was recognized as the property of the landowner, and could, for example, be sold to pay his debts. The serfs could no longer freely dispose of their own personality: they lost the right to act as serfs. All this meant the final establishment of serfdom in Russia.
Even more severe punishments were set for the fugitive black-haired and palace peasants, as well as for their harborers. This was due to increased concern for the payment of state taxes - taxes.
The code of 1649 actually enserfed the townspeople, attaching them to their places of residence. One of the slogans of the uprising in 1648 was the liquidation of white settlements - craft settlements around the city that belonged to secular feudal lords or the church. Craftsmen - White Sloboda did not bear taxes. Since the amount of the tax from the settlement remained constant, the transfer of each tax to the white settlements meant an increase in the tax for each townsman.
The Code of 1649, meeting the demands of the townspeople, included the white settlements in the tax and forbade the townspeople to continue to leave their communities, becoming serfs, and even moving to other townships. Fugitive townspeople were ordered to look for and return to their old places. Harboring townspeople was severely punished. The paradox of the situation lies in the fact that the settlements actually achieved their own enslavement. This is due to the fact that the Russian people of the XVII century. did not yet realize freedom as an independent value and easily sacrificed it for the sake of a stable, protected life.
In the 17th century there is a contradiction in the economic and social life of Russia. On the one hand, elements of the bourgeois way of life are emerging, the first manufactories appear, and the formation of the market begins. On the other hand, Russia finally becomes a feudal country, forced labor begins to spread to the sphere of industrial production. Russian society remained traditional, the backlog from Europe was accumulating. At the same time, in the 17th century the basis for the accelerated modernization of the Petrine era was prepared.
3. THE POLITICAL ORDER OF RUSSIA IN THE 17th century
The political system of Russia has undergone during the XVII century. significant changes, embarking on the path of formation of absolutism.
1 Zemsky Sobors
After the end of the Time of Troubles, a new dynasty appeared on the Russian throne, which needed to strengthen its authority. If the great princes and tsars from the Rurik dynasty could assert the originality and divine origin of their power (as Ivan IV did in correspondence with Kurbsky), then the Romanovs, elected to the throne, could rely only on the support of the "land". That is why in the first ten years of their reign, the Zemsky Sobors sat almost continuously. However, with the strengthening of power and the strengthening of the dynasty, Zemsky Sobors are convened less and less often and mainly decide foreign policy issues. In the middle of the 17th century, the Zemsky Sobor was convened in connection with the Salt Riot. The result of his activities was the Cathedral Code of 1649. The Zemsky Sobor of 1653, which decided the issue of accepting Ukraine under the rule of Moscow, turned out to be the last. In the future, only representatives of certain segments of the population were convened.
In recent years, the opinion has been increasingly expressed in science that the significance of the Zemsky Sobors in Russian history is exaggerated, that the participation of townspeople in them was irregular, and the black-haired peasants were episodic. Many historians believe that the cathedrals were not so much a class representation as a kind of information meetings that allowed the authorities to learn about the mood in the country. In this regard, the definition of the Russian monarchy of the 17th century is called into question. as "class-representative".
3.2 Boyar Duma
The tsar ruled on the basis of an advisory body - the Boyar Duma. Tsarist decrees began with the words "The Great Sovereign indicated and the boyars were sentenced." The Duma consisted of boyars, okolnichy, duma nobles and duma clerks. All members of the Duma were appointed by the tsar. In the Duma, the proportion of nobles and clerks gradually increased, that is, people who did not come from the aristocracy, but from middle-ranking service people and townspeople. The overall membership of the Duma grew, which had a negative effect on its efficiency. A number of important matters began to be decided bypassing the Duma, on the basis of discussion only with a few close associates. Created under Alexei Mikhailovich, the Order of Secret Affairs was not controlled by the Duma at all, but was directly subordinate to the tsar.
3 Command system
The role of orders in the management system of the 17th century. increased. The number of orders has increased. During the entire century, more than 80 of them are known, and by the end of it, more than 40 survived.
Orders were divided into temporary and permanent. Permanent orders were divided into palace (managed the royal estates and served the royal court), patriarchal (managed church estates and the personal property of the patriarch) and state. State orders were divided into territorial (Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc.) and functional (nationwide).
Functional orders included Ambassadorial (in charge of relations with foreign states), Local (in charge of local distributions and land transactions), Discharge (in charge of the noble service, conducted military reviews, determining the suitability of service people), Rogue order (engaged in the fight against robberies and state crimes) .
There were a number of nationwide financial orders, including the order of the Great Treasury, which was in charge of trade and industry, coinage.
A large group of nationwide orders dealt with military issues: Streltsy, Pushkar, Reitarsky orders were in charge of the respective branches of the armed forces, Cannon - casting cannons and cannonballs, the Armory - the manufacture of edged weapons.
With the development of the command system, the number of command people increased. In 1640 there were less than 900 of them, and by the end of the 17th century. - more than 3 thousand. The clerks and clerks who worked in the orders were from the townspeople, the clergy, and the merchants. Their career depended not on nobility, but on personal merit. Formed a professional administrative apparatus - the bureaucracy.
The command system was imperfect. The functions of many orders were intertwined. Thus, the regional orders themselves collected taxes in their jurisdiction, although the collection of taxes was within the competence of financial orders. Many orders were carried out by the court, although the judicial functions belonged to the Rogue Order. The judiciary was not separated from the administration. A lot of orders and confusion with their duties sometimes did not allow to sort things out, giving rise to the famous "ordering red tape". And yet the growth of the command system meant the development of the administrative apparatus, which served as a solid support for royal power.
4 Local control
The system of local government has also changed. After the abolition of feeding in the 50s. 16th century local power was concentrated in the hands of elected representatives of the local population: labial and zemstvo elders, favorite heads, etc. This was due to the fact that the state did not yet have sufficient apparatus to appoint its representatives to the localities. In the 17th century governors became such appointed representatives of the central government. In the XVI century. only the leaders of the troops were called governors. The governor was appointed to manage the border, that is, the territories threatened from a military point of view. However, during the Time of Troubles, the danger to the state arose everywhere. This explains the practice of appointing governors to the interior regions of the state, which became common after the Time of Troubles. The governor's service was "mercenary" - he did not receive a salary and lived at the expense of the subject population. However, this still did not mean a return to the practice of feeding, since for governors and volosts of the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries. feeding was a reward for the previous service, and for the governor of the XVII century. management itself was a service. The transfer of local power into the hands of governors appointed from the center meant a significant strengthening of the government apparatus and, in essence, the completion of the centralization of the country.
5 Making Absolutism
Attitude towards the person of the sovereign became in the 17th century. almost religious. The king was emphatically separated from his subjects and towered over them. In the Cathedral Code there was a whole chapter devoted to "how to protect his sovereign health." Even during the short absences of the tsar, a special decree was written from the Kremlin, to whom, during the absence of the sovereign, "the state was in charge." On solemn occasions, the tsar appeared in a Monomakh's hat, barm, with signs of his power - a scepter and an orb. Each appearance of the tsar was an event; when he went out to the people, he was led under the arms of the boyars. All this was an external manifestation of the formation of absolutism in the country.
Absolutism is understood as a monarchical power, not limited by any elected representative body, based on a developed administrative apparatus and subject to the law.
Completely absolutism in Russia developed under Peter I, and its heyday is usually attributed to the era of Catherine II. In the second half of the XVII century. there was a gradual formation of absolutism.
In the 17th century in the system of state administration, the changes were aimed at weakening the elective principle, professionalizing the apparatus and strengthening the sole royal power. If Ivan the Terrible needed extraordinary terrorist measures capable of intimidating the country in order to establish his own unlimited power, then Alexei Mikhailovich did not need them - his power was based on an extensive permanent control apparatus.
4. POPULAR UPRISINGS IN RUSSIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY
1 "Salt Riot"
century in Russian history gained a reputation as "rebellious". Indeed, it began with the Troubles, the middle of it was marked by urban uprisings, the last third - by the uprising of Stepan Razin.
The most important reasons for such a scale of social conflicts, unprecedented before in Russia, were the development of serfdom, the strengthening of state taxes and duties.
In 1646, a duty was introduced on salt, which significantly increased its price. Meanwhile, salt in the XVII century. was one of the most important products - the main preservative that allowed the storage of meat and fish. Following the salt, these products themselves have risen in price. Their sales fell, unsold goods began to deteriorate. This caused discontent, both consumers and merchants. Growth in government revenues was less than expected as salt smuggling developed. Already at the end of 1647, the "salt" tax was abolished. In an effort to compensate for the losses, the government cut the salaries of service people "according to the instrument", that is, archers and gunners. General discontent continued to grow.
June 1648 in Moscow there was a so-called "salt" riot. The crowd stopped the carriage of the tsar, who was returning from pilgrimage, and demanded that the head of the Zemsky order, Leonty Pleshcheev, be replaced. Pleshcheev's servants tried to disperse the audience, which only provoked even more bitterness. On June 2, pogroms of boyar estates began in Moscow. The clerk Nazariy Chistoy, whom Muscovites considered the inspirer of the salt tax, was killed. The rebels demanded that the closest associate of the tsar, boyar Morozov, who actually led the entire state apparatus, and the head of the Pushkar order, boyar Trakhaniotov, be handed over for reprisal. Not having the strength to suppress the uprising, in which, along with the townspeople, servicemen "according to the instrument" participated, the tsar yielded, ordering the extradition of Pleshcheev and Trakhaniotov, who were immediately killed. Morozov, his tutor and brother-in-law (the tsar and Morozov were married to sisters) Aleksey Mikhailovich "prayed" from the rebels and sent him into exile to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery.
The government announced the cessation of collecting arrears, convened the Zemsky Sobor, which met the most important demands of the townspeople to ban the transition to the "white settlements" and the nobles - to introduce an indefinite investigation of the fugitives. Thus, the government satisfied all the demands of the rebels, which indicates the relative weakness of the state apparatus (primarily repressive) at that time.
2 Uprisings in other cities
Following the Salt Riot, urban uprisings swept through other cities: Veliky Ustyug, Kursk, Kozlov, Pskov, Novgorod.
The strongest were the uprisings in Pskov and Novgorod, caused by a rise in the price of bread due to its deliveries to Sweden. The urban poor, who were threatened by famine, expelled the governor, defeated the courts of wealthy merchants and seized power. In the summer of 1650, both uprisings were suppressed by government troops, although they managed to enter Pskov only due to strife among the rebels.
3 "Copper Riot"
In 1662, a major uprising again took place in Moscow, which went down in history as the "Copper Riot". It was caused by an attempt by the government to replenish the treasury, devastated by a difficult long war with Poland (1654-1667) and Sweden (1656-1658). In order to compensate for the huge costs, the government put copper money into circulation, equating it with silver in price. At the same time, taxes were collected in silver coins, and goods were ordered to be sold with copper money. The salaries of servicemen were also paid in copper. Copper money was not trusted, especially since they were often forged. Not wanting to trade for copper money, the peasants stopped bringing food to Moscow, which caused prices to skyrocket. Copper money depreciated: if in 1661 two copper rubles were given for a silver ruble, then in 1662 - 8.
July 1662 a riot followed. Some of the townspeople rushed to smash the boyar estates, while others moved to the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, where the tsar was in those days. Alexei Mikhailovich promised the rebels to come to Moscow and sort things out. The crowd seemed to calm down. But in the meantime, new groups of rebels appeared in Kolomenskoye - those who had previously broken the courtyards of the boyars in the capital. They demanded that the tsar extradite the boyars most hated by the people and threatened that if the sovereign "does not give them back the boyars," then they "will begin to have them themselves, according to their custom."
However, during the negotiations, archers called by the tsar had already arrived in Kolomenskoye, who fell on the unarmed crowd and drove it to the river. Over 100 people drowned, many were hacked or captured, and the rest fled. By royal order, 150 rebels were hanged, the rest were beaten with a whip and branded with iron.
Unlike the "salt", "copper" rebellion was brutally suppressed, as the government managed to keep the archers on its side and use them against the townspeople.
4 Rebellion of Stepan Razin
The largest popular performance of the second half of the XVII century. happened on the Don and Volga.
The population of the Don was the Cossacks. The Cossacks were not engaged in agriculture. Their main occupations were hunting, fishing, cattle breeding and raids on the possessions of neighboring Turkey, the Crimea and Persia. For guard service to protect the southern borders of the state, the Cossacks received royal salaries in bread, money and gunpowder. The government also put up with the fact that runaway peasants and townspeople found shelter on the Don. The principle "no extradition from the Don" was in effect.
In the middle of the XVII century. equality no longer existed in the Cossack environment. The elite of the wealthy ("home-loving") Cossacks stood out, who owned the best fisheries, herds of horses, who received the best share in the booty and the royal salary. Poor ("goat-like") Cossacks worked for the homely.
In the 40s. 17th century the Cossacks lost access to the Azov and Black Seas, as the Turks fortified the fortress of Azov. This prompted the Cossacks to move their campaigns for prey to the Volga and the Caspian Sea. The robbery of Russian and Persian merchant caravans caused great damage to trade with Persia and the entire economy of the Lower Volga region. Simultaneously with the influx of fugitives from Russia, the hostility of the Cossacks to the Moscow boyars and clerks also grew.
Already in 1666, a detachment of Cossacks under the command of Ataman Vasily Us invaded Russia from the Upper Don, reached almost Tula, destroying noble estates on its way. Only the threat of a meeting with a large government army forced Mustache to turn back. Numerous serfs who joined him went with him to the Don. The speech of Vasily Us showed that the Cossacks are ready at any moment to oppose the existing order and authorities.
In 1667, a detachment of a thousand Cossacks went to the Caspian Sea on a campaign "for zipuns", that is, for prey. At the head of this detachment was ataman Stepan Timofeevich Razin - a native of the homely Cossacks, strong-willed, intelligent and mercilessly cruel. Razin's detachment during 1667-1669 robbed Russian and Persian merchant caravans, attacked coastal Persian cities. With rich booty, the Razintsy returned to Astrakhan, and from there to the Don. "Campaign for zipuns" was purely predatory. However, its meaning is wider. It was in this campaign that the core of the Razin army was formed, and the generous distribution of alms to the common people brought unprecedented popularity to the ataman.
In the spring of 1670, Razin began a new campaign. This time he decided to go against the "traitor boyars". Without resistance, Tsaritsyn was captured, the inhabitants of which gladly opened the gates to the Cossacks. The archers sent against Razin from Astrakhan went over to his side. Their example was followed by the rest of the Astrakhan garrison. The resisting voevoda and the Astrakhan nobles were killed.
After that, Razin headed up the Volga. Along the way, he sent out "charming letters", calling on the common people to beat the boyars, governors, nobles and clerks. To attract supporters, Razin spread a rumor that Tsarevich Alexei Alekseevich (actually already deceased) and Patriarch Nikon were in his army.
The main participants in the uprising were Cossacks, peasants, serfs, townspeople and workers. The cities of the Volga region surrendered without resistance. In all the captured cities, Razin introduced management along the lines of the Cossack circle.
Failure awaited Razin only near Simbirsk, the siege of which dragged on. Meanwhile, the government sent a 60,000-strong army to suppress the uprising. On October 3, 1670, near Simbirsk, the government army under the command of the governor Yuri Baryatinsky inflicted a severe defeat on the Razints. Razin was wounded and fled to the Don, to the Kagalnitsky town, from which he began his campaign a year ago. He hoped to re-gather his supporters. However, the thrifty Cossacks, led by the military ataman Kornila Yakovlev, realizing that Razin's actions could bring royal wrath on all the Cossacks, seized him and handed him over to the government governors.
Razin was tortured and in the summer of 1671 he was executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow along with his brother Frol. The participants in the uprising were subjected to cruel persecution and executions.
The main reasons for the defeat of the Razin uprising were its spontaneity and low organization, the fragmentation of the actions of the peasants, as a rule, limited to the destruction of the estate of their own master, the lack of clearly conscious goals for the rebels. Even if the Razintsy had managed to win and capture Moscow, they would not have been able to create a new just society. After all, the only example of such a just society in their minds was the Cossack circle. But the whole country cannot exist due to the seizure and division of other people's property. Any state needs a system of government, an army, taxes. Therefore, the victory of the rebels would inevitably be followed by a new social differentiation. The victory of the unorganized peasant and Cossack masses would inevitably lead to great sacrifices and would cause significant damage to Russian culture and the development of the Russian state.
Causes of "rebelliousness" of the 17th century. - the formation of serfdom and the growth of state duties, caused by numerous wars and an increase in the state apparatus in connection with the completion of centralization and the gradual formation of absolutism.
All uprisings of the 17th century. were spontaneous. The participants in the events acted under the influence of desperation and the desire to capture prey. It should be noted the fundamental difference in the outcome of the Salt and Copper riots, caused by the strengthening of power between 1648 and 1662.
Speaking of the Razin uprising, it should be noted that most of the major uprisings began on the outskirts, since, on the one hand, many fugitives accumulated there, not burdened with a large economy and ready for decisive action, and on the other hand, the power there was much weaker than in the center of the country.
politics economic uprising church
5. FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE XVII CENTURY. ACCESSION OF UKRAINE
The main foreign policy partners of Russia in the XVII century. remained Poland, Sweden and Turkey with its vassal - the Crimean Khanate.
1 Smolensk War
After the end of the Time of Troubles and the signing of the Truce of Deulino, Russia's relations with Poland remained difficult. Under the terms of the armistice, Russia lost its former Smolensk and Chernigov-Seversky lands. In addition, Vladislav did not renounce his claims to the Russian throne.
When the truce expired in 1632, and at the same time the Polish king Sigismund III died, the Russian government decided to take advantage of the inevitable weakening of Poland in connection with the election of a new king and return the lost lands. Thus began the Smolensk war. Russian troops under the command of voivode Shein captured a number of Western Russian cities and besieged Smolensk. However, they themselves soon found themselves surrounded by the army of the new Polish king Vladislav and forced to capitulate.
According to the Treaty of Polyanovsky concluded in 1634, Poland returned all the cities captured by the Russians, but Vladislav officially renounced his claims to the Russian throne and recognized Mikhail Fedorovich as king and "brother", that is, equal to himself.
2 Strengthening the southern borders. Azov seat
In the 17th century Russia continued to move south. Taking advantage of the gradual weakening of the Crimean Khanate and the cessation of raids, the Russians built the cities of Tambov and Kozlov. Along the borders, ramparts, ditches, and notches were built, connecting many fortified towns.
In 1637, the Don Cossacks captured the Turkish fortress of Azov. The attempts of the Turks to recapture the fortress were unsuccessful - the Cossacks withstood the siege. In 1641, the Cossacks asked the tsar to take Azov under their authority. But this was fraught with an exhausting war with Turkey. Convened in 1642, the Zemsky Sobor spoke out against the war with the voices of the townspeople and merchants. The king, who initially favorably reacted to the Cossack actions, was forced to order the Cossacks to return Azov. The attitude of the Cossacks to the government, of course, worsened.
3 Accession of Ukraine and war with Poland
In the 50s. Russia entered into a protracted war with Poland, which was caused by the adoption of Ukraine under the rule of Moscow.
Since the time of the Horde yoke, most of Ukraine has been under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and then - the Commonwealth. The state language was Polish, the state religion was Catholicism, the main land holdings were in the hands of Polish magnates. Ukrainians turned out to be second-class people. Most of them were serfs. Only a part of the Ukrainians managed to switch to the Cossack position.
Fugitive peasants and city dwellers, as well as small Ukrainian gentry, became Cossacks. The Cossacks lived by hunting, fishing and raids on the Crimean possessions. The transformation of the Cossacks into a kind of frontier (border) army, guarding the borders from the Crimeans, was beneficial to the Polish crown. Therefore, part of the Cossacks was accepted into the royal service, received a monetary salary and land ownership from the crown. Such Cossacks were called registered (from the word "registry" - a list of those in the service). Registered Cossacks united in regiments headed by colonels and captains, and at the head of the entire Cossacks was an elected hetman, who was approved by the king. Cossacks who were not included in the register often went to the so-called Zaporozhian Sich, on the island of Khortitsa below the Dnieper rapids.
The Zaporizhian Cossacks were freemen headed by an elected ataman, who bore the title of "kosh ataman". The rebellious Cossacks often attacked not only the Crimean possessions, but also Poland. Women were not allowed in Zaporozhye. Farming was strictly prohibited. There was no insurmountable line between the Zaporizhzhya and registered Cossacks, since often the stay in Zaporozhye was temporary.
In 1648, the largest Cossack uprising against the Poles took place under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnitsky. B. Khmelnitsky was a Cossack centurion, participated on the side of Poland in the Smolensk War, for which he received an award from King Vladislav. However, after the Polish gentry Chaplinsky plundered his farm and killed his son, he fled to Zaporozhye and raised the Cossacks to revolt. In 1648, Khmelnytsky's rebels successively defeated the Polish troops in the battles at Zhovti Vody, Korsun and Pylyavtsy, captured part of Volhynia and Podolia. At the end of 1648 they occupied Kyiv. Masses of the Ukrainian Cossacks and peasantry joined the uprising. In August 1649, the rebels defeated the Polish army near Zborov. However, Khmelnitsky's ally - the Crimean Khan - went over to the side of the Poles. If at first the khan was interested in the successes of the Cossacks, who weakened the dangerous enemy of the Crimea - Poland, but then, as Khmelnitsky's growing successes, the Cossacks themselves began to pose a threat to the Crimea, and it became profitable for the Tatars to support Poland.
Having lost the support of the Crimeans, the rebels were forced to sign the Zborovsky peace treaty with Poland. The Cossack register was increased to 40 thousand people, three provinces - Kiev, Chernihiv and Bratslav - came under the hetman's control. The power of the gentry was limited here, all positions could only be occupied by the Orthodox. However, gentry landownership and dependence of peasants on pans were preserved. This led to the dissatisfaction of the peasant masses with a peace treaty, from which only the Cossack elite received real benefits. It was under the pressure of the peasantry that Khmelnytsky was forced to resume hostilities.
In 1651, in the battle near Berestechko, Khmelnitsky's army suffered a heavy defeat, as unreliable allies - the Crimeans again went over to the Polish side in the midst of the battle. The defeat forced the conclusion of a new, much less profitable Belotserkovsky peace. Now only the Kiev province remained under the control of the hetman, the register was halved - to 20 thousand. True, this agreement never entered into force, since the Polish Sejm rejected it, hoping to finally finish off the rebels.
In 1652, the rebels won a victory near Batog (on the Southern Bug), but even this victory did not allow Ukraine to hope for victory in single combat with Poland. Having no reliable allies, Ukraine could only count on the help of Russia of the same faith. Khmelnitsky, from the very beginning of the liberation struggle, repeatedly turned to Moscow with a request for patronage. However, the Russian government did not dare to take such a step for a long time, realizing that it would entail a new war with Poland.
Only in 1653 did the Zemsky Sobor decide to accept Ukraine "under the high hand" of the tsar. On January 8, 1654, the Ukrainian Rada in the city of Pereyaslav approved the transition under Moscow patronage and swore allegiance to the tsar.
This decision did not mean the entry of Ukraine into the Russian state: a kind of contractual relationship was established, reminiscent of a protectorate. In Ukraine, an elected Cossack administration headed by a hetman was preserved, and the local order of legal proceedings continued to operate. Ukraine even retained its foreign policy independence: it could conduct independent contacts with all countries except Poland and Turkey. True, later the Russian government began to gradually limit Ukrainian independence, destroy local traditions, turning Ukraine into an ordinary part of Russia. This process ended under Catherine II with the destruction of the hetmanate and the Zaporozhian Sich.
The decision of the Council of 1653 meant war. In 1654, the Russians captured Smolensk and part of Belarus. This war, in which the Swedes also intervened, took on a protracted character. In 1661, negotiations began, which continued until 1667, when the Andrusovo truce was concluded. Russia acquired Smolensk and Left-Bank Ukraine. Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus remained with Poland. A compromise decision was made on Kyiv - it passed to Russia for two years. However, subsequently Russia did not return Kyiv to Poland, and in 1686, according to the so-called "Eternal Peace", she achieved its permanent consolidation.
4 War with Sweden
The defeat of Poland at the initial stage of the Russian-Polish war allowed Sweden to capture a number of Polish cities and create a threat to the western borders of Russia. In 1656 the Russian-Swedish war began. The Russians captured Dorpat and laid siege to Riga, but they could not take it. The war simultaneously with Poland and Sweden was beyond the power of Russia. In addition, the top of the Cossacks, led by Hetman I. Vyhovsky, reoriented towards the Commonwealth and entered into an alliance with it against Russia. In 1658, the Russian-Swedish truce was signed, and in 1661, the Peace of Cardis, according to which Russia abandoned all its acquisitions in the Baltic states.
Thus, the main foreign policy task - access to the shores of the Baltic Sea - was not resolved. Russia still remained cut off from sea trade routes.
The main foreign policy goals of Russia in the XVII century. remained the return of the lands lost during the Time of Troubles and access to the sea. It was not possible to achieve access to the sea due to the military weakness of Russia.
Entry into a major war, as a rule, required the convening of the Zemsky Sobor, as it was associated with extraordinary expenses and possible unrest.
Russia fought wars not only for its lost territories, but also for the lands that were once part of Kievan Rus, but never belonged to the Muscovite state.
The decision of the Pereyaslav Rada meant that Ukraine was asking for Moscow's patronage, but not for Ukraine's entry into the Russian state.
6. THE SCHIMEN OF THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. CHURCH AND STATE IN THE 17TH CENTURY
6.1 Reasons for church reform
The centralization of the Russian state required the unification of church rules and rituals. Already in the XVI century. A uniform all-Russian set of saints was established. However, significant discrepancies remained in the liturgical books, often caused by scribal errors. The elimination of these differences became one of the goals created in the 40s. 17th century in Moscow, a circle of "zealots of ancient piety", which consisted of prominent representatives of the clergy. He also sought to correct the morals of the clergy.
The spread of printing made it possible to establish the uniformity of texts, but first it was necessary to decide on which models to make corrections.
Political considerations played a decisive role in resolving this issue. The desire to make Moscow (the "Third Rome") the center of world Orthodoxy demanded rapprochement with Greek Orthodoxy. However, the Greek clergy insisted on correcting Russian church books and rituals according to the Greek model.
Since the introduction of Orthodoxy in Rus', the Greek Church has gone through a number of reforms and differed significantly from the ancient Byzantine and Russian models. Therefore, part of the Russian clergy, led by "zealots of ancient piety," opposed the proposed reforms. However, Patriarch Nikon, relying on the support of Alexei Mikhailovich, resolutely carried out the planned reforms.
6.2 Patriarch Nikon
Nikon comes from the family of the Mordovian peasant Mina, in the world - Nikita Minin. He became patriarch in 1652. Nikon, distinguished by his inflexible, resolute character, had tremendous influence on Alexei Mikhailovich, who called him his "sobin (special) friend."
The most important ceremonial changes were: baptism not with two, but with three fingers, the replacement of prostrations with the waist, the singing of "hallelujah" three times instead of twice, the movement of believers in the church past the altar not in the direction of the sun, but against it. The name of Christ began to be written differently - "Jesus" instead of "Jesus". Some changes were made to the rules of worship and icon painting. All books and icons painted according to old models were to be destroyed.
4 Reaction to reform
For believers, this was a serious departure from the traditional canon. After all, a prayer uttered not according to the rules is not only ineffective - it is blasphemous! The most stubborn and consistent opponents of Nikon were the "zealots of ancient piety" (previously the patriarch himself was a member of this circle). They accused him of introducing "Latinism", since the Greek Church since the time of the Union of Florence in 1439 was considered "spoiled" in Russia. Moreover, Greek liturgical books were printed not in Turkish Constantinople, but in Catholic Venice.
6.5 The emergence of a split
Nikon's opponents - the "Old Believers" - refused to recognize the reforms he had carried out. At church councils in 1654 and 1656. Nikon's opponents were accused of schism, excommunicated and exiled.
The most prominent supporter of the schism was Archpriest Avvakum, a talented publicist and preacher. The former court priest, a member of the circle of "zealots of ancient piety" survived a difficult exile, suffering, death of children, but did not abandon the fanatical opposition to "Nikonianism" and its defender - the king. After a 14-year imprisonment in an "earth prison", Avvakum was burned alive for "blasphemy against the royal house." Avvakum's "Life" written by himself became the most famous work of the Stora-Rite literature.
6 Old Believers
The church council of 1666/1667 cursed the Old Believers. Severe persecution of dissenters began. Supporters of the split were hiding in the hard-to-reach forests of the North, the Volga region, and the Urals. Here they created sketes, continuing to pray in the old way. Often, in the event of the approach of the royal punitive detachments, they staged a "burn" - self-immolation.
The monks of the Solovetsky Monastery did not accept Nikon's reforms. Until 1676, the rebellious monastery withstood the siege of the tsarist troops. The rebels, believing that Alexei Mikhailovich had become a servant of the Antichrist, abandoned the traditional Orthodox prayer for the tsar.
The reasons for the fanatical stubbornness of the schismatics were rooted, first of all, in their belief that Nikonianism was a product of Satan. However, this confidence itself was fed by certain social reasons.
There were many clerics among the schismatics. For the ordinary priest, the innovations meant that he had lived his whole life incorrectly. In addition, many clergy were illiterate and not prepared to master new books and customs. Posad people and merchants also widely participated in the split. Nikon had long been in conflict with the settlements, objecting to the liquidation of the "white settlements" that belonged to the church. The monasteries and the patriarchal see were engaged in trade and crafts, which irritated the merchants, who believed that the clergy were illegally intruding into their sphere of activity. Therefore, the settlement readily perceived everything that came from the patriarch as evil.
Among the Old Believers were also representatives of the ruling strata, for example, the noblewoman Morozova and Princess Urusova. However, these are still isolated examples.
The bulk of the schismatics were peasants who left for sketes not only for the right faith, but also for freedom, from the lordly and monastic requisitions.
Naturally, subjectively, each Old Believer saw the reasons for his leaving the schism solely in the rejection of "Nikon's heresy."
There were no bishops among the schismatics. There was no one to ordain new priests. In this situation, some of the Old Believers resorted to "re-baptizing" the Nikonian priests who had gone into schism, while others abandoned the clergy altogether. The community of such schismatics - "bespriests" was led by "mentors" or "learners" - the most knowledgeable in the Scripture believers. Outwardly, the "priestless" trend in the schism resembled Protestantism. However, this similarity is illusory. Protestants rejected the priesthood on principle, believing that a person does not need an intermediary in communion with God. The schismatics, on the other hand, rejected the priesthood and the church hierarchy by force, in an accidental situation.
The ideology of the split, which was based on the rejection of everything new, the fundamental rejection of any foreign influence, secular education, was extremely conservative.
6.7 Conflict of church and secular power. Fall of Nikon
The imperious Nikon sought to revive the correlation of secular and ecclesiastical authorities that existed under Filaret. Nikon argued that the priesthood is higher than the kingdom, since it represents God, and secular power is from God. He actively intervened in secular affairs.
Gradually, Alexei Mikhailovich began to be weary of the power of the patriarch. In 1658 there was a gap between them. The king demanded that Nikon no longer be called the great sovereign. Then Nikon declared that he did not want to be a patriarch "in Moscow" and left for the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery on the river. Istra. He hoped that the king would yield, but he was mistaken. On the contrary, the patriarch was required to resign so that a new head of the church could be elected. Nikon replied that he did not refuse the rank of patriarch, and did not want to be patriarch only "in Moscow."
Neither the tsar nor the church council could remove the patriarch. Only in 1666 did a church council take place in Moscow with the participation of two ecumenical patriarchs - Antioch and Alexandria. The council supported the tsar and deprived Nikon of his patriarchal rank. Nikon was imprisoned in the monastery prison, where he died in 1681.
The resolution of the "Nikon case" in favor of the secular authorities meant that the church could no longer interfere in state affairs. Since that time, the process of subordinating the church to the state began, which ended under Peter I with the liquidation of the patriarchate, the creation of the Holy Synod headed by a secular official, and the transformation of the Russian Orthodox Church into a state church.
The question of the relationship between secular and ecclesiastical authorities was one of the most important in the political life of the Russian state in the 15th-17th centuries. In the XVI century. the dominant Josephite trend in the Russian Church abandoned the thesis of the superiority of church authority over secular. After the massacre of Grozny over Metropolitan Philip, the subordination of the church to the state seemed final. However, the situation changed during the Troubles. The authority of the royal power was shaken due to the abundance of impostors and a series of perjury. The authority of the church, thanks to Patriarch Hermogenes, who led the spiritual resistance to the Poles and accepted martyrdom from them, which became the most important unifying force, increased. The political role of the church increased even more under Patriarch Filaret, the father of Tsar Michael.
The split in the Russian Orthodox Church occurred for the following reasons:
· The need for church reform in the middle of the XVII century. from the point of view of establishing the uniformity of worship.
· The desire of the secular and ecclesiastical authorities to correct books and rituals according to Greek models in order to strengthen the leading role of the Muscovite state in the Orthodox world.
· The combination of social and purely religious motives in the emergence of the Old Believers.
· The conservative nature of the ideology of the split.
Nikon's confrontation with Alexei Mikhailovich is the last open conflict between the church and state power, after which it is only a question of the degree of subordination of the church to secular authorities.
7. RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE 17th century
1 Material culture
Life of Russian people in the 17th century. changed gradually. The cuisine of the vast majority of the population remained traditional. It was based on cabbage soup, cereals, bread and various flour dishes. A lot of fish was consumed. Meat was also available even to people of low income. From drinks they preferred various kvass, meads, beer. Imported wines, spices, fruits appeared in rich houses.
The Russian costume, while remaining basically traditional, has undergone certain changes. Clothing became more diverse, caftans of various cuts appeared, hats of various shapes appeared. At the end of the XVII century. noble dandies often rejected the long-skirted Russian dress, preferring more comfortable Polish or Hungarian.
Rich houses were increasingly built of stone. Mirrors and paintings appeared in the rooms, often on secular themes. The furniture has become more diverse.
The craft continued to develop. Particularly significant success was achieved by craftsmen engaged in iron processing, jewelry, bell casting, weaving, and the production of wooden products. In connection with the spread of small-scale production, handicraft products became more diverse. In Russia, they learned how to produce glass, the first glass factory was even founded.
2 Education and writing
The growth of handicrafts, trade, the strengthening of the state apparatus caused a wider spread of literacy among the urban population. It is believed that among the townspeople 40-50% were literate.
Literacy was taught mainly by clergy and clerks. Taught from church books. The first Russian primer was published in the 90s. 17th century
However, already in the first half of the 17th century, private schools appeared, where they taught not only literacy, but also rhetoric and ancient languages. Their teachers were often learned Ukrainian monks. One of them was the outstanding educator Simeon of Polotsk. In 1685, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was established, founded by the Greek brothers Likhuds who came from Ukraine. The academy was modeled after European universities. The teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin (which gave it its name). Rhetoric, logic, philosophy and physics were taught.
Handwritten books were still widely distributed. In the middle of the XVII century. paper production was established in Russia. However, it was not enough, so paper was brought from Europe. The printing industry also expanded. More than 150 people worked at the Moscow Printing House. In the first half of the 17th century Over 200 books have been published. Liturgical books, official documents, textbooks prevailed among them.
3 Literature
in the literature of the 17th century. secular features are especially noticeable. The heroes of literary works acquire individual characters. Dexterity, enterprise are valued. Literature of the 17th century began to show interest in the inner world of a person, his personal, intimate experiences. So, in the "Tale of the Tver Boy Monastery" tells about the suffering of the prince's youth, from whom the prince took the bride. However, the outcome of the narrative is decided in a purely religious spirit: the unfortunate, at the behest of the Virgin, founds a monastery.
In The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, a young man who has rejected the traditions of a patriarchal parental family suffers disasters and, in the end, goes to a monastery. It is characteristic that the monastic cell, in contrast to the literature of previous centuries, is understood not as a desired quiet haven, but as a forced and bleak haven.
These examples show that the literature of the XVII century. I was just beginning to break with tradition. In the stories of the beginning of the 18th century, when the process of secularization will lead to the final triumph of the secular principle in literature, the heroes will emerge victorious from any life conflicts.
in the literature of the 17th century. fundamentally new genres appeared: satire, drama, poetry.
In "Kalyazinsky petition" and a number of other works, the dissolute mores of the clergy were ridiculed. In the Tale of the Hawk Moth, the drunkard argued that he had more rights to heavenly bliss than the saints, listing the sins of the heroes of Holy Scripture.
The emergence of Russian poetry and drama is associated with the name of Simeon of Polotsk. The autobiographical genre came to Russian literature thanks to the "Life" of Archpriest Avvakum. Avvakum acted not only as a passionate publicist and exposer of ecclesiastical and secular authorities, but also as a reformer of the literary language. boldly introducing vernacular into written speech.
4 Architecture
Architecture of the 17th century has undergone significant changes. Along with religious buildings made of brick and stone, residential buildings and civil buildings began to be erected. The appearance of the churches also changed: they became less severe and ascetic, acquired an elegant festive look, and were decorated with colored bricks and tiles. For temples of the XVII century. Bulb-shaped domes, elongated under-dome drums, numerous kokoshniks, platbands, and columns are characteristic.
The Trinity Church in Nikitniki, built in the 1930s, was distinguished by its rich decor. 17th century An outstanding example of tent architecture of the mid-17th century. became the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, crowned with six tents (two of them crown the interior of the church, one is the bell tower, and three are simply decorative).
In the middle of the XVII century. tent temple construction stopped at the request of Patriarch Nikon. He sought to return to church architecture heaviness and monumentality. However, in the buildings of the 2nd half of the XVII century. feel the features of the new. So, in the huge five-domed cathedral of the Valdai Iversky Monastery, huge window openings, completely uncharacteristic of the architecture of previous centuries, attract attention. Even in the Resurrection Cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery, which, according to the plan of the patriarch, was supposed to reproduce the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, colored tiles were used.
In the 80s. 17th century developed a kind of "patterned" style. Its examples are the churches of the Resurrection in Kadashi and St. Nicholas in Khamovniki.
At the end of the XVII century. a new architectural style appeared - the Naryshkin (Moscow) baroque. Its distinctive features are the picturesqueness, the complexity of the plan, the combination of red (brickwork) and white (stone carving) colors of the facade. A characteristic example of this style is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, built in 1693 in the Naryshkin estate.
Among the secular buildings of the XVII century. a prominent place was occupied by the wooden suburban royal palace in Kolomenskoye (1667-1678), which consisted of many choirs, passages, galleries and turrets, covered with gilded carvings on top.
The brick Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin (30s of the 17th century) had an elegant, "gingerbread" appearance.
Residential stone houses in the XVII century. began to be built in two and three floors. They vividly resembled wooden mansions: passages, a complex silhouette, picturesque porches. An example of such buildings are the chambers of Averky Kirillov on Bersenevskaya embankment in Moscow. By the end of the XVII century. residential buildings began to look more like European city houses and palaces of the nobility.
In the 17th century tower construction developed in an interesting way. The towers of the Kremlin received tented completions, acquiring a modern look. Industrial and civil structures were built in the form of towers. In the 90s. 17th century The famous Sukharevskaya Tower was built at the Sretensky Gates of the Earthen City.
5 Visual arts
In the visual arts of the XVII century. stronger than in other areas of culture, the influence of tradition remained, which was explained by the control of church authorities over the observance of the icon-painting canon. And yet, it was in the XVII century. began the transformation of iconography into painting.
Simon Ushakov was the greatest artist of the century. His most famous work is The Savior Not Made by Hands. The face of Christ by Ushakov is harmonious, classically correct. The icon "Planting the tree of the Russian state" is a work on a secular plot. Ivan Kalita and Metropolitan Peter are depicted here watering a tree, in the crown of which there are medallions depicting great princes and kings. Next to the tree is Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
In the 17th century was the beginning of portraiture. The images of Alexei Mikhailovich, his son Fyodor Alekseevich, Patriarch Nikon, Prince Skopin-Shuisky and others are known. True, the strong influence of iconography is still felt in it. Works of the 17th century It is customary to call them not portraits, but parsuns. They are characterized by a combination of portrait resemblance with a planar image. However, this was already a significant step towards the portrait art of the XVIII century.
Conclusion: c. occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. This century is a transitional one from the traditional medieval culture of Muscovite Rus' to the culture of the New Age. Most modern researchers believe that the most important cultural transformations of Peter I were prepared by the entire course of the history of Russian culture in the 17th century.
The most important feature of Russian culture of the XVII century. consists in a wide secularization, the gradual destruction of the medieval completely religious consciousness. Secularization affected all aspects of cultural development: education, literature, architecture, and painting. This applies, however, mainly to the urban population, while the culture of the countryside remained completely within the framework of tradition for a long time.
8. FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA AT THE TURN OF THE XVII - XVIII CENTURIES. NORTH WAR
1 "Eternal Peace". Crimean campaigns
In 1686, during the reign of Princess Sophia, the so-called "eternal peace" was concluded with Poland. Russia forever received Kyiv. At the same time, she entered into an anti-Turkish coalition with Poland, Austria and Venice.
As part of the coalition, Russia was assigned an auxiliary role - the struggle against the Crimean Khanate. In 1687 and 1689 favorite of Sophia V.V. Golitsyn made two trips to the Crimea. In the waterless steppe, Russian troops suffered severely from thirst. In addition, the Tatars set fire to the steppe. The first time Golitsyn did not even reach the Crimea, the second time he was forced to turn from under the walls of Perekop. The Crimean campaigns strengthened the international position of Russia, which for the first time in a long time acted in alliance with the European powers against the "infidels". However, the population of Russia saw that the campaigns ended in failure and required large waste of money. This negatively affected the authority of Sophia's government and contributed to her defeat in a clash with Peter in 1689.
2 Azov campaigns
During the reign of Sophia, Peter lived with his mother in Preobrazhensky near Moscow and was actually removed from the court. His main occupation was war games. Already in those years, two "amusing battalions" were created - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, which later formed the basis of the Russian regular army. After great maneuvers in 1694 in the village of Kozhukhov near Moscow, Peter decided that the army was ready for a real war and launched a new campaign against Turkey.
Unlike the Crimean campaigns of Golitsyn, the new campaign was directed against the Turkish fortress of Azov, which blocked the exit from the Don to the Sea of Azov. The army marching along the Don was not threatened by thirst.
However, the 1st Azov campaign ended in failure. The Russians did not have enough strength to storm the fortress. An attempt to blow up the walls also failed. The siege was pointless, since the Russians did not have a fleet and the Turks freely received the necessary supplies from the sea.
In the winter of 1695/96, the first Russian fleet was built near Voronezh, consisting of two large ships and many galleys and plows. In 1696, the 2nd Azov campaign took place. Azov was besieged by sea and land and capitulated a month and a half later. A Russian garrison was sent to Azov, and the construction of the Taganrog fortress began nearby.
3 "Great Embassy"
Access to the shores of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov did not yet make Russia a maritime power. There was a struggle for access to the Black and Mediterranean Seas. This required a large fleet. By order of the king, the merchants, the nobility and monasteries created "kumpanstvo", which built ships with their own money. By 1698, 52 large ships had been built.
In 1697, Peter sent a "Great Embassy" to Europe, the purpose of which was to create a broad anti-Turkish coalition with the participation of the "sea powers" - England and Holland. At the same time, the embassy was to hire craftsmen and naval officers for the Russian service. The embassy included 35 young nobles who went to Europe to study. Peter himself left as part of the embassy incognito under the name of Peter Mikhailov.
The embassy managed to successfully solve auxiliary tasks - to hire foreign specialists and to determine the noble undergrowth for study. The trip allowed Peter himself to get to know Europe better, its technical and scientific achievements. However, it was not possible to create a coalition against Turkey, since the attention of the European powers was occupied by the imminent great war for the Spanish Succession. Even Austria and Venice withdrew from the war with Turkey. Therefore, Russia took part in the Karlovitsky Congress and in January 1699 signed a truce with Turkey for two years.
4 Beginning of the Northern War. Defeat near Narva
The "Great Embassy" showed the impossibility of creating an anti-Turkish coalition and fighting for the Black Sea. But in the course of it it became clear that there is a possibility of creating an anti-Swedish coalition and fighting for access to the Baltic Sea. In 1699, allied treaties were concluded with Denmark and Saxony (the Saxon elector August II was also the Polish king). Having concluded a 30-year truce with Turkey, in August 1700 Russia entered the Northern War.
In October 1700, a 40,000-strong Russian army besieged the fortress of Narva. The siege dragged on due to the inept actions of the artillerymen, the lack of cannonballs and gunpowder. Meanwhile, the Swedish king Charles XII with a surprise attack brought Denmark out of the fight, and then landed in Estonia. On November 18, he approached Narva. In the battle that took place, the Russian army was defeated, despite a significant numerical superiority: 35-40 thousand Russians against 12 thousand Swedes. The reasons for the defeat were the unfortunate location of the Russian troops, their poor training and the betrayal of most of the foreign command staff, led by Duke von Krui. Real resistance was offered only by the guards (former amusing) regiments. The Swedes captured all the Russian artillery, captured most of the officers.
8.5 Rebuilding the army
Having won a victory near Narva, the Swedes, however, moved not to Russia, but to Poland. This decision of Charles XII gave Peter I time to rebuild the army. Peter later wrote about Narva: "When this misfortune (or better, great happiness) was received, then captivity drove away laziness and forced day and night to industriousness."
A new recruitment for the army was announced. By the spring of 1701, 10 dragoon regiments of 1 thousand people were formed. Gradually, a transition was made to recruitment - 1 person from 50 - 200 peasant households. Since 1705, recruitment sets have become regular. The Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky regiments turned into original officer schools. The Navigation School was organized to train naval officers.
In the Urals, the construction of metallurgical plants began in the shortest possible time, and the casting of iron cannons and cannonballs began. Some of the bells taken from churches were poured onto copper cannons.
6 First victories in the Baltics. Founding of St. Petersburg
Soon after Narva, Peter sent the boyar B.P. Sheremetev with cavalry detachments to the Baltic. Sheremetev was actually waging a guerrilla war, attacking Swedish patrols and carts. He won the first serious victory in 1701 at the Erestfer manor over the detachment of General Schlippenbach, for which he was granted the rank of field marshal.
In 1702, Sheremetev's troops took the fortress of Marienburg in Estonia. In the autumn of the same year, the Swedish fortress of Noteburg fell at the source of the Neva (the ancient Russian Oreshek). Peter gave the fortress a new name - Shlisselburg (Key-city), believing that it opens the way to mastering the entire territory along the banks of the Neva - Ingria. In 1703, the Russians took the Nyenschanz fortress at the confluence of the Okhta with the Neva.
In the same year, St. Petersburg was founded on Zayachy Island on the Neva. After 10 years, Peter actually moved the capital of Russia here. To cover the city from the sea, the Kronshlot fortress was founded on about. Kotlin.
The construction of the fleet began: in 1703, the Olonets shipyard began work, and in 1705, the Admiralty shipyard in St. Petersburg.
In 1704, Russian troops captured the important Swedish fortresses of Derpt and Narva. Access to the sea was provided.
By the end of the XVII century. The struggle for access to the sea remained the main foreign policy task of Russia. Russia had a single port, Arkhangelsk, remote and freezing for most of the year. The non-freezing seas were under the control of the major military powers - Turkey and Sweden, which Russia did not dare to fight alone.
Conclusion
If any historical period is in a certain sense a transitional epoch, since in it something always dies and something is born, then in relation to the 17th century. this position is more than just: during this period, the number of "births" and "deaths" was greater than in any other. Therefore, it is not surprising that the XVII century. considered as the period that prepared the transformation of Peter I. The emergence of new elements in the development of society rarely occurs without conflict: most often they have to fight with traditional, established forms of life, which creates conditions for destabilizing the socio-political situation. That is exactly what happened in Russia. Indeed, in contrast to the previous stages in the development of the Russian state, when most conflicts took place only in the upper echelons of power, in the 17th century the social ranks were increasingly entering the political scene. Even leaving aside the "Trouble", one can name such major clashes between the masses and the authorities as the urban uprisings of 1648 - 1651, 1662, the performance led by S. Razin, or the streltsy uprisings of the end of the 16th century.
All of them, one way or another, are connected with the formation of a new statehood in Russia.
If the first half of the century is characterized by a sharp increase in the importance of such state authorities as the Zemsky Sobors and the Boyar Duma, without the advice of which the tsar could not make a single major decision, then from the second half of the 17th century. their influence begins to decline rapidly. Since 1684, for example, Zemsky Sobors have ceased to be convened. Even earlier, the tsar begins to ignore the advice of the Duma, turning to the practice of relying on the closest advisers ("Near Duma", "room"). On the contrary, the role of executive institutions - orders - and the bureaucratic apparatus (order chiefs, clerks, clerks, etc.) in state administration is sharply increasing. Just in the 17th century. account for the flourishing of the command system. All these changes are undoubted evidence of the strengthening of the power of the Russian monarch, who is increasingly turning into a truly autocratic ruler.
They were already reflected in the Council Code of 1649, in which there is a clear tendency to legally ensure the unlimited power of the sovereign. Thus, by the end of the XVII century. in the state system of Russia there were all conditions for the final registration of absolutism.
The centralization of the political system was closely connected with the process of completing the formation of the social structure of Russian society. On the one hand, the consolidation of its upper layer is becoming more and more noticeable: by the end of the 17th century. the former division between boyars and nobles practically lost its meaning. The formal expression of this rapprochement was the act of abolishing localism in 1682. Not only does the estate approach the patrimony (through an increase in the rights of the landowner to own land), but also the opposite - the patrimony to the estate (since both the first and the second were conditioned by the obligatory service to the sovereign). On the other hand, the lower classes of society also finally took shape, which is connected, first of all, with the completion of the formation of the feudal system of relations. The Cathedral Code of 1649 legally attached the peasants to the land (as, indeed, the townspeople - to the towns, and the nobles and boyars - to the service), creating a state system of serfdom. True, a special role in the social structure was played by the Cossacks, who enjoyed a relatively wide autonomy. However, from the middle of the XVII century. the government begins to increasingly actively attack the privileges of the Cossacks, trying to completely subordinate them to its control.
In fact, one can speak of the illegitimacy of considering serfdom as a policy only in relation to the peasants. Feudal pressure from the state experienced, although to varying degrees, all classes. This, apparently, caused those major social conflicts that shook Russia in the 17th century. Despite the fact that in a number of cases social uprisings forced governments to make concessions (and sometimes very serious ones, as, for example, during the uprising in Moscow in 1648), the state, on the whole, managed to use the existing contradictions among the rebels and achieve , eventually even strengthening their positions. At the same time, an active social struggle, primarily from the lower classes, forced the authorities to moderate the pace of the serf offensive.
Thus, the extreme inconsistency of the socio-political processes of the 17th century. is an integral characteristic of this period. This clearly proves the legitimacy of the interpretation of the 17th century. as a transition period. Another thing is that the question of what are the reasons for this transition, from what and to what it was made, and how positive it is for Russia - all these problems have caused and still cause a lot of controversy. If for some the transition to a new era was a consequence of the development of natural socio-historical processes along the path of progress, for others it is explained only by the increased influence of the West on Russia. If, according to the "statists", the main content of the XVII century. there was a struggle between tribal and state principles, then Soviet historians looked for the beginning of the confrontation between feudalism and emerging capitalism in it. Finally, while the "Slavophiles" saw in the XVII century. the pinnacle of development, the heyday of the unique Russian civilization, and, accordingly, extremely negatively assessed the reforms of Peter the Great, the "Westerners", on the contrary, positively assessed only those features of the 17th century that indicated development in the bud of future transformations.
Bibliography
1. Bushchik L.P. Illustrated history of the USSR. XV-XVII centuries Handbook for teachers and students ped. in-comrade. M., "Enlightenment", 1970.
2. Danilova L.V. Historical conditions for the development of the Russian nationality during the period of formation and strengthening of the centralized state in Russia // Questions of the formation of the Russian nationality and nation. Digest of articles. M.-L., USSR Academy of Sciences, 1958.
Druzhinin N.M. Socio-economic conditions for the formation of the Russian bourgeois nation // Questions of the formation of Russian nationality and nation. Digest of articles. M.-L., USSR Academy of Sciences, 1958.
History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century / A.P. Novoseltsev, A.N. Sakharov, V.I. Buganov, V.D. Nazarov, - M .: AST Publishing House, 1996.
Munchaev Sh.M., Ustinov V.M. Russian history. Textbook for universities. M., Publishing house Infra M-Norma, 1997.
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Time of Troubles. The 17th century brought numerous trials to Russia and its statehood. After the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, the weak and sickly Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598) became his heir and tsar.
A struggle for power within the country began. This situation caused not only internal contradictions, but also intensified attempts by external forces to eliminate the state independence of Russia. For almost the entire century, she had to fight off the Commonwealth, Sweden, the raids of the Crimean Tatars - vassals of the Ottoman Empire, resist the Catholic Church, which sought to turn Russia away from Orthodoxy .
At the beginning of the XVII century. Russia went through a period called the Time of Troubles. 17th century laid the foundation for peasant wars; in this century there are riots of cities, the famous case of Patriarch Nikon and the split of the Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century V.O. Klyuchevsky called rebellious.
The Time of Troubles covers 1598-1613. Over the years, the Tsar's brother-in-law Boris Godunov (1598-1605), Fyodor Godunov (from April to June 1605), False Dmitry I (June 1605 - May 1606), Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), False Dmitry II ( 1607-1610), Seven Boyars (1610-1613).
Boris Godunov won the difficult struggle for the throne between representatives of the highest nobility and was the first Russian tsar who received the throne not by inheritance, but through elections at the Zemsky Sobor. During his short reign, he pursued a peaceful foreign policy, resolving disputes with Poland and Sweden for 20 years; encouraged economic and cultural ties with Western Europe.
Under him, Russia advanced into Siberia, finally defeating Kuchum. In 1601-1603. Russia was hit by a "great gladness" caused by crop failures. Godunov took certain measures to organize public works, allowed the serfs to leave their masters, distributed bread from the state storehouses to the starving.
However, the situation could not be improved. The relationship between the authorities and the peasants was aggravated by the annulment in 1603 of the law on the temporary restoration of St. George's Day, which meant the strengthening of serfdom. The discontent of the masses resulted in an uprising of serfs, led by Khlopok Kosolap. This uprising is considered by many historians to be the beginning of the Peasants' War.
The highest stage of the Peasant War of the beginning of the XVII century. (1606-1607) there was an uprising by Ivan Bolotnikov, in which serfs, peasants, townspeople, archers, Cossacks, as well as the nobles who joined them, participated. The war engulfed the South-West and South of Russia (about 70 cities), the Lower and Middle Volga regions. The rebels defeated the troops of Vasily Shuisky (the new Russian tsar) near Kromy, Yelets, on the Ugra and Lopasnya rivers, etc.
In October-December 1606, the rebels besieged Moscow, but because of the disagreements that had begun - the betrayal of the nobles were defeated and retreated to Kaluga, and then to Tula. In the summer-autumn of 1607, together with the detachments of the serf Ilya Gorchakov (Ileyka Muromets, ?-c. 1608), the rebels fought near Tula. The siege of Tula lasted four months, after which the city was surrendered, the uprising was crushed. Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, blinded and drowned.
At such a critical moment, an attempt was made to intervene in Poland. The ruling circles of the Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in the support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II.
Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars.
The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish interventionists and inclined to call the Polish king of the minor Vladislav, a Catholic, to the Russian throne, which was a direct betrayal of the national interests of Russia. In addition, in the summer of 1610, Swedish intervention began with the aim of wresting Pskov, Novgorod, the northwestern and northern Russian regions from Russia.
- End of intervention. Fight for Smolensk
- Cathedral Code of 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy
- Foreign policy
- Internal political situation
- Russian economy in the 17th century.
Causes of the Time of Troubles:
- dynastic crisis. The end of the Rurik dynasty.
- The emerging lag behind Russia from the West leads to the emergence of a large number of supporters of development along the Western path. Poland is called as a role model, which by this time is turning into an aristocratic republic (“the Commonwealth” is “republic” in Polish). The Polish king is elected by the Sejm. Boris Godunov is also becoming a moderate "Westernizer".
- Growing public dissatisfaction with the authorities.
The beginning of the Time of Troubles is considered to be the election of Boris Godunov as tsar in 1598. The new tsar prepared a project of reforms and pursued a rather successful foreign policy. The relatively calm course of events was interrupted by crop failures and a terrible famine in 1601-1603. Driven to despair, the population blamed the new king for all their troubles. It was believed that hunger was God's punishment for the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry by Godunov.
1602-1604 - Cotton uprising in Ukraine and southern Russia.
In 1602, False Dmitry I appeared in the Commonwealth - a runaway monk Grigory Otrepiev, who declared himself Tsarevich Dmitry. He was supported by the king of the Commonwealth Sigismund III, the Polish-Lithuanian magnates and the gentry. One of the magnates even betrothed his daughter Marina Mnishek to False Dmitry.
In December 1604 Mr. False Dmitry, at the head of a small detachment, crossed the border of Rus' and was defeated by the tsarist army near Dobrynich. However, he received massive support from the Russian population, who had long been waiting for the arrival of a legitimate sovereign. The triumphal campaign of False Dmitry to Moscow begins. In April 1605, Boris Godunov died suddenly. His 16-year-old son Fyodor became king. In June, a coup took place in Moscow - Fedor and his mother were killed and the impostor took the throne.
Having become king, False Dmitry was in no hurry to fulfill the promises made to the Poles - to introduce Catholicism in Russia, transfer Smolensk to Poland, etc. At the same time, with his Polish manners and unwillingness to restore St. George's Day, he also disappointed the Russian population. Fuels were added to the fire by rumors about the adoption by the king, for the sake of marriage with Marina Mnishek, Catholicism. May 17 1606 Mr. False Dmitry was killed. Vasily Shuisky, a supporter of the traditional Russian way of life, became king.
The struggle of various segments of the population against the boyar tsar began already in 1606. It was headed by Ivan Bolotnikov, a former military serf, posing as the governor of False Dmitry. Bolotnikov's army consisted of peasants, serfs, townspeople, Cossacks and nobles who were dissatisfied with the boyars. On the eve of the decisive battle near Moscow in December 1606, a significant part of the nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov, went over to the side of Shuisky, which ensured the tsar's victory. Bolotnikov's army retreated to Tula, was besieged there, and in October 1607 capitulated. One of the reasons for the king's victory was his promise to grant forgiveness to the rebel serfs. Bolotnikov and part of the rebels were executed.
In 1607, a new False Dmitry, False Dmitry II, appeared on the southwestern outskirts of Rus'. He pretended to be the survivor (for the second time) Dmitry. His words were confirmed by Marina Mnishek, who recognized False Dmitry as her spouse. False Dmitry II did not receive such mass support of the population as False Dmitry I, therefore, he failed to gather significant forces. In 1608 he approached Moscow and camped in Tushino(hence the nickname Tushinsky thief). A confrontation began between the boyar tsar, sitting on the throne in Moscow, and the Tushino impostor. In fact, the country was divided into two parts. Both have tsars, orders, Boyar Dumas and even patriarchs: in Moscow - Hermogenes, in Tushino - Filaret.
Being unable to cope with the Tyshinsky thief, Shuisky in February 1609 concluded an agreement with Sweden. He gave the Karelian volost to the Swedes, receiving military assistance in return. However, the Swedes were in no hurry to help Shuisky. At the same time, the king of the Commonwealth, Sigismund III, who was constantly at enmity with Sweden, regarded this treaty as a welcome pretext for open intervention against Russia. In September 1609 Sigismund laid siege to Smolensk. In 1610, False Dmitry, whom Sigismund no longer needed, was killed by the Poles. Initially, the fight against Polish aggression was relatively successful. A talented young commander, the tsar's nephew, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky was able to win a number of victories. However, his glory as a winner caused Vasily Shuisky to be frightened. Skopin-Shuisky was poisoned. AT 1610 The Polish hetman Khodkevich defeated Shuisky's army in a pitched battle near the village of Klushino (west of Mozhaisk).
July 17th 1610 The boyars and nobles, led by Hermogenes, overthrew Shuisky, who had lost all authority. Power in Moscow, before the election of a new tsar, passed into the hands of a government of 7 boyars - Seven Boyars. The boyar F. Mstislavsky headed the Seven Boyars.
At the initiative of Filaret, in order to stop the intervention, Sigismund's son Vladislav was invited to the throne. At the same time, conditions were set: Vladislav had to promise to preserve the Moscow order and accept Orthodoxy. Although Sigismund did not agree to the last condition, the treaty was nevertheless concluded. In 1610, the Polish army entered Moscow, headed by the governor Gonsevsky, who, as the governor of Vladislav, was supposed to rule the country. However, the Polish intervention continues. Sweden, which perceived the overthrow of Shuisky as a release from all obligations, occupied a significant part of the north of Rus' and began the siege of Novgorod.
Under these conditions, in Ryazan in 1611, a First militia, the purpose of which was to liberate the country from the invaders and elevate the Russian Tsar to the throne. A significant part of the Tushino nobles and Cossacks, as well as a few boyars who supported the impostor, joined him. The leader of the militia was the Ryazan governor Prokopy Lyapunov, who headed council of all the earth(leading body of the militia). The militia besieged Moscow and after the battle on March 19, 1611 captured most of the city; however, Kitai-Gorod remained with the Poles. A long siege of Moscow began, complicated by contradictions between the leaders of the besiegers. They were most clearly manifested in the relationship between the leaders of the nobles and the Cossacks - Prokopy Lyapunov and the Cossack chieftain Ivan Zarutsky. The desire of the nobles to restore a despotic state and serfdom did not satisfy the Cossacks. Constant clashes ended in the summer of 1611 with the murder of Lyapunov, after which most of the nobles left the militia.
In June 1611 Smolensk fell, the defense of which was led by the boyar Mikhail Borisovich Shein. A month later, the Swedes captured Novgorod. In the conditions when the independent existence of the Russian people was under threat, in the east of the country, in Nizhny Novgorod, in the autumn of 1611. Second militia. The merchant Kuzma Minin became its main organizer, and Prince D.I., a member of the first militia, was elected its leader. Pozharsky. Having gathered large forces, the militia entered Moscow in May 1612, merging with the remnants of the first militia, and completely blocked the Kremlin. October 26 (November 4) 1612 The Polish garrison in the Kremlin capitulated.
In January 1613 3msky Cathedral met in Moscow, at which 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of Patriarch Filaret (in the world, the former guardsman of the boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov), was elected the new Tsar of Rus'. This event is considered to be the date of the end of the Time of Troubles, although foreign intervention was still ongoing. AT 1617 Stolbovsky peace was concluded with the Swedes: Russia returned Novgorod, but lost the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland. AT 1618 In the village of Deulino, a truce was concluded with the Commonwealth: Russia ceded Smolensk and a number of cities and lands located along the western border.
Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the XVII century.
After the Time of Troubles, a restoration process was going on in Russia for almost three decades. Only from the middle of the XVII century. new, progressive trends are beginning to appear in the economy:
- There is a process zoning– economic specialization of different regions. In the northwest, in the Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk lands, flax, hemp (hemp) and other industrial crops are cultivated. The northeast - Yaroslavl, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod lands - begins to specialize in cattle breeding. Chernozem regions (their development begins in the 17th century) and the Volga region grow wheat. The Moscow region (including Tula) becomes the center of metallurgy.
- Peasant trades: in the northwest - weaving, in the northeast - leather. In the Tula region, the original Filimonovsky craft (Filimonovskaya toy) appears.
- The increasing exchange of agricultural and industrial products led to the emergence of centers of commodity exchange - fairs. There were about 80 of them in total, three of which were central: Makaryevskaya (Nizhny Novgorod), Irbitskaya (Southern Urals) and Svenskaya (near Bryansk).
- Production acquires small-scale character (oriented to the sale).
- A new phenomenon in the economy is manufactories- large-scale production with a division of labor, mostly manual. The number of manufactories in Russia in the 17th century. was insignificant. The only industry in which they arose was metallurgy.
- Improved the monetary system. Under Mikhail Fedorovich, the silver ruble, consisting of one hundred kopecks, became the national coin.
The presence of these trends, new for Russia, testifies to the formation of single all-Russian market, i.e. global nationwide system of commodity exchange.
In social terms, the nobility is becoming an increasingly significant force. While continuing to give land to servicemen for their service, the government avoided taking them away. Increasingly, estates are inherited, i.e. are becoming more and more like estates and the state, interested in strengthening the nobility, contributes to this process.
AT 1649 G. Cathedral Code serfdom was finally formalized: the search for fugitives became indefinite. This enslavement was still formal in nature - the state did not have the strength to really attach the peasantry to the land. In addition, the Cathedral Code brought the estate and patrimony even closer.
The authorities took measures to maintain the merchant class. In 1653 was adopted Trade charter that imposed high protectionist duties.
Zemsky Sobors under the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexei Mikhailovich ( 1645-1676 gg.) cease to convene. The last full-fledged council was convened in December 1653 and decided to join Ukraine to Russia. The tsarist government takes control of the boyar duma, introducing into it duma clerks and nobles (up to 30% of the composition), who unconditionally supported the tsar. Thus, in Russia, the transition to absolutism, i.e. unlimited power of the monarch.
Evidence of the increased strength of tsarist power and the weakening of the boyars was the abolition of 1682 city of locality. Thus, the boyars were deprived of class privileges when they were appointed to a position and, in this sense, were equalized in rights with the nobles.
The command bureaucracy, which served as a support for the tsar, is being strengthened and expanded. The order system becomes cumbersome and clumsy: by the end of the 17th century. there were more than 70 orders, some of them were of a functional nature - Ambassadorial, Local, Streletsky, etc., and part of the territorial - Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc. An attempt to control it with the help of the order of Secret Affairs was unsuccessful.
Locally in the 17th century elective governing bodies are finally obsolete. All power passes into the hands of governors assigned from the center.
In the second half of the XVII century. appear in Russia new build shelves(infantry) and Reiter regiments(cavalry), in which "eager people" - volunteers - served for a salary. At the same time on the Volga was built "Eagle"- the first ship capable of withstanding sea navigation.
One of the main problems during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Tishaishy ( 1645-76 gg.) becomes the question of overcoming the voluntary international isolation of Russia. The king creates an island of European life on Lake Kukuy - German settlement- a colony for emigrants from Europe. Opened at his command Slavic-Greek-Latin School(later, from 1687 - the academy), which trains translators and diplomats. However, the expansion of ties with the West is hindered by the church, which, moreover, claims to control the state. Such a trend arose under Mikhail Fedorovich, since his father, Patriarch Filaret, actually ruled the country.
Alexei Mikhailovich, seeking to undermine the economic power of the church, creates a Monastic order to manage its property.
In order to weaken the influence of the church on public life and expand ties with the West, Alexei Mikhailovich begins to 1654 d. church reform. Patriarch Nikon became the main ideologist of the reform. The reason for the reform is the need to correct church books (translations from the Greek of the beginning of the 11th century), in which a lot of errors have accumulated over the centuries. Greek originals became a model for correction, which in itself meant that the church recognized the possibility of cultural borrowing from Europe. In addition, church rites were slightly changed: three fingers were introduced, a Catholic cross was allowed along with an Orthodox one, etc.
The reform had a colossal meaning:
- The age-old spiritual isolation of Russian society began to crumble. Conditions have been created for future global transformations of society.
- The state, having become the initiator of the reform, confirmed its priority right to manage society. This was confirmed by the Great Moscow Cathedral of 1666-1667. The same cathedral, at the insistence of Alexei, dismissed Nikon, who tried to strengthen his power.
- The reform led to split- the division of society into supporters and opponents of the reform (schismatics), led by Archpriest Avvakum. As a sign of protest, the schismatics go to sparsely populated places or commit burning- self-immolation. The fight against schismatics would reach its zenith under Peter I and would continue almost until the middle of the 19th century. >
Foreign policy of Russia in the XVII century.
The primary task of Russia in foreign policy was the return of Smolensk - the most important fortress on the western border, captured during the Time of Troubles by the Commonwealth.
AT 1632-1634 gg. Russia led Smolensk war, which ended with the victory of Poland. The Polyanovsky Peace of 1634 left Smolensk to the Poles. Nevertheless, the war also had a positive meaning - the king of the Commonwealth, Vladislav IV, renounced his claims to the Russian throne.
In 1648, an uprising broke out in Ukraine, led by Bogdan Khmelnitsky. The uprising began with the victories of the Cossacks over the troops of the Commonwealth. However, from 1651 the Ukrainian army began to suffer defeat. Khmelnytsky turned to Russia for support. In 1653 Zemsky Sobor in Moscow, and then, in 1654 G., Pereyaslav Rada in Ukraine they spoke in favor of the reunification of Ukraine and Russia. After that, another Russian-Polish war began.
The first actions of the Russian troops were successful: in 1654, they returned Smolensk and captured a significant part of Belarus that had rebelled against the Poles. However, without completing this war, in 1656 Russia began a new war with Sweden, trying to break through to the Baltic Sea. A protracted struggle on two fronts went on with varying success. In the end, Russia has achieved much less than desired. According to the Treaty of Cardis with Sweden (1661), Russia returned to her all the Baltic territories captured during the war. It was not possible to achieve complete success in the war with the Commonwealth: according to Andrusovo truce (1667 d.) Russia received Smolensk, Left-Bank (Eastern) Ukraine and part of Right-Bank Ukraine with Kyiv and the Zaporizhzhya Sich. A.L. signed the Andrusovo truce on the part of Russia. Ordin-Nashchekin.
After these wars, relations between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, which claims the territory of the Left-Bank Ukraine, sharply worsened. In 1677, the united Ottoman-Crimean army laid siege to Chigirin, a Russian fortress in Ukraine. In 1678, it was captured, but the siege of Chigirin weakened the Ottomans and they no longer had the strength for other military operations. AT 1681 in Bakhchisarai, an agreement was signed according to which the Turks recognized Russia's right to its Ukrainian territories. In these events, for the first time, Prince V.V. became famous as a commander. Golitsyn.
AT 1686 Russia concluded an eternal peace with the Commonwealth, according to which Eastern Ukraine was forever assigned to our country. Under the same treaty, Russia became a member of the Holy League - the union of Austria, the Commonwealth and Venice, created to fight the Ottoman Empire.
Popular movements in the 17th century.
Contemporaries called the 17th century rebellious. A characteristic feature of this time is the uprisings in the cities and on the outskirts of the state.
Reasons for popular uprisings:
- The growth of military spending, which forces the government of Alexei Mikhailovich to introduce new forms of taxes.
- General strengthening of state control over society. Enslavement of the peasants.
- Church reform. Many popular uprisings became part of the schismatic movement.
In the middle of the 1640s. a high duty on salt was introduced, which, because of this, rose sharply in price. In 1647 the government abandoned the salt duty; nevertheless, in 1648 g. broke out "Salt Riot", directed against the initiators of its introduction: the boyar Morozov, the mayor of Shaklovity, the Duma deacon Chisty, guest(a merchant engaged in foreign trade) Vasily Shorin and others. The rebellion was supported by the archers, who also suffered from the increase in salt prices and had not received a salary for a long time. Taken by surprise, the government extradited or executed most of the figures hated by the crowd.
In 1650, an uprising began in Pskov. It was suppressed by one of the associates of Alexei Mikhailovich, the boyar A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin.
In 1662, the government, which was experiencing an acute shortage of precious metals, tried to replace the silver coin with a copper one. It conducted all its payments in copper money, and collected taxes in silver. This policy has caused "Copper Riot" In July 1662 the excited crowd broke into the village of Kolomenskoye - the summer residence of Alexei Mikhailovich, the archers hardly coped with the rebels. The authorities temporarily refused to issue a copper coin.
From the middle of the 17th century, in connection with the search for fugitive peasants in the southern regions, relations between the government and the Don Cossacks became more complicated. Constant conflicts between them led to the Cossack uprising of Stepan Razin.
At the first stage of the uprising (1669-1670 - the so-called. Zipun hike) - Razin makes predatory campaigns in Persia and attacks trade caravans. Having plundered the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Razin returned to Astrakhan with great booty and the glory of an invincible leader.
In the spring of 1670, the second stage of the uprising began. Razin openly opposed the tsarist government. The participation of peasants in his army gave the campaign an anti-serf character, so it can be called a peasant war with reservations. Having captured Tsaritsyn in April, Razin returned to Astrakhan in June and proclaimed his power here. In the summer of 1670, Saratov and Samara went over to the side of Razin, peasant unrest, thus, covered a vast territory. Only near Simbirsk a large but poorly trained and armed peasant army was defeated. Razin fled to the Don, where he was captured and handed over to the authorities by the rich ( homely) Cossacks. In 1671 Stepan Razin was executed in Moscow.
Another popular performance was Solovetsky uprising 1667-1676 - one of the brightest pages in the history of the Schism. Having a purely anti-reform character, the uprising was suppressed only after the betrayal of one of the defenders of the Solovetsky Monastery.
Culture of the 17th century
The main trend in the development of culture of this period was secularization manifested in all areas of culture.
17th century characterized by a noticeable increase in literacy among various segments of the population. Teaching aids are widely distributed. Was especially popular "Primer" Vasily Burtsev (1633).
Secondary schools appeared, where they studied foreign languages and other subjects (1640s - a private school for young noblemen by the boyar F. Rtishchev; 1650s - a school in the Miracle Monastery; 1660s - a state school for clerks). In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin School acquired the status of an academy and became the first institution of higher education in Russia.
At the royal court, a handwritten newspaper called Chimes was distributed.
The works of social thought at the beginning of the century were created under the fresh impression of the Time of Troubles, the turbulent events of which were considered in them from various points of view. Dyak Ivan Timofeev "Vremennik"(1620s) condemned the Terrible and Godunov, who exterminated the boyars and, in his opinion, weakened the royal power. Abraham Palitsyn in his "Tales" blamed the Russian people for forgetting religion and morality.
In the middle and second half of the XVII century. the works of Simeon of Polotsk appeared (the first monuments of poetry and dramaturgy), "Politics" Yuri Krizhanich, which substantiates the usefulness of autocracy for the development of the country. Simeon Polotsky became the educator of the older children of Alexei Mikhailovich.
Among the works containing sharp criticism of state power and the official church, stands out "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" is a kind of autobiography written by the spiritual leader of the Schism.
The process of secularization in literature is most clearly manifested in the growing popularity of works of such genres as everyday stories and satire.
Everyday stories were devoted to the themes of the collision of the younger and older generations, the moral choice of heroes, their personal experiences ( "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune"- middle of the 17th century; "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn"- 1660s; "The Tale of Frol Skobeev"- 1680s). The main characters are merchants and poor nobles, as a rule, adventurous people who easily reject the patriarchal foundations and moral norms of the past.
Social conflicts of the 17th century. gave birth to another genre - satire, which parodied the lives ( "A word about a hawker"), legal proceedings ( "Shemyakin Court", "The Tale of Ersh Ershovich"), ridiculed the life of monks ( "Kalyazinskaya petition").
The tent style finally becomes the dominant style of church architecture. However, already in the second half of the XVII century. he is gradually losing his position. The churches of the middle of the 17th century, as a rule, violated cross-domed patterns, were distinguished by asymmetry and extremely rich decorative decoration of the facades (Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, Trinity in Nikitniki; Yaroslavl churches of Elijah the Prophet, John Chrysostom). This style of architecture is called "Naryshkinskoe"(or Moscow, or northern) baroque. Of the civil buildings, the most remarkable were the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin and the wooden palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye (which has not survived to this day).
The Kremlin Armory exercised control over the activities of the painters. In the iconography of the first half of the XVII century. The “Stroganov school” continued to dominate, the masters of which (Prokopiy Chirin) devoted all their art to the careful and technically perfect execution of the canons. In the second half of the XVII century. Simon Ushakov's painting becomes a noticeable phenomenon, in which realistic tendencies are already manifesting: he paints icons taking into account the anatomical structure of the face, using chiaroscuro and perspective. ( "Savior Not Made by Hands"). New features of pictorial art appeared in parsing- portraits of real persons (Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fedor Alekseevich, young Peter I), made in an icon-painting manner.
Economy and estates. After the expulsion from Russia and the election of a new tsar “from natural roots” began the restoration of ruined life, especially the economy. It took over a decade.
17th century is a turning point, including in the development of the economy. It was to this time, as Russian historians of the 19th century noted, that the beginning of "new time". AT Russian economy the first sprouts of new bourgeois relations appear (in industry, trade, and partly in agriculture). True, opinions among experts on this issue differ. Some attribute the beginning of capitalist relations to the 16th century, others to the 17th century; finally, the third - by the second half of the 18th century, when these relations took shape in a special, independent way in the Russian economy.
In this regard, Russia lagged behind a number of countries in Western Europe, where the emergence of capitalism began as early as the 14th-15th centuries, and the capitalist era proper began in the late 16th-mid-17th centuries. (Netherlands, England). But still she went, albeit belatedly, the same way. The first sprouts, the ovaries of capitalism in Russian industry and trade appear precisely in the 17th century.
Agriculture in Russia XVII century
Russian people clear and plow up overgrown and decayed fields, forest clearings. Zamoskovny Krai, the center of European Russia, comes to life, counties around the Russian capital in the west and northwest, northeast and east. The Russian peasant is advancing to the outskirts - south of the Oka River, in the Volga and Ural regions, in Western Siberia. New settlements are emerging here.
It did not recover soon, the reasons for this were the low capacity of small peasant farms, low productivity, natural disasters, and crop shortages. The main way of development of agriculture of that time was extensive: farmers include an increasing number of new territories in the economic turnover.
Rye and oats were sown most of all. Next came barley and wheat, spring rye (yaritsa) and millet, buckwheat and spelt, peas and hemp. The same in Siberia. More wheat was sown in the south than in the north. Turnips and cucumbers, cabbages and carrots, radishes and beets, onions and garlic, pumpkins and even watermelons were bred in the gardens. In the gardens - cherries, red currants, gooseberries (kryzh-bersen), raspberries, strawberries, apple trees, pears, plums.
The yield was low. Crop failures, shortages, famine were often repeated. The reasons lay in the feudal nature of the economy, climatic features (freezing and soaking of crops in the center and north of the country, drought and locust invasions in the south).
The basis for the development of animal husbandry was the peasant economy. From it, the feudal lords received draft horses to work in their fields and table supplies: meat, live and dead poultry, eggs, butter, and so on. Among the peasants there were, on the one hand, many horses, many cows; on the other - deprived of any livestock. Cattle breeding especially developed in Pomorye, in the Yaroslavl region, in the southern counties.
Fish were caught everywhere, but especially in Pomorie. In the northern regions, the White and Barents Seas, cod and halibut, herring and salmon were harvested; hunted seals, walruses, whales. On the Volga and Yaik, red fish and caviar were of particular value.
Industry and manufacture of Russia in the 17th century
Unlike agriculture industrial production developed faster in Russia. The domestic industry was most widespread: throughout the country, peasants produced canvas and homespun cloth, ropes and ropes, felted and leather shoes, various clothes, dishes and towels, bast shoes and bast, tar and resin, sledges and matting, baked lard and bristles, much more. Through buyers, these products, especially canvases, entered the market. Gradually, peasant industry outgrows the domestic framework, turns into small-scale commodity production. This path is followed by masters in the manufacture of Yaroslavl canvases, Vazh cloths, Reshma matting, Belozersky spoons, Vyazma sleighs, etc.
Handicraft on a rather large scale grew into commodity production. This was the case, for example, in metalworking. It was based on the extraction of swamp ores, which gave low-grade iron and steel (way). The centers of metallurgy have long been established in the counties south of Moscow: Serpukhov, Kashirsky, Tula, Dedilovsky, Aleksinsky. Tula iron and the Serpukhov way of life dispersed throughout the country; local craftsmen who worked for the treasury, in particular, made weapons for the royal Armory, at the same time gave a lot of products for sale on the market.
The second center of metal production was located northwest of Moscow: Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya, Tikhvin, Zaonezhye. Ustyuzhna openers, frying pans, nails and other household items dispersed not only in nearby villages and cities, but also in remote ones, for example, in Moscow, Smolensk, Yaroslavl. The same can be said about the products of the masters of Nizhny Novgorod, Galich and their environs.
The noticeable growth of Russian craft in the 17th century, the transformation of a significant part of it into small-scale commodity production, consolidation, the use of hired labor, the specialization of certain regions of the country, the emergence of a labor market created conditions for the development manufacturing production.
An increase in the number of manufactories- large enterprises based on the division of labor, which remains predominantly manual, and the use of mechanisms set in motion by water. This indicates the beginning of the transition to early capitalist industrial production, still strongly entangled in feudal relations.
At this time, the old manufactories were expanded, for example, the Cannon Yard - they built "blacksmith's mill" to “forge iron with water”, stone buildings (instead of the old wooden ones). In Moscow, two state-owned powder mills appeared. The workshops of the Armory, Gold and Silver Chambers continued to operate, as well as the garment manufactories - the Tsarskaya and Tsaritsyno workshops. Weaving manufactory appeared - Khamovny yard in Kadashevskaya Sloboda (Zamoskvorechye), silk - Velvet yard (quickly died out).
These manufactories were state-owned or palace. They were subjected to forced labor. They had no connection with the market.
Another group of manufactories are merchants: rope yards in Vologda, Kholmogory (originated in the 16th century), and in Arkhangelsk (in the 17th century). These were relatively large enterprises: in Vologda alone, about 400 hired workers from Russian people worked. The Kholmogory yard produced so many ropes that they could equip a quarter of the ships of the English fleet, one of the largest in the world at that time.
The Dukhaninsky glass factory of E. Koist, a native of Sweden, appeared near Moscow. The most important areas of manufactory production are formed in the Urals, in the Tula-Kashirsky, Olonetsky regions. These are iron-working, copper-smelting and other plants.
Manufacturers played a leading role in the production of weapons. In the manufacture of agricultural tools and household items, small peasant crafts and urban artisans successfully competed with them.
In the 17th century, up to 60 different manufactories arose; not all of them turned out to be viable - almost half survived until the time of Peter the Great. It is not surprising that serf labor is used here. More indicative is the gradual expansion of civilian labor, both in manufactories and in water transport (Volzhsky, Sukhono-Dvinsky and other routes), the salt mines of Totma, Vychegodskaya Salt and Kamskaya Salt (in the latter, by the end of the century, there were more than 200 varnits, which annually mined up to 7 million poods of salt), fish and salt industries of the Lower Volga (at the end of the century in Astrakhan and near it - several tens of thousands of hired workers only in the summer).
Townspeople, black-haired and privately owned peasants, serfs, including runaways, all free, walking people, went to hirelings. Peasants, as a rule, departed for temporary work, and then returned to their household. From hirelings, a category of more or less permanent employees began to form even then.
Entrepreneurs involved in, for example, salt production grow up from large merchants: G. A. Nikitnikov and N. A. Sveteshnikov, V. G. Shorin and Ya. S. Patokin, O. I. Filatiev and D. G. Pankratiev, the Shustov brothers and others. From the 16th century. the Stroganovs were gaining strength, and from the end of the 17th century, the Demidovs.
The enterprise is a manufactory of the 17th century; production of artillery pieces.
Trade in Russia in the 17th century
In the grain trade, Vologda, Vyatka, Veliky Ustyug, and Kungur district acted as important centers in the north; southern cities - Orel and Voronezh, Ostrogozhsk and Korotoyak, Yelets and Belgorod; in the center - Nizhny Novgorod. By the end of the century, a grain market appeared in Siberia. Salt markets were the same Vologda, Salt Kama, Lower Volga; Nizhny Novgorod served as a transshipment and distribution point.
A number of cities, primarily, of course, Moscow, had trade ties with all or many regions of the country. Many merchants who made up a special "merchants" did their business without doing anything else.
The dominant position in trade was occupied by townspeople, primarily guests and members of the Living Room and Cloth Hundreds. Large merchants came out of wealthy artisans, peasants.
They traded in various goods and in many places; trade specialization was poorly developed, capital circulated slowly, there were no free funds and credit, usury had not yet become a professional occupation; the scattered nature of trade required many agents and intermediaries.
Foreign trade operations with Western countries were conducted through Arkhangelsk, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Putivl, Svenskaya Fair. 75% of the foreign trade turnover was provided by Arkhangelsk, the only and, moreover, inconvenient port that connected Russia with Western Europe. Astrakhan played a leading role in eastern trade.
According to the Trade Charter of 1653, many small customs duties left over from the time of feudal fragmentation were eliminated in the country. Instead, they introduced a single ruble duty - 10 money per ruble, that is, 5% of the purchase price of the goods (the ruble is equal to 200 money). They took more from foreigners than from Russian merchants. And the New Trade Charter of 1667 further strengthened the protectionist tendencies in the interests of the Russian commercial and industrial class.
Estates of Russia in the 17th century
Feudal lords. Among all the estates, the dominant place undoubtedly belonged to the feudal lords. In their interests, the state power carried out measures to strengthen the ownership of the land by the boyars and nobles and the peasants, to unite the strata of the feudal lords, their "gentrification". Strictly and consistently, the authorities sought to keep their estates and estates in the hands of the nobles. The demands of the nobility and the measures of the authorities led to the fact that by the end of the century they reduced the difference between the estate and the estate to a minimum.
Throughout the century, the government, on the one hand, handed out vast tracts of land to the feudal lords; on the other hand, part of the possessions, more or less significant, was transferred from the estate to the estate.
The census books of 1678 counted 888 thousand taxable households throughout the country, of which about 90% were in serfdom. The palace owned 83,000 households, or 9.3%; churches - 118 thousand (13.3%); boyars - 88 thousand (10%); most of all to the nobles - 507 thousand households, or 57%.
Peasants and serfs. The peasants worked in favor of the feudal lords on corvee ( "product"), made natural and cash quitrents. regular size "products"- from two to four days a week, depending on the size of the lord's economy, the solvency of the serfs.
"Table stocks"- bread and meat, vegetables and fruits, hay and firewood, mushrooms and berries - were taken to the yards of the owners by the same peasants. Nobles and boyars took carpenters and masons, brickmakers and painters, other masters from their villages and villages. The peasants worked in the first factories and factories that belonged to the feudal lords or the treasury, made cloth and canvas at home, etc.
Serfs, in addition to work and payments in favor of the feudal lords, carried duties in favor of the treasury. In general, their taxation, duties were heavier than those of the palace and black-haired peasants. After 1649, the search for fugitive peasants assumed wide dimensions. Thousands of them were seized and returned to their owners.
In order to live, the peasants went to waste, to "laborers", for earnings. They were hired by artels. The impoverished peasants passed into the category of beans.
Feudal lords, especially large ones, had many serfs, sometimes several hundred people (for example, the boyars N. I. Romanov, B. I. Morozov had 300-400 people each). These are clerks and servants for parcels, grooms and tailors, watchmen and shoemakers, falconers and "singing guys". They did not run an independent household, they were fully supported by the owner. Some nobles began to transfer their serfs to the land, endowed them with inventory, and they paid them dues, performed corvée work, but, unlike the peasants, they did not bear the state tax. However, the tax reform of 1678-1681. equalized both. By the end of the century, in essence, the serfs merged with the peasants.
The average level of well-being of the Russian peasant in the XVII century. decreased compared to previous centuries. Reduced, for example, peasant plowing. Some peasants had half a tithe, about a tithe of land, while others did not even have that. And the wealthy happened to have several tens of acres.
Wealthy peasants became merchants and industrialists. Such, for example, are the Fedotov-Guselnikovs, the black-haired peasants of the Ustyug district, the Oskolkovs and Shangins from the Komi Territory. All of them got rich on trade operations with Siberia. And there were many. The feudal lords and the treasury received large incomes from them.
Posad people. By the middle of the century, there were more than two and a half hundred cities in the country, and, according to incomplete data, there were more than 40 thousand households in them. Of these, Moscow has 27,000 households.
The population of cities in the first half of the century increased by more than one and a half times. Despite the modest share of merchants and artisans in the total population of Russia, they played a very significant role in its economic and political life. Among the townspeople we see Russians and Ukrainians, Belarusians and Tatars, Mordovians and Chuvashs, etc.
The leading center of handicraft, industrial production, trade operations is Moscow. Here in the 40s. masters of many specialties worked. Metalworking centers, in addition to Moscow, were Tula, Yaroslavl, Tikhvin, Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya, Ustyug Veliky, Kholmogory, Salt Vychegodskaya; leather business - Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan.
To a lesser, but quite noticeable degree, the craft developed in other cities of Russia. A significant part of the artisans worked for the state, the treasury. Part of the artisans served the needs of the palace (palace) and the feudal lords living in Moscow and other cities (patrimonial artisans). The rest were part of the township communities of cities, carried (pulled, as they said then) various duties and paid taxes, the totality of which was called tax. Craftsmen from township tax workers often switched from working on the order of the consumer to working for the market, and the craft, thus, developed into commodity production.
Hired labor was used. Poor townspeople and peasants went as mercenaries to the wealthy blacksmiths, boilermakers, bakers and others. The same thing happened in transport, river and horse-drawn.
The development of handicraft production, its professional, territorial specialization, brings a great revival of the non-economic life of cities, cake ties between them and their districts. It is to the XVII century. the beginning of the concentration of local markets, the formation of the all-Russian market on their basis.
Guests and other wealthy merchants appeared with their goods in all parts of the country and abroad. During the Time of Troubles and after it, they more than once lent money to the authorities. The government convened meetings with the participation of merchants to solve pressing economic and financial problems. They also became deputies of Zemsky Sobors. They were entrusted with the collection of taxes and duties - customs, tavern, salt and others.
