Artistic devices in literature and poetry are called tropes. They are present in any work of a poet or prose writer. Without them, the text could not be called artistic. In the art of the word - an indispensable element.

Artistic techniques in literature, what are paths for?

Fiction is a reflection of reality, passed through the inner world of the author. A poet or prose writer does not just describe what he sees around him, in himself, in people. He conveys his individual perception. One and the same phenomenon, for example, a thunderstorm or flowering trees in spring, love or grief - each writer will describe in his own way. Artistic techniques help him in this.

Tropes are usually understood as words or phrases that are used in a figurative sense. With their help, in his work, the author creates a special atmosphere, vivid images, achieves expressiveness. They emphasize important details of the text, helping the reader to pay attention to them. Without this, it is impossible to convey the ideological meaning of the work.

Tropes are seemingly ordinary words, consisting of letters used in a scientific article or just colloquial speech. However, in a work of art they become magical. For example, the word "wooden" becomes not an adjective that characterizes the material, but an epithet that reveals the character's image. Otherwise - impenetrable, indifferent, indifferent.

Such a change becomes possible thanks to the author's ability to select capacious associations, to find the exact words to convey his thoughts, emotions, sensations. It takes a special talent to cope with such a task and create a work of art. Just stuffing the text with paths is not enough. It is necessary to be able to use them in such a way that each carries a special meaning, plays a unique and inimitable role in the test.

Artistic techniques in a poem

The use of artistic techniques in poems is especially relevant. After all, a poet, unlike a prose writer, does not have the opportunity to devote, say, entire pages to describing the image of a hero.

His "space" is often limited to a few stanzas. At the same time, it is necessary to convey the immensity. In the poem, literally every word is worth its weight in gold. It shouldn't be redundant. The most common poetic devices:

1. Epithets - they can be such parts of speech as adjectives, participles, and sometimes phrases consisting of nouns used in a figurative sense. Examples of such artistic techniques are “golden autumn”, “extinguished feelings”, “king without retinue”, etc. Epithets do not express the objective, but the author's characteristic of something: an object, character, action or phenomenon. Some of them become stable over time. They are most often found in folklore works. For example, “the sun is clear”, “red spring”, “good fellow”.

2. A metaphor is a word or phrase whose figurative meaning allows you to compare two objects with each other on the basis of a common feature. Reception is considered a difficult trail. Examples include the following constructions: “a head of hair” (hidden comparison of a hairstyle with a head of hay), “lake of the soul” (comparison of a person’s soul with a lake according to a common feature - depth).

3. Personification is an artistic technique that allows you to "revive" inanimate objects. In poetry, it is used mainly in relation to nature. For example, “the wind speaks with a cloud”, “the sun gives its warmth”, “winter looked at me severely with its white eyes”.

4. Comparison has much in common with metaphor, but is not stable and hidden. The phrase usually contains the words "like", "as if", "like". For example - "And like the Lord God, I love all people in the world", "Her hair is like a cloud."

5. Hyperbole is an artistic exaggeration. Allows you to draw attention to certain features that the author wants to highlight, considers them characteristic of something. And so he deliberately exaggerates. For example, "a man of gigantic growth", "she cried out an ocean of tears."

6. Litota is the antonym of hyperbole. Its purpose is to downplay, soften something. For example, “an elephant the size of a dog”, “our life is just a moment”.

7. Metonymy is a trope that is used to create an image according to one of its features or elements. For example, "hundreds of feet ran along the pavement, and hooves hurried along", "the city smokes under the autumn sky." Metonymy is considered one of the varieties of metaphor, and, in turn, has its own subspecies - synecdoche.

Poetic devices are an important component of a beautiful rich poem. Poetic techniques significantly help to ensure that the poem is interesting, diverse. It is very useful to know what poetic devices the author uses.

Poetic devices

Epithet

The epithet in poetry, as a rule, is used to emphasize one of the properties of the described object, process or action.

This term is of Greek origin and literally means "attached". At its core, an epithet is a definition of an object, action, process, event, etc., expressed in an artistic form. Grammatically, the epithet is most often an adjective, but other parts of speech, such as numerals, nouns, and even verbs, can also be used as an adjective. Depending on the location, epithets are divided into prepositional, postpositional and dislocation epithets.

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, in the use of which certain properties that are most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process.

trails

Literally, the word "trope" means "turn" in Greek. However, the translation, although reflecting the essence of this term, cannot reveal its meaning even approximately. A trope is an expression or a word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Through the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a sharper emotional reaction.

Tropes are usually divided into several types depending on what kind of semantic shade the word or expression was used in a figurative sense: metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Metaphor

Metaphor is an expressive means, one of the most common tropes, when, on the basis of the similarity of one or another attribute of two different objects, a property inherent in one object is assigned to another. Most often, when using a metaphor, the authors use words to highlight one or another property of an inanimate object, the direct meaning of which serves to describe the features of animate objects, and vice versa, revealing the properties of an animate object, they use words whose use is typical for describing inanimate objects.

personification

Personification is an expressive technique, when using which the author consistently transfers several signs of animate objects to an inanimate object. These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using a metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which an inanimate object has the image of a living being or is endowed with qualities inherent in living beings.

Metonymy

When using metonymy, the author replaces one concept with another based on the similarity between them. Close in meaning in this case are cause and effect, material and the thing made from it, action and tool. Often, the name of its author or the name of the owner for property is used to refer to a work.

Synecdoche

A kind of trope, the use of which is associated with a change in the quantitative relationships between objects or objects. So, the plural is often used instead of the singular, or vice versa, a part instead of the whole. In addition, when using synecdoche, the genus can be designated by the name of the species. This expressive means in poetry is less common than, for example, a metaphor.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when using which the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun, for example, based on the presence of a particularly strong character trait in the cited character.

Irony

Irony is a strong expressive means that has a shade of mockery, sometimes a slight mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with an opposite meaning so that the reader himself guesses the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Gain or gradation

When using this expressive means, the author arranges theses, arguments, his thoughts, etc. as their importance or persuasiveness increases. Such a consistent presentation allows you to multiply the significance of the thought expressed by the poet.

opposition or antithesis

Contrasting is an expressive means that makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of concepts that are opposite in meaning and are used in the text of the poem. Also, opposite emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.

Default

By default, the author intentionally or involuntarily omits some concepts, and sometimes entire phrases and sentences. In this case, the presentation of thoughts in the text turns out to be somewhat confused, less consistent, which only emphasizes the special emotionality of the text.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a poetic work, but, as a rule, the authors use it, intonation highlighting especially emotional moments in the verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader's attention on the moment that especially excited him, telling him his experiences and feelings.

Inversion

To make the language of a literary work more expressive, special means of poetic syntax are used, called figures of poetic speech. In addition to repetition, anaphora, epiphora, antithesis, rhetorical question and rhetorical appeal, inversion is quite common in prose and especially in versification (Latin inversio - permutation).

The use of this stylistic device is based on the unusual word order in the sentence, which gives the phrase a more expressive connotation. The traditional construction of a sentence requires the following sequence: the subject, the predicate and the definition standing before the denoted word: "The wind drives the gray clouds." However, this word order is typical, to a greater extent, for prose texts, and in poetic works there is often a need for intonational emphasis on a word.

Classical examples of inversion can be found in Lermontov's poetry: "A lone sail turns white / In the blue fog of the sea ...". Another great Russian poet Pushkin considered inversion to be one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when, when rearranging words, other words are wedged between them: “Old man obedient to Perun alone ...”.

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author's attitude towards the characters and to convey their emotional state.

Alliteration

Alliteration is understood as a special literary device, which consists in the repetition of one or a series of sounds. In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech area is of great importance. For example, "Where the grove neighs guns neighs." However, if whole words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, there is no talk of alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by an irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary device. Usually, alliteration is used in poetry, but in some cases alliteration can also be found in prose. So, for example, V. Nabokov very often uses the technique of alliteration in his works.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that repetitive sounds are not concentrated at the beginning and end of the line, but absolutely derivatively, albeit with high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonant sounds are alliterated.

The main functions of the literary device of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that sounds cause in a person.

Assonance

Assonance is understood as a special literary device, which consists in the repetition of vowel sounds in a particular statement. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonants are repeated. There are two slightly different applications of the assonance technique. Firstly, assonance is used as an original tool that gives a literary text, especially a poetic one, a special flavor.

For example,
"Our ears are on top,
A little morning lit up the guns
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there." (M.Yu. Lermontov)

Secondly, assonance is widely used to create inaccurate rhymes. For example, "city-hammer", "princess-incomparable."

In the Middle Ages, assonance was one of the most commonly used ways of rhyming poetry. However, both in modern poetry and in the poetry of the past century, one can quite easily find many examples of the use of the literary device of assonance. One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from a poetic work by V. Mayakovsky:

“I will turn not into Tolstoy, so into a fat one -
Eat, write, from the heat of the bulldozer.
Who has not philosophized over the sea?
Water."

Anaphora

Anaphora is traditionally understood as such a literary device as monogamy. At the same time, most often we are talking about repetition at the beginning of a sentence, line or paragraph of words and phrases. For example, "The winds did not blow in vain, the thunderstorm did not go in vain." In addition, with the help of anaphora, one can express the identity of certain objects or the presence of certain objects and different or identical properties. For example, "I'm going to the hotel, I hear a conversation there." Thus, we see that the anaphora in Russian is one of the main literary devices that serve to link the text. There are the following types of anaphora: sound anaphora, morphemic anaphora, lexical anaphora, syntactic anaphora, strophic anaphora, rhymic anaphora and strophic-syntactic anaphora. Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase in the emotional nature of the words in the text.

For example, "The cattle dies, the friend dies, the man himself dies."

ARTISTIC TALENT the ability of a person, manifested in artistic creativity, a socially determined unique unity of the emotional and intellectual characteristics of the artist, artistic talent differs from genius (see Artistic genius), which opens up new directions in art. Artistic talent determines the nature and possibilities of creativity, the type of art (or several types of art) chosen by the artist, the range of interests and aspects of the artist's relationship to reality. At the same time, the artistic talent of an artist is inconceivable without an individual method and style as stable principles for the artistic embodiment of an idea and design. The individuality of the artist is manifested not only in the work itself, but also exists as a prerequisite for the creation of this work. The artistic talent of an artist can be realized in specific socio-economic and political conditions. Separate epochs in the history of human society create the most favorable conditions for the deployment and realization of artistic talent (classical antiquity, the Renaissance, the Muslim Renaissance in the East).

Recognition of the decisive importance of socio-economic and political conditions, as well as the spiritual atmosphere in the realization of artistic talent does not at all mean their absolutization. The artist is not only a product of an era, but also its creator. An essential property of consciousness is not only the reflection, but also the transformation of reality. For the realization of artistic talent, the subjective moments of ability to work, the artist's ability to mobilize all his emotional, intellectual and strong-willed forces are of great importance.

PLOT(French sujet subject) a way of artistic comprehension, organization of events (i.e., artistic transformation of the plot). The specificity of a particular plot is clearly manifested not only when compared with the real life story that served as its basis, but also when comparing descriptions of human life in documentary and fiction literature, memoirs and novels. The distinction between the event basis and its artistic reproduction goes back to Aristotle, but the conceptual distinction of terms was made only in the 20th century. In Russia, the word "plot" has long been synonymous with the word "theme" (in the theory of painting and sculpture, even now it is often used in this sense).

In relation to literature at the end of the last century, it began to mean a system of events, or, according to the definition of A. N. Veselovsky, the sum of motives (that is, what is usually called a plot in another terminological tradition). Scholars of the Russian "formal school" proposed to consider the plot as processing, giving form to the primary material - the plot (or, as was formulated in the later works of V. B. Shklovsky, the plot is a way of artistic comprehension of reality).

The most common way of transforming the plot is the destruction of the inviolability of the time series, the rearrangement of events, the parallel development of the action. A more complex technique is the use of non-linear relationships between episodes. This is a "rhyme", an associative roll call of situations, characters, sequences of episodes. The text can be based on a collision of different points of view, a comparison of mutually exclusive options for the development of the narrative (the novel by A. Murdoch "The Black Prince", the film by A. Kayat "Married Life", etc.). The central theme can develop simultaneously in several planes (social, family, religious, artistic) in the visual, color, and sound ranges.

Some researchers believe that the motivations, the system of internal connections of the work, the ways of narration do not belong to the area of ​​the plot, but to the composition in the strict sense of the word. The plot is considered as a chain of depicted movements, gestures of spiritual impulses, spoken or “thinkable” words. In unity with the plot, he draws up the relationships and contradictions of the characters between themselves and the circumstances, that is, the conflict of the work. In modernist art there is a tendency towards plotlessness (abstractionism in painting, plotless ballet, atonal music, etc.).

The plot is important in literature and art. The system of plot connections reveals conflicts, the nature of the action, in which the great problems of the era are reflected.

METHODS OF AESTHETIC ANALYSIS (from the Greek methodos - the path of research, theory, teaching) - concretization of the basic principles of materialistic dialectics in relation to the study of the nature of artistic creativity, aesthetic and artistic culture, various forms of aesthetic exploration of reality.

The leading principle in the analysis of various spheres of aesthetic assimilation of reality is the principle of historicism, most fully developed in the field of the study of arts. It involves both the study of art in connection with its conditionality by reality itself, the comparison of artistic phenomena with non-artistic ones, the identification of social characteristics that determine the development of art, and the disclosure of system-structural formations within art itself, with respect to the independent logic of artistic creativity.

Along with the philosophical and aesthetic methodology, which has a certain categorical apparatus, modern aesthetics also uses a variety of methods, analytical approaches of private sciences, which are of auxiliary importance mainly in the study of formalized levels of artistic creativity. Appeal to private methods and tools of private sciences (semiotics, structural-functional analysis, sociological, psychological, informational approaches, mathematical modeling, etc.) corresponds to the nature of modern scientific knowledge, but these methods are not identical to the scientific methodology of art research, they are not “ analogue of the subject” (F. Engels) and cannot claim the role of a philosophical and aesthetic method adequate to the nature of the aesthetic exploration of reality.

CONCEPT ART one of the types of artistic avant-garde of the 70s. It is associated with the third stage in the development of avant-garde so-called. neo-avant-garde.

Supporters of conceptual art deny the need to create artistic images (for example, in painting they should be replaced by inscriptions of indefinite content), and they see the functions of art in activating the process of purely intellectual co-creation with the help of operating with concepts.

The products of conceptual art are conceived as absolutely devoid of pictoriality; they do not reproduce c.-l. properties of real objects, being the results of mental interpretation. For the philosophical justification of conceptual art, an eclectic mixture of ideas borrowed from the philosophy of Kant, Wittgenstein, the sociology of knowledge, etc. is used. As a phenomenon of a crisis socio-cultural situation, the new trend is associated with petty-bourgeois anarchism and individualism in the sphere of the spiritual life of society.

CONSTRUCTIVISM (from lat. constructio - construction, construction) - a formalist trend in Soviet art of the 20s, which put forward a program for the restructuring of the entire artistic culture of society and art, focusing not on imagery, but on the functional, constructive expediency of forms.

Constructivism became widespread in Soviet architecture of the 1920s and 1930s, as well as in other forms of art (cinema, theater, literature). Almost simultaneously with Soviet constructivism, the constructivist movement called. neoplasticism arose in Holland, similar trends took place in the German Bauhaus. For many artists, constructivism was only a stage in their work.

Constructivism is characterized by the absolutization of the role of science and the aestheticization of technology, the belief that science and technology are the only means of solving social and cultural problems.

The constructivist concept has gone through a number of stages in its development. What the constructivists had in common was: the understanding of a work of art as a real construction created by the artist; the struggle for new forms of artistic work and the desire to master the aesthetic possibilities of construction. At the final stage of its existence, constructivism entered a period of canonization of its formal aesthetic methods. As a result, the aesthetic possibilities of technical structures, the discovery of which was the undoubted merit of the "pioneers of design", were absolutized. Constructivists did not take into account the fact that the dependence of form on construction is mediated by a combination of cultural and historical facts. As a result, their program “The Public Usefulness of Art” became a program for its destruction, the reduction of an aesthetic object to a material and physical basis, to pure form-creation. The cognitive, ideological and aesthetic side of art, its national specificity and imagery as a whole disappeared, which led to non-objectivity in art.

At the same time, attempts to identify the laws that govern the form of the material, the analysis of its combinatorial features (V. Tatlin, K. Malevich) contributed to the development of new approaches to the material and technological side of creativity.

COMPOSITION(lat. compositio arrangement, composition, addition) - a way of constructing a work of art, the principle of connection of the same type and heterogeneous components and parts, consistent with each other and with the whole. The composition is determined by the methods of shaping and the peculiarities of perception inherent in a certain type and genre of art, the laws of constructing an artistic model (see) in canonized types of culture (for example, folklore, ancient Egyptian art, Eastern, Western European Middle Ages, etc.), as well as individual originality artist, the unique content of a work of art in non-canonized types of culture (European art of the New and Contemporary times, baroque, romanticism, realism, etc.).

The composition of the work finds its embodiment and it is determined by the artistic development of the theme, the moral and aesthetic assessment of the author. According to S. Eisenstein, it is the naked nerve of the author's intention, thinking and ideology. Indirectly (in music) or more directly (in the visual arts), the composition correlates with the laws of the life process, with the objective and spiritual world reflected in a work of art. In it, the transition of artistic content and its internal relations into the relation of form is carried out, and the orderliness of form - into the orderliness of content. To distinguish between the laws of construction of these areas of art, two terms are sometimes used: architectonics (the relationship of content components) and composition (principles of form construction). There is another type of differentiation: the general form of the structure and the interconnection of large parts of the work are called architectonics (for example, stanza in a poetic text), and the interconnection of components of more fractional ones is called compositions (for example, the arrangement of poetic lines and the speech material itself). It should be borne in mind that in the theory of architecture and organization of the subject environment, another pair of related concepts is used: construction (the unity of the material components of the form, achieved by identifying their functions) and composition (artistic completion and emphasis on constructive and functional aspirations, taking into account the peculiarities of visual perception and artistic expression, decorativeness and integrity of form).

The concept of composition should be distinguished from the one that became widespread in the 60s and 70s. the concept of the structure of a work of art, as a stable, repetitive principle, a compositional norm of a certain type, kind, genre, style and direction in art. Unlike structure, composition is a unity, fusion and struggle of normative-typological and individually unique tendencies in the construction of a work of art. The degree of normativity and individual originality, the uniqueness of the composition is different in different types of art (cf. European classicism and "uninhibited" romanticism), in certain genres of the same type of art (compositional normativity in tragedy is more pronounced than in drama, and in the sonnet is immeasurably higher than in the lyrical message). Compositional means in certain types and genres of art are specific, but at the same time, their mutual influence is undoubted: the theater has mastered the pyramidal and diagonal composition of the plastic arts, and plot-thematic painting has mastered the stage construction of the stage. Various types of art, directly and indirectly, consciously and unconsciously, have absorbed the compositional principles of musical constructions (for example, sonata form) and plastic relationships (see).

In the art of the XX century. there is a complication of compositional constructions due to the increased inclusion of associative links, memories, dreams, through temporary changes and spatial shifts. The composition also becomes more complex in the process of convergence of traditional and "technical" arts. The extreme forms of modernism absolutize this trend and give it an irrational-absurd meaning (“new novel”, theaters of the absurd, surrealism, etc.).

In general, composition in art expresses an artistic idea and organizes aesthetic perception in such a way that it moves from one component of the work to another, from part to whole.

INTUITION artistic (from Latin intuitio - contemplation) - the most important element of creative thinking, affecting such aspects of artistic

activity and artistic consciousness as creativity, perception, truth. In the most general form, when intuition is recognized as equally important both in art and in science, it is nothing more than a special perception of the truth, which does without relying on rational forms of knowledge associated with one or another type of logical proof.

The most important artistic intuition in creativity. This is especially evident at the initial stage of the creative process, in the so-called. "problem situation". The fact that the result of creativity must be original forces the creative person at the very early stage of creativity to look for a solution that has not been encountered before. It involves a radical revision of established concepts, thought patterns, ideas about man, space and time. Intuitive knowledge, like knowledge of the new, usually exists in the form of an unexpected guess, a symbolic scheme, in which the contours of the future work are only guessed. However, according to many artists, this kind of insight is the basis of the entire creative process.

Aesthetic and especially artistic perception also includes elements of artistic intuition. Not only the creation of an artistic image by the creator of art, but also the perception of artistic imagery by the reader, viewer, listener is associated with a certain mood for the perception of artistic value, which is hidden from superficial observation. Artistic intuition thus becomes a means by which the perceiver penetrates the realm of artistic significance. In addition, artistic intuition provides an act of co-creation of a perceiving work of art and its creator.

Until now, much in the operation of the intuitive mechanism seems to be mysterious and causes great difficulties in its study. Sometimes, on this basis, artistic intuition is attributed to the field of mysticism and identified with one of the forms of irrationalism in aesthetics. However, the experience of many brilliant artists shows that, thanks to artistic intuition, it is possible to create works that deeply and truthfully reflect reality. If the artist does not deviate from the principles of realism in his work, then the artistic intuition, which he actively uses, can be considered as a special effective means of cognition that does not contradict the criteria of truth and objectivity.

INTRIGUE(from Latin intricare - to confuse) - an artistic technique used to build a plot and plot in various genres of fiction, cinema, theatrical art (tangled and unexpected turns of action, interweaving and clash of interests of the depicted characters). The idea of ​​the importance of introducing intrigue into the deployment of the action depicted in a dramatic work was first expressed by Aristotle: “The most important thing that a tragedy captivates the soul is the essence of a part of the plot - ups and downs and recognition.

The intrigue gives the unfolding action a tense and exciting character. With its help, the transfer of complex and conflicting (see) relations between people in their private and social life is achieved. The technique of intrigue is usually widely used in the works of the adventure genre. However, this is also used by classical writers in other genres, which is clear from the creative heritage of the great realist writers - Pushkin, Lermontov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy and others. Often intrigue is just a means of external entertainment. This is characteristic of bourgeois, purely commercial art, designed for the bad philistine taste. The opposite tendency of bourgeois art is the desire for plotlessness, when intrigue disappears as an artistic device.

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure of contrast, a way of organizing both artistic and non-artistic speech, which is based on the use of words with the opposite meaning (antonyms).
Antithesis as a figure of opposition in the system of rhetorical figures has been known since antiquity. So, for Aristotle, the antithesis is a certain "way of presenting" thoughts, a means of creating a special - "opposite" - period.

In artistic speech, the antithesis has special properties: it becomes an element of the artistic system, serves as a means of creating an artistic image. Therefore, the antithesis is called the opposite of not only words, but also images of a work of art.

As a figure of opposition, antithesis can be expressed both by absolute and contextual antonyms.

And the bright house is anxious
I was alone with the darkness
The impossible was possible
But what was possible was a dream.
(A. Blok)

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) is one of the allegorical artistic devices, the meaning of which lies in the fact that an abstract thought or a phenomenon of reality appears in a work of art in the form of a specific image.

By nature, allegory is two-part.

On the one hand, it is a concept or phenomenon (cunning, wisdom, goodness, nature, summer, etc.), on the other hand, it is a specific object, a picture of life that illustrates an abstract thought, making it visual. However, in itself, this picture of life plays only an auxiliary role - it illustrates, decorates the idea, and therefore is devoid of "any definite individuality" (Hegel), as a result of which the idea can be expressed by a number of "picture illustrations" (A. F. Losev).

However, the connection between the two plans of the allegory is not arbitrary, it is based on the fact that the common exists, manifests itself only in a specific single object, the properties, the functions of which serve as means of creating an allegory. One can cite as an example the allegory "Fertility" by V. Mukhina or the "Dove" by Picasso - an allegory of the world.

Sometimes an idea exists not only as an allegorical plane of allegory, but is expressed directly (for example, in the form of a fable "morality"). In this form, allegory is especially characteristic of works of art that pursue moral and didactic goals.

As you know, the word is the basic unit of any language, as well as the most important constituent element of it. The correct use of vocabulary largely determines the expressiveness of speech.

In the context, the word is a special world, a mirror of the author's perception and attitude to reality. It has its own, metaphorical, accuracy, its own special truths, called artistic revelations, the functions of vocabulary depend on the context.

The individual perception of the world around us is reflected in such a text with the help of metaphorical statements. After all, art is, first of all, the self-expression of an individual. The literary fabric is woven from metaphors that create an exciting and emotional image of this or that. Additional meanings appear in words, a special stylistic coloring that creates a kind of world that we discover when reading the text.

Not only in literary, but also in oral, colloquial speech, we use, without hesitation, various methods of artistic expression to give it emotionality, persuasiveness, and imagery. Let's see what artistic techniques are in the Russian language.

The use of metaphors especially contributes to the creation of expressiveness, so let's start with them.

Metaphor

Artistic devices in literature cannot be imagined without mentioning the most important of them - a way to create a linguistic picture of the world based on the meanings already existing in the language itself.

The types of metaphors can be distinguished as follows:

1. Fossilized, worn, dry or historical (bow of a boat, eye of a needle).
2. Phraseological units are stable figurative combinations of words that have emotionality, metaphor, reproducibility in the memory of many native speakers, expressiveness (death grip, vicious circle, etc.).
3. A single metaphor (for example, a homeless heart).
4. Unfolded (heart - "porcelain bell in yellow China" - Nikolai Gumilyov).
5. Traditional poetic (morning of life, fire of love).
6. Individually-author's (hump of the sidewalk).

In addition, a metaphor can simultaneously be an allegory, personification, hyperbole, paraphrase, meiosis, litote and other tropes.

The word "metaphor" itself means "transfer" in Greek. In this case, we are dealing with the transfer of the name from one subject to another. For it to become possible, they must certainly have some kind of similarity, they must be related in some way. A metaphor is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense due to the similarity of two phenomena or objects on some basis.

As a result of this transfer, an image is created. Therefore, metaphor is one of the most striking artistic, poetic speech. However, the absence of this trope does not mean the absence of expressiveness of the work.

Metaphor can be both simple and detailed. In the twentieth century, the use of expanded in poetry is revived, and the nature of simple changes significantly.

Metonymy

Metonymy is a type of metaphor. Translated from Greek, this word means "renaming", that is, it is the transfer of the name of one object to another. Metonymy is the replacement of a certain word by another on the basis of the existing adjacency of two concepts, objects, etc. This is an imposition on the direct meaning of a figurative one. For example: "I ate two plates." The confusion of meanings, their transfer is possible because the objects are adjacent, and the adjacency can be in time, space, etc.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Translated from Greek, this word means "correlation". Such a transfer of meaning takes place when a smaller one is called instead of a larger one, or vice versa - instead of a part - a whole, and vice versa. For example: "According to Moscow".

Epithet

Artistic techniques in literature, the list of which we are now compiling, cannot be imagined without an epithet. This is a figure, a trope, a figurative definition, a phrase or a word denoting a person, phenomenon, object or action from the subjective author's position.

Translated from Greek, this term means "attached, application", that is, in our case, one word is attached to some other.

An epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness.

Permanent epithets are used in folklore as a means of typification, and also as one of the most important means of artistic expression. In the strict sense of the term, only those of them belong to paths, the function of which is played by words in a figurative sense, in contrast to the so-called exact epithets, which are expressed by words in a direct sense (red berry, beautiful flowers). Figurative are created by using words in a figurative sense. Such epithets are called metaphorical. The metonymic transfer of the name can also underlie this trope.

An oxymoron is a kind of epithet, the so-called contrasting epithets, which form combinations with definable nouns that are opposite in meaning to words (hating love, joyful sadness).

Comparison

Comparison - a trope in which one object is characterized through comparison with another. That is, this is a comparison of various objects by similarity, which can be both obvious and unexpected, distant. Usually it is expressed using certain words: "exactly", "as if", "like", "as if". Comparisons can also take the instrumental form.

personification

Describing artistic techniques in literature, it is necessary to mention personification. This is a kind of metaphor, which is the assignment of the properties of living beings to objects of inanimate nature. Often it is created by referring to similar natural phenomena as conscious living beings. The personification is also the transfer of human properties to animals.

Hyperbole and litote

Let us note such methods of artistic expressiveness in literature as hyperbole and litotes.

Hyperbole (in translation - "exaggeration") is one of the expressive means of speech, which is a figure with the meaning of exaggeration of what is being discussed.

Litota (in translation - "simplicity") - the opposite of hyperbole - an excessive understatement of what is at stake (a boy with a finger, a peasant with a fingernail).

Sarcasm, irony and humor

We continue to describe artistic techniques in literature. Our list will be supplemented by sarcasm, irony and humor.

• Sarcasm means "I tear meat" in Greek. This is an evil irony, a caustic mockery, a caustic remark. When using sarcasm, a comic effect is created, but at the same time, an ideological and emotional assessment is clearly felt.
• Irony in translation means "pretense", "mockery". It occurs when one thing is said in words, but something completely different, the opposite, is implied.
• Humor is one of the lexical means of expression, in translation meaning "mood", "temper". In a comical, allegorical manner, whole works can sometimes be written in which one feels a mockingly good-natured attitude towards something. For example, the story "Chameleon" by A.P. Chekhov, as well as many fables by I.A. Krylov.

The types of artistic techniques in literature do not end there. We present to you the following.

Grotesque

The most important artistic devices in literature include the grotesque. The word "grotesque" means "intricate", "fancy". This artistic technique is a violation of the proportions of phenomena, objects, events depicted in the work. It is widely used in the work of, for example, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("Lord Golovlevs", "History of a City", fairy tales). This is an artistic technique based on exaggeration. However, its degree is much greater than that of hyperbole.

Sarcasm, irony, humor, and the grotesque are popular artistic devices in literature. Examples of the first three - and N. N. Gogol. The work of J. Swift is grotesque (for example, "Gulliver's Travels").

What artistic technique does the author (Saltykov-Shchedrin) use to create the image of Judas in the novel "Lord Golovlevs"? Of course, grotesque. Irony and sarcasm are present in the poems of V. Mayakovsky. The works of Zoshchenko, Shukshin, Kozma Prutkov are filled with humor. These artistic devices in literature, examples of which we have just given, as you can see, are very often used by Russian writers.

Pun

A pun is a figure of speech that is an involuntary or deliberate ambiguity that occurs when two or more meanings of a word are used in the context or when their sound is similar. Its varieties are paronomasia, false etymologization, zeugma and concretization.

In puns, word play is based on homonymy and ambiguity. Anecdotes emerge from them. These artistic techniques in literature can be found in the works of V. Mayakovsky, Omar Khayyam, Kozma Prutkov, A.P. Chekhov.

Figure of speech - what is it?

The word "figure" itself is translated from Latin as "appearance, outline, image." This word has many meanings. What does this term mean in relation to artistic speech? Syntactic means of expression related to figures: rhetorical exclamations, questions, appeals.

What is a "trope"?

"What is the name of the artistic technique that uses the word in a figurative sense?" - you ask. The term "trope" combines various techniques: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, comparison, synecdoche, litote, hyperbole, personification and others. In translation, the word "trope" means "revolution". Artistic speech differs from ordinary speech in that it uses special phrases that decorate speech and make it more expressive. Different styles use different means of expression. The most important thing in the concept of "expressiveness" for artistic speech is the ability of a text, a work of art to have an aesthetic, emotional impact on the reader, to create poetic pictures and vivid images.

We all live in a world of sounds. Some of them evoke positive emotions in us, while others, on the contrary, excite, alert, cause anxiety, soothe or induce sleep. Different sounds evoke different images. With the help of their combination, you can emotionally influence a person. Reading works of art of literature and Russian folk art, we especially acutely perceive their sound.

Basic techniques for creating sound expressiveness

• Alliteration is the repetition of similar or identical consonants.
• Assonance is the intentional harmonic repetition of vowels.

Often alliteration and assonance are used in works at the same time. These techniques are aimed at evoking various associations in the reader.

Reception of sound writing in fiction

Sound writing is an artistic technique, which is the use of certain sounds in a specific order to create a certain image, that is, the selection of words that imitate the sounds of the real world. This technique in fiction is used both in poetry and in prose.

Sound types:

1. Assonance means "consonance" in French. Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in a text to create a specific sound image. It contributes to the expressiveness of speech, it is used by poets in the rhythm, rhyme of poems.
2. Alliteration - from This technique is the repetition of consonants in an artistic text to create some sound image, in order to make poetic speech more expressive.
3. Onomatopoeia - the transmission of special words, reminiscent of the sounds of the phenomena of the surrounding world, auditory impressions.

These artistic techniques in poetry are very common; without them, poetic speech would not be so melodic.

To the question What are the literary techniques of the author? given by the author clubfoot the best answer is


ALLEGORY

3. ANALOGY

4. ANOMASIA
Replacing a person's name with an object.
5. ANTITHESIS

6. APPLICATION

7. HYPERBOLE
Exaggeration.
8. Litota

9. METAPHOR

10. METONYMY

11. OVERLAY

12. OXYMORON
Correlation by contrast
13. NEGATIVE NEGATIVE
Proof is to the contrary.
14. REFRAIN

15. SYNEGDOCHA

16. CHIASM

17. ELIPSIS

18. EPHEMISM
Replacing the rough with the graceful.
ALL artistic techniques work equally in any genre and do not depend on the material. Their selection and appropriateness of use are determined by the author's style, taste and specific way of developing each specific thing.
Source: See examples here http://biblioteka.teatr-obraz.ru/node/4596

Answer from usurer[guru]
Literary devices are phenomena of a very different scale: they concern a different volume of literature - from a line in a poem to a whole literary movement.
Literary devices listed on Wikipedia:
Allegory‎ Metaphors‎ Rhetorical figures‎ Quotation‎ Euphemisms‎ Auto-epigraph Alliteration Allusion Anagram Anachronism Antiphrasis Verse graphics Disposition
Sound writing Gaping Allegory Contamination Lyrical digression Literary mask Logograph Macaronism Minus device Paronymy Stream of consciousness Reminiscence
Figured poetry Black humor Aesopian language Epigraph.

Answer from Andrey Pechenkin[newbie]
personification

Answer from Neurologist[newbie]
Olympiad tasks of the school stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in 2013-2014
Literature Grade 8
Tasks.












He says a word - the nightingale sings;
Her cheeks are rosy,
Like the dawn in God's heaven.



Half smile, half cry
Her eyes are like two lies
Covered in mist of failures.
Combination of two mysteries
Half delight, half fright
A fit of insane tenderness,
The anticipation of death torments.
7, 5 points (0.5 points for the correct title of the work, 0.5 points for the correct title of the author of the work, 0.5 points for the correct name of the character)
3. What places are associated with the life and creative path of poets and writers? Find matches.
1.B. A. Zhukovsky. 1. Tarkhany.
2.A. S. Pushkin. 2. Spasskoye - Lutovinovo.
3.N. A. Nekrasov. 3. Yasnaya Polyana.
4.A. A. Blok. 4. Taganrog.
5.N. V. Gogol. 5. Konstantinovo.
6.M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. 6. Belev.
7.M. Y. Lermontov. 7. Mikhailovskoye.
8.I. S. Turgenev. 8. Sinful.
9.L. N. Tolstoy. 9. Chess.
10.A. P. Chekhov. 10. Vasilievka.
11.C. A. Yesenin. 11. Spas - Angle.
5.5 points (0.5 points for each correct answer)
4. Name the authors of the given fragments of works of art
4.1. Oh memory of the heart! You are stronger
Reason of sad memory
And often with its sweetness
You captivate me in a distant country.
4.2. And the crows?
Yes, they are to God!
I'm in my own, not in someone else's forest.
Let them shout, raise the alarm -
I won't die from croaking.
4.3. I hear the songs of the lark,
I hear the trill of the nightingale ...
This is the Russian side
This is my homeland!
4.4. Hello, Russia - my homeland!
How happy I am under your foliage!
And there is no singing

Answer from Ilgiz Fazlyev[newbie]
RECEPTION literary - includes all the means and moves that the poet uses in the "arrangement" (composition) of his work.
For unfolding the material and creating an image, humanity has developed over the centuries certain generalized methods, techniques based on psychological patterns. They were discovered by ancient Greek rhetoricians and have since been successfully used in all arts. These techniques are called TROPES (from the Greek. Tropos - turn, direction).
Paths are not recipes, but helpers, developed and tested over the centuries. Here they are:
ALLEGORY
Allegory, the expression of an abstract, abstract concept through specifics.
3. ANALOGY
Matching by similarity, establishing correspondences.
4. ANOMASIA
Replacing a person's name with an object.
5. ANTITHESIS
Contrasting opposites.
6. APPLICATION
Enumeration and piling up (homogeneous details, definitions, etc.).
7. HYPERBOLE
Exaggeration.
8. Litota
Understatement (reverse of hyperbole)
9. METAPHOR
Revelation of one phenomenon through another.
10. METONYMY
Establishing connections by adjacency, i.e., association by similar features.
11. OVERLAY
Direct and figurative meanings in one phenomenon.
12. OXYMORON
Correlation by contrast
13. NEGATIVE NEGATIVE
Proof is to the contrary.
14. REFRAIN
Repetition, enhancing the expressiveness or force of impact.
15. SYNEGDOCHA
More instead of less and less instead of more.
16. CHIASM
Normal order in one and flip in the other (gag).
17. ELIPSIS
An artistically expressive omission (of some part or phase of an event, movement, etc.).
18. EPHEMISM
Replacing the rough with the graceful.
ALL artistic techniques work equally in any genre and do not depend on the material. Their selection and appropriateness of use are determined by the author's style, taste and specific way of developing each specific thing. Olympiad tasks of the school stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in 2013-2014
Literature Grade 8
Tasks.
1. Many fables contain expressions that have become proverbs and sayings. Indicate the name of the fables of I. A. Krylov according to the given lines.
1.1. "I walk on my hind legs."
1.2. "The Cuckoo praises the Rooster for praising the Cuckoo."
1.3. "When there is no agreement among the comrades, their business will not go smoothly."
1.4. " Deliver us, God, from such judges."
1.5. "A great man is only loud in deeds."
5 points (1 point for each correct answer)
2. Determine the works and their authors according to the given portrait characteristics. Indicate whose portrait this is.
2.1. In holy Rus', our mother,
Do not find, do not find such a beauty:
Walks smoothly - like a swan;
Looks sweet - like a dove;
He says a word - the nightingale sings;
Her cheeks are rosy,
Like the dawn in God's heaven.
2.2. “... the official cannot be said to be very remarkable, short in stature, somewhat pockmarked, somewhat reddish, somewhat even blind-sighted, with a slight bald spot on his forehead, with wrinkles on both sides of his cheeks and a complexion, as they say, hemorrhoids ... "
2.3. (He) "was a man of the most cheerful, most meek disposition, constantly sang in an undertone, looked carelessly in all directions, spoke a little through his nose, smiling, screwing up his light blue eyes, and often took his thin, wedge-shaped beard with his hand."
2.4. “All of him, from head to toe, was covered with hair, like the ancient Esau, and his nails became like iron. He has long ceased to blow his nose,
he walked more and more on all fours and was even surprised that he had not noticed before that this way of walking was the most decent and most convenient.
2.5. Her eyes are like two clouds
Half smile, half cry
Her eyes are like two lies
Covered in mist of failures.
Combination of two mysteries
Half delight, half fright
A fit of insane tenderness,
The anticipation of death torments.

Answer from Daniel Babkin[newbie]
Not only in literature, but also in oral, colloquial speech, we use various techniques of artistic expression to give it emotionality, imagery and persuasiveness. This is especially facilitated by the use of metaphors - the use of a word in a figurative sense (bow of a boat, eye of a needle, stranglehold, fire of love).
An epithet is a technique similar to a metaphor, but the only difference is that the epithet does not name the subject of artistic display, but a sign of this subject (good fellow, the sun is clear or oh, bitter grief, boredom is boring, mortal!).
Comparison - when one object is characterized through comparison with another, it is usually expressed using certain words: "exactly", "as if", "similar", "as if". (the sun is like a fireball, the rain is like a bucket).
Literary art also includes personification. This is a kind of metaphor that assigns the properties of living beings to objects of inanimate nature. The personification is also the transfer of human properties to animals (cunning, like foxes).
Hyperbole (exaggeration) - one of the expressive means of speech, is a meaning with an exaggeration of what is being discussed (darkness-darkness money, never seen each other).
And vice versa, the opposite of hyperbole - litote (simplicity) - an excessive understatement of what is at stake (a boy with a finger, a peasant with a fingernail).
The list can be supplemented with sarcasm, irony and humor.
Sarcasm (translated from Greek as “I tear meat”) is an evil irony, a caustic remark or a caustic mockery.
Irony is also a mockery, but softer, when one thing is said in words, but something completely different, the opposite, is implied.
Humor is one of the means of expression, meaning "mood", "temper". When the story is told in a comical, allegorical way.

Figures of speech on Wikipedia
Check out the wikipedia article on Figures of Speech