What characteristic features of the classics did he possess. Ensemble of the Acropolis of Athens: compositional features, main buildings

The ancient period, which is characterized by the rise and flourishing of Hellas (as the ancient Greeks called their country), is the most interesting for most art historians. And not in vain! Indeed, at this time, the origin and formation of the principles and forms of almost all genres of contemporary art took place. In total, scientists divide the history of the development of this country into five periods. Let's look at the typology and talk about the formation of some types of art.

Aegean era This period is most clearly represented by two monuments - the Mycenaean and Knossos palaces. The latter is better known today as the Labyrinth from the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. After archaeological excavations, scientists have confirmed the veracity of this legend. Only the first floor has been preserved, but it has more than three hundred rooms! In addition to the palaces, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is known for the masks of the Achaean leaders and small Cretan sculptures. The figurines found in the secrets of the palace amaze with their filigree. Women with snakes look very realistic and graceful. Thus, the culture of Ancient Greece, a summary of which is presented in the article, originated from the symbiosis of the ancient island civilization of Crete and the arrived Achaean and Dorian tribes who settled on the Balkan Peninsula.

Homeric Period This era is significantly different in material terms from the previous one. Many important events took place between the 11th and 9th centuries BC. First of all, the previous civilization perished. Scientists suggest that due to a volcanic eruption. Further from the statehood there was a return to the communal structure. In fact, society was being re-formed. An important point is that against the background of material decline, spiritual culture was fully preserved and continued to develop. We can see this in the works of Homer, which reflect precisely this critical era. The Trojan War belongs to the end of the Minoan period, and the writer himself lived at the beginning of the archaic era. That is, the Iliad and the Odyssey are the only evidence of this period, because apart from them and archaeological finds, nothing is known about it today.

archaic era. At this time, there is a rapid growth and formation of state-states. The coin begins to be minted, the formation of the alphabet and the formation of writing takes place. In an archaic era, the Olympic Games appear, a cult of a healthy and athletic body is formed. It was during this period that the culture of Ancient Greece was born.

classical period. Everything that captivates us today with the culture of Ancient Greece was created precisely in this era. Philosophy and science, painting and sculpture, oratory and poetry - all these genres are experiencing a rise and unique development. The apogee of creative self-expression was the Athens architectural ensemble, which still amazes the audience with its harmony and elegance of forms.

Hellenism. The last period of the development of Greek culture is interesting precisely because of its ambiguity. On the one hand, there is a unification of Greek and Eastern traditions as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great. On the other hand, Rome captures Greece, but the latter conquers it with its culture. Architecture The Parthenon is probably one of the most famous monuments of the ancient world. And Doric or Ionic elements, such as columns, are inherent in some later architectural styles. Basically, the development of this type of art, we can trace the temples. After all, it was in this type of buildings that the most efforts, means and skills were invested. Even palaces were valued less than places for sacrifices to the gods. The beauty of ancient Greek temples lies in the fact that they were not formidable temples of mysterious and cruel celestials. According to the internal structure, they resembled ordinary houses, only they were equipped more elegantly and were richer furnished. How could it be otherwise if the gods themselves were depicted as human-like, with the same problems, quarrels and joys? In the future, three orders of columns formed the basis of most styles of European architecture. It was with their help that the culture of Ancient Greece briefly, but very capaciously and durably entered the life of modern man.

vase painting. The works of this type of art are the most numerous and studied to date. The first monuments of this civilization are black-glazed ceramics - very beautiful and stylish dishes, copies of which served as souvenirs, decorations and collectibles in all subsequent eras. Vessel painting went through several stages of development. At first, these were simple geometric ornaments, known since the time of the Minoan culture. Next, spirals, meanders and other details are added to them. In the process of formation, vase painting acquires the features of painting. Scenes from the mythology and everyday life of the ancient Greeks, human figures, images of animals and everyday scenes appear on the vessels. It is noteworthy that the artists managed not only to convey movement in their paintings, but also to give personal features to the characters. Thanks to their attributes, individual gods and heroes are easily recognized.

Mythology. The peoples of the ancient world perceived the surrounding reality a little differently than we are used to understanding it. The deities were the main force that was responsible for what is happening in a person's life. The ancient Greek pantheon included a lot of gods, demigods and heroes, but the main ones were twelve Olympians. The names of some of them were already known during the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. They are mentioned on clay tablets in linear writing. It is noteworthy that at this stage they had female and male counterparts of the same character. For example, there was Zeus-he and Zeus-she. Today we know about the gods of ancient Greece thanks to the monuments of fine art and literature that have remained for centuries. Sculptures, frescoes, figurines, plays and stories - in all this, the worldview of the Hellenes was reflected. Such views have outlived their time. The artistic culture of Ancient Greece, in short, had a primary influence on the formation of many European schools of various arts. The Renaissance artists resurrected and developed the ideas of style, harmony and form already known in classical Greece.

Architecture Ancient Greece developed in three stages. The period from about 600 to 480 BC. e. was marked by a repulse of the Persian invasion. After the liberation of their land, the Greeks began to create freely again. This period was called "archaic". The architecture of Ancient Greece experienced its heyday from 480 to 323 BC. e. During this period, Alexander the Great conquered vast territories that differed significantly in their cultures. This had a devastating effect on classical Greek art. The late period - Hellenism - ended in 30 BC. e. The Romans at that time conquered ancient Egypt, which was under the influence of Greece. The ruins of temples belong to the archaic period. These ancient structures were one of the greatest achievements of architecture. At that time, wood was replaced by white marble and limestone. Presumably, the prototype of the ancient temples was the dwelling of the Greeks. It looked like a rectangular building, in front of which two columns were installed. This fairly simple structure laid the foundation for more complex planning structures. As a rule, the temple was installed on a stepped base. There were no windows in the building; a statue of a deity was placed inside it. The building was surrounded by columns in two or one row. They served as a support for a gable roof and beams in the ceiling. Only priests were allowed to visit the interior. The rest of the people saw the temple from the outside. The construction of the temple was subject to certain laws, precisely established proportions, sizes, and the number of columns were used. The architecture of ancient Greece was characterized by three directions: Corinthian, Ionic, Doric. The latter was formed in the archaic era. Thus, the Doric style was the most ancient. It was a combination of power and simplicity. The name of the style comes from the Doric peoples who created it. The Ionic style was formed in Asia Minor, in its Ionian region. From there it was adopted by Ancient Greece. The architecture of this style was distinguished by the harmony and elegance of the columns. The middle part in the capital looked like a pillow with the corners twisted into a spiral. During the Hellenistic period, the architecture of Ancient Greece was characterized by a desire for pomp, a certain grandeur. At that time, Corinthian capitals (crowning parts of columns) were most often used. Their decoration is dominated by plant motifs, mainly with the image of acanthus leaves. In the 5th century BC e. Ancient Greek architecture flourished. The famous statesman Pericles had a great influence on the formation of art in this classical period. His reign was marked by the beginning of large-scale construction in Athens, the largest artistic and cultural center of Ancient Greece. The main work was carried out in the Acropolis - on an ancient hill. The Greeks were able in their architecture to bring to perfection the unity of the constructive and artistic content of buildings. It should be noted that in the 5th century BC. e. both architecture and sculpture of ancient Greece experienced their heyday. During this period, the greatest historical monuments were created. However, the early works of Greek sculptors have survived to this day. In the 7th-6th centuries BC. e. the statues are distinguished by amazing symmetry - one part of the body mirrors the other. The sculptures were in shackled positions - outstretched arms were pressed to the muscular body. Despite the absence of any sign of movement (turning the head or tilting), the lips of the statues were parted in a slight smile. The sculptural art of later periods is distinguished by a great variety of forms. In the 1st century BC e, as a result of the active expansion of the Roman Empire, ancient Greek architecture takes on more features of the conquerors, losing its own.

In ancient times, on the high hill of the Acropolis, the city of Kekropia was erected, which later received a new name - Athens. It is better to admire the Acropolis in Athens at sunrise or sunset, it is at this time that the ruins of the former great city come to life and seem to be rebuilt.

History of the Athenian Acropolis

Let's take a look at the history of the city. King Kekrops is considered the founder of Athens. This great man is credited with the foundation of 12 Greek cities, the introduction of a ban on human sacrifice, and, most importantly, the introduction of the cult of Zeus the Thunderer. The arrival of the greatness of the goddess Athena occurs during the reign of another king - Erechtonius, it was during his reign that the city was renamed Athens.

Approximately in the II millennium BC, the territory of the Acropolis completely contained Athens. It was surrounded by powerful walls. On the western sloping side, a particularly strong fortification of Enneapilon "Nine-Gate" was erected. Outside the walls was the palace of the Athenian kings. It was in it that the sanctuary of Athena was later placed, and as the city grew, the Acropolis became a religious center dedicated to the patroness of the city. Architecture of the Athenian Acropolis.

The construction of the ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis began after the great victories of the Greeks over the Persians. In 449, Pericles' plan to beautify this area was approved. The Athenian Acropolis was to become a great symbol of a great victory. No money or material was spared. Pericles could get whatever he wanted for this business.

Tons of material were brought to the main hill of the Greek capital. It was considered pride for everyone to work at this facility. Several excellent architects were involved here at once, but Phidias played the main role.

Propylaea of ​​the Athenian Acropolis

The architect Mnesicles created the buildings of the Propylaea, which are the entrance to the Acropolis, decorated with porticos and a colonnade. Such a structure introduced the visitor to a sacred place into a completely new world, not like everyday reality. At the other end of the Propylaea, a statue of the patroness of the city of Athena Promachos, executed personally by Phidias, was installed. Speaking of Phidias, one can say that it was from his hands that the famous statue of Zeus at Olympia came out, which became one of the seven wonders of the world of the ancient world. The helmet and spear of the warrior Athena were seen even by sailors sailing through Attica.

Parthenon - the first temple

The main temple of the Athenian Acropolis is the Parthenon. Previously, it contained another statue of Athena Parthenos, also made by Phidias. The statue was made in chrysoelephantine technique, like Olympian Zeus. But this miracle has not reached us, so it remains only to believe the rumors and images. The columns of the Parthenon, made of marble, have lost their original whiteness over the centuries. Now its brownish columns stand out beautifully against the evening sky. The Parthenon was the temple of Athena Polias the Guardian. Such a name, due to the position of the building, was usually shortened to the Great Temple or even just the Temple.

The construction of the Parthenon was carried out in 447-428 BC under the leadership of the architects Iktin and his assistant Kallikrat, of course, not without the participation of Phidias. The temple was supposed to be the epitome of democracy. Great calculations were made for its construction, which is why the building was completed in just 9 years. Other decoration continued until 432.

Erechtheion - the second temple

The second temple of the Acropolis is the old Erechtheion, also dedicated to Athena. There was a functional difference between the Erechtheion and the Pantheon. The Pantheon was intended for public needs, the Erechtheion, in fact, was the temple of the priests. The temple, according to legend, was built at the site of the dispute between Poseidon and Athena for the right to rule in Athens. The elders of the city were supposed to resolve the dispute, at their request, power was given to one of the gods, whose gift would be the most useful for the city. Poseidon made a stream of salt water from the hill of the Acropolis, while Athena grew an olive tree. The daughter of Zeus was declared the winner, and the olive tree was the symbol of the city.

The temple, according to legend, was built at the site of the dispute between Poseidon and Athena for the right to rule in Athens. The elders of the city were supposed to resolve the dispute, at their request, power was given to one of the gods, whose gift would be the most useful for the city. Poseidon made a stream of salt water from the hill of the Acropolis, while Athena grew an olive tree. The daughter of Zeus was declared the winner, and the olive tree was the symbol of the city.

In one of the rooms of the temple there was a trace of the impact of the trident of Poseidon on the rock. Near this place is the entrance to the cave, where, according to another legend, the snake of Athena lived, which is the personification of the glorious king-hero Erechthonius.

In the same complex there is the grave of Erechthonius himself, and in the western part of the temple there is a well with salt water, as if appeared at the behest of the same Poseidon.

Temple of Athena Nike

Athena in the Acropolis found its embodiment in another form - Athena Nike. The first temple dedicated to the goddess of victory was destroyed during the wars with the Persians, therefore, after the conclusion of the truce, it was decided to restore the sanctuary. The temple was built by Callicrates in 427-424 BC.

With the arrival of the Turks, the temple was dismantled for the construction of fortifications. The restoration of the temple was carried out in the 1830s, after the restoration of Greece as an independent state. The next reconstruction was carried out in 1935-1940, and since that time the temple appears in all its glory to the visitors of the complex.

The Acropolis is a majestic complex of beautiful buildings with a rich and interesting history. This is a piece of Greece, without which it is difficult to put together a holistic image of its former greatness.

Plan of the Athenian Acropolis.

Architecture of Ancient Rome. Architectural symbols of Roman grandeur. Roman Forum, the center of business and social life of the "eternal city". The Pantheon is the temple of all the gods. The Colosseum is a majestic spectacular building of Ancient Rome.

The composition of the characteristic Roman urban ensemble - the form bears traces of the influence of the compositions of the Greek agora and folk dwellings.

The predominant type of developed residential building was atrium-peristyle. Usually it was located on an elongated area, fenced off from the streets with blank outer walls. The front part of the house was occupied by an atrium - a closed room, on the sides of which there were living rooms and utility rooms. In the center of the atrium there was a pool, above which an open part was left in the roof for lighting and water flow into the pool. Behind the atrium, through the tablinum, was a peristyle with a garden inside. The whole composition developed in depth along the axis with a consistent disclosure of the main spaces.

AT Roman forums the same idea of ​​a closed axial composition was reflected - an order peristyle, but enlarged to the size of a city square. In the initial period, the forums usually served as markets, and shops, and sometimes other public buildings, adjoined the galleries along their perimeter. Over time, they turned into parade squares for public meetings, solemn ceremonies, religious activities, etc.

The temple, located in the middle of the narrow side of a rectangular square on its main axis, became the ideological and compositional center. Rising on the podium, he dominated the composition. In plan, the temple had the shape of a rectangle, to which a portico was attached. Such a composition of the temple was traditional in Rome and had its origins in the most ancient types of temples of the Etruscan-Archaic period. In the composition of the forum, the frontal construction of the temple emphasized its deep-axial structure, and a rich portico (composite, Corinthian, less often Ionic order) accentuated the entrance to the temple. Since the republican period, several forums have been successively erected in Rome. Later emperors interpreted the forum as a monument to their own glory.

In its splendor, luxury, size and complexity of the composition stands out Forum of Emperor Trajan(architect Apollodorus of Damascus, 112-117). In addition to the main square and the temple, a five-bay elongated hall was erected on it - a basilica with an area of ​​​​55x159 m and two symmetrical library buildings, between which a memorial was erected on a small square. Trajan's column 38 m high. Its marble trunk is covered with a spiral ribbon of a bas-relief with 2500 figures depicting episodes of Trajan's victorious campaigns. The triumphal arch serves as the main entrance, the statue of the emperor is installed in the center of the square, the temple is in its depths. Colonnades and porticos made of marble, which had various and sometimes huge sizes, were the main motif of the ensemble.

Built in conjunction with the forums and on the main roads, triumphal arches are one of the most common types of memorial structures in Rome. Examples are arch of Titus(70s), arch of Constantine(IV century), where the monumental array is dressed in a rich decorative dress with a loosened order.

Arch of Constantine, placed near the Colosseum, surpasses others not only in its size (21.5 m high, 25 m wide), but also in the abundance of decorations. Some details (for example, round and rectangular reliefs, figures, etc.) are taken from architectural monuments of an earlier time, which was a common phenomenon in the architecture of late Rome. The plastic richness and large size of the structure are designed to convincingly express the ideas of the power of the emperor, who rules both in Rome itself and in the vast imperial colonies.

Arched and vaulted forms initially became widespread in utilitarian structures - bridges and aqueducts. City water pipes - aqueducts- occupied a special place in the improvement of cities, the growth of which required more and more water. The water supplied from the hilly environs to the city reservoirs flowed through stone channels (trays) plastered with hydraulic mortar, which in low places and at the intersections of rivers or ravines were supported by arched structures. Majestic arcades of bridges and aqueducts already in the Republican period determined the type of structures. Characteristic for these types of structures; Marcia aqueduct in Rome, 144 BC and etc.

some of them have risen to the level of the best examples of Roman architecture, not only technically, but also architecturally and artistically. They should include Trajan's bridge in Alcantra in Spain (98-106 AD) and an aqueduct in the city of Nimes in France (II century AD), crossing the river. Guard, etc.

Length Gardskogo aqueduct bridge 275 m. It consists of three tiers of arched abutments with a total height of 49 m. The span of the largest arch is a huge value for that time - 24.5 m. The abutments and arches are built dry of accurately hewn stones. The arcade is notable for its simplicity of forms and harmony of relationships, clarity of tectonics, large scale, and expressive texture. The monumental and refined beauty of the composition is achieved exclusively with the help of constructive forms.

Palace building was going on in Rome on a grand scale. Particularly stood out Imperial Palace on the Palatine, consisting of the actual palace for ceremonial receptions and the dwelling of the emperor. The front rooms were located around a vast peristyle courtyard. The main room - the throne room - was striking in its size. The hall was covered with a cylindrical arch with a span of 29.3 m, which rose 43-44 m above the floor level. The main premises of the residential part were also grouped around the peristyles on the terraces of the hills, using the methods of building villas. The construction of villas also acquired a large scale in Rome. In addition to large palace complexes, the principles of garden and park architecture, which were intensively developed from the 1st century BC, were implemented in them with the greatest breadth. ( Hadrian's villa in Tibur, first floor. 2nd century etc.).

The most grandiose public buildings of Rome, carried out in the imperial period, are associated with the development of arched-vaulted concrete structures.

Roman theaters were based on Greek traditions, but unlike Greek theaters, whose seats were located on the natural slopes of the mountains, they were free-standing buildings with a complex substructure that supported seats for spectators, with radial walls, pillars and stairs and passages inside the main semicircular in terms of volume ( Theater of Marcellus in Rome, II c. BC, which accommodated about 13 thousand spectators, etc.).

Colosseum (Colosseum)(75-80 AD) - the largest amphitheater in Rome, intended for gladiator fights and other competitions. Elliptical in plan (dimensions in the main axes are about 156x188 m) and grandiose in height (48.5 m), it could accommodate up to 50,000 spectators. In plan, the building is divided by transverse and annular passages. Between the three outer rows of pillars, a system of main distribution galleries was arranged. A system of stairs connected the galleries with exits evenly spaced in the funnel of the amphitheater and external entrances to the building arranged along the entire perimeter.

The structural basis is made up of 80 radially directed walls and pillars that carry the vaults of the ceilings. The outer wall is made of travertine squares; in the upper part it consists of two layers: the inner one is made of concrete and the outer one is made of travertine. Marble and knock were widely used for facing and other decorative works.

With a great understanding of the properties and work of the material, the architects combined various types of stone and concrete compositions. In elements experiencing the greatest stress (in pillars, longitudinal arches, etc.), the most durable material - travertine - is used; radial tuff walls lined with brick and partly relieved by brick arches; the sloping concrete vault has light pumice as a filler in order to lighten the weight. Brick arches of various designs penetrate the thickness of concrete both in vaults and in radial walls. The "frame" structure of the Colosseum was functionally expedient, provided lighting for the internal galleries, passages and stairs, and was economical in terms of the cost of materials.

The Colosseum also provides the first known example in history of the bold solution of awning structures in the form of a periodically arranged cover. On the wall of the fourth tier, brackets were preserved that served as supports for the rods, to which a giant silk awning was attached with the help of ropes, protecting the audience from the scorching rays of the sun.

The external appearance of the Colosseum is monumental due to the huge size and the unity of the plastic development of the wall in the form of a multi-tiered order arcade. The system of orders gives the composition a scale and, along with this, a special character of the relationship between the sculpture and the wall. At the same time, the facades are somewhat dry, the proportions are heavy. The use of the order arcade introduced tectonic duality into the composition: the multi-tiered order system, complete in itself, serves exclusively decorative and plastic purposes here, creating only an illusory impression of the building's order frame, visually lightening its array.

Roman baths- complex complexes of numerous rooms and courtyards intended for ablution and various activities related to recreation and entertainment (rooms and open areas for sports exercises, meeting rooms, rooms for games and conversations, etc.). The composition was based on ablution halls with a gradual transition from a cold room (frigidarium) to a warm one (tepidarium) and then to a room with the highest temperature (caldarium), containing a pool of hot water in the center. The halls located along the main axis reached enormous sizes, since the large baths were designed for the broad masses of the plebs.

All halls and rooms were heated by warm air, which came through special channels, which were arranged under the floor and in the walls of buildings.

In Rome, 11 large imperial baths and about 800 small private baths were built. Most famous Baths of Caracalla(206-216) and the baths of Diocletian(306). The main building of the term sometimes reached a huge size (the baths of Caracalla-216x120 m). Surrounded by gardens, areas for recreation and entertainment, it, together with the latter, occupied a significant area (the baths of Caracalla - 363x535 m).

The technical basis for the appearance of such grandiose structures was the accumulated experience in creating bold constructive forms - arches and domes made of concrete. In terms, these forms spatially interact with each other, forming a complex structure. Having reduced the “inert” mass of structures to a minimum, the architects distributed their efforts economically and expediently. Giving the structures different shapes, they made the most of the possibilities of mutual repayment of horizontal forces by the vaults themselves. So, the ceiling of the central hall usually consisted of three adjacent cross vaults with a span of up to 25 m, based on transverse abutments, between which cylindrical vaults were thrown.

Large and small halls, uniting in enfilades, created a complex interior, striking with brilliance and luxury of decoration, an abundance of light and air. Great importance in the interior was attached to decoratively treated order elements and articulations. With the help of the order and the plastic development of the surfaces of the vaults, a visual effect of the lightness of the structure was created, the idea of ​​​​the spatiality of the interior was emphasized. ( Baths of Caracalla in Rome, 206-216. Interior reconstruction)

One of the central halls of the term was often made in a round shape with a domed cover. Its dimensions reached large sizes: the diameter of the caldarium of the terms of Caracalla was 34 m. The development of domed structures in the terms contributed to the emergence of a rotunda-type composition in which the domed form became dominant.

Pantheon in Rome(about 125) is the most perfect example of a grandiose rotunda temple, in which the diameter of the dome reached 43.2 m. In the Pantheon, the constructive and artistic tasks of creating the largest in Rome (unsurpassed until the 20th century) large-span domed space were brilliantly resolved.

The spherical vault is made with horizontal layers of concrete and rows of burnt bricks, representing a monolithic mass without a frame. To lighten the weight, the dome gradually decreases in thickness towards the top, and light aggregate - crushed pumice stone - is introduced into the concrete. The dome rests on a 6 m thick wall. The foundation is concrete with travertine filler. As the wall rises, travertine is replaced by lighter tuff, and in the upper part - brick rubble. Brick rubble also serves as a filler for the lower zone of the dome. Thus, in the design of the Pantheon, a system of lightening the weight of the concrete aggregate was consistently carried out.

The system of unloading brick arches in the thickness of the concrete evenly distributes the forces of the dome on the abutments and unloads the wall above the niches, reducing the load on the columns. A multi-tiered system of arches with a clearly defined subordination of the main and secondary parts made it possible to rationally distribute efforts in the structure, freeing it from inert mass. She contributed to the preservation of the building despite earthquakes.

The artistic structure of the building is determined by the constructive form: a powerful domed volume outside, a single and integral space inside. The centric volume of the rotunda is interpreted from the outside as an axial frontal composition. In front of the majestic eight-column portico of the Corinthian order (the height of the columns is 14 m), there used to be a rectangular courtyard with a solemn entrance and a triumphal arch like a forum. The developed space under the portico with four rows of intermediate columns, as it were, prepares the visitor for the perception of the vast space of the interior.

The dome, at the top of which there is a round light opening with a diameter of 9 m, dominates the interior. Five rows of caissons decreasing upwards create the impression of a domed "frame", visually lightening the array. At the same time, they give the dome plasticity and a scale commensurate with the divisions of the interior. The order of the lower tier, accentuating deep niches, effectively alternates with massive pillars lined with marble.

The attic strip, intermediate between the order and the dome, emphasizes in contrast the forms of the dome and the main order with a small division scale. The expressive tectonics of the composition is combined with the effect of diffuse lighting pouring from above and subtle color nuances created by the marble facing. The rich, festively majestic interior contrasts with the exterior of the Pantheon, where the simplicity of the monumental volume dominates.

An important place in the construction was occupied by covered halls - basilicas, which served for various kinds of meetings and meetings of the tribunal. These are rectangular buildings elongated in plan, internally divided by rows of supports into elongated spaces - naves. The middle nave was made wider and higher than the side ones, and was illuminated through openings in the upper part of the walls.

Three-aisled basilica of Constantine(312) - one of the largest basilicas in Rome. The middle nave, 23.5 m wide, 80 m long and 35 m high, was covered with three cross vaults. The side naves were covered with transverse cylindrical vaults, which rested on powerful arched abutments, which also served as a support for the vaults of the middle nave. The thrust of the cross vaults was extinguished by the same supports, which were partially brought out over the side aisles. In the longitudinal walls of the middle nave, above the vaults of the side parts, arched lighting openings were arranged. As in other major buildings of Rome (the baths, the Pantheon, etc.), the main attention in the Basilica of Constantine is given to the creation of large interior spaces. The richly designed interior, which was similar in composition and decoration to the interiors of the thermae, was opposed by the simple and concise appearance of the building.

In the IV century. with the adoption of Christianity by Rome on the basis of the basilica, new types of religious buildings began to develop - basilica churches. The Christian basilica was especially widespread in the religious construction of the Western Middle Ages.

Like any culture, it is a manifestation of the national spirit, formed in a given area under the influence of a certain climate.

* Attica - the name of the territory around Athens.

Taking into account the features of the surrounding landscape and climate, as well as all the optical distortions inherent in vision, the architects gave the outlines of the temple a barely noticeable curvature. 11.5 cm). The cylinders of the columns create the illusion of a façade open to the sides; for this reason, each column along the perimeter of the temple was narrowed upwards and tilted 7 cm from the axis to the cella. An absolutely even column looks dry and as if crushed in the middle, therefore, in order to give the contour of juiciness and elasticity, it was endowed with a slight thickening by about a third of its height. So that the corner columns do not seem excessively thin due to bright lighting, they were made more massive and the neighboring ones were brought closer to them.

But even under the dazzling rays of the sun, the white marble columns did not merge with the cella, because it was painted purple with thin horizontal lines of gilding. The shadow from the reliefs and sculptures, which could distort the image, was "extinguished" by the red background of the pediment and metopes and the blue stripes of triglyphs. Thanks to this, in conditions of exceptional transparency of the air and the brightness of sunlight, the smallest details of the painted sculpture and bas-reliefs could be distinguished from afar.

The encaustic technique provided the same external effect of plasticity as the shiny surface of marble, giving the majestic and austere appearance of the marble Parthenon an elegant, festive look. Some details - horse reins, necks of vessels, wreaths made of gilded bronze, reminiscent of a light cobweb, introduced an element of transparency into its sophisticated appearance.

The temple has become a model of size, rationalism, precise calculation, but at the same time, the harmony of simple forms and clear lines gives it aspiration upwards and an almost bodily trembling of a living orgoanism, characteristic of sculpture.

Questions and tasks
1. What are the main features of architectural orders that arose in Greece during the archaic period. What gods were Greek temples dedicated to?
2. What characteristic features of the classics did the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis have?
3. Why is the Parthenon considered the most perfect temple of the Doric order?

Emokhonova L. G., World art culture: a textbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level) - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008.

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Chapter “The Rise of Attic Architecture” of the subsection “Architecture of Ancient Greece of the Heyday (480-400 BC)” of the section “Architecture of Ancient Greece” from the book “The General History of Architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome)”, edited by V.F. Marcuson.

Second half of the 5th century BC. was the time of the greatest development of Attic culture and art. After the successful outcome of the Greco-Persian wars, Attica experienced an era that, according to Marx, marked "the highest internal flowering of Greece." This is the heyday of the slave-owning democracy, headed by Pericles. The large funds that the Athenian state had at its disposal allowed it to maintain a strong navy, which contributed to the further expansion of Athens.

It was during this period that an attempt was made in Attica to create a single all-Hellenic architectural style, creatively combining the achievements of Doric and Ionic architecture. The Peripter receives a unique development, full of deep ideological and artistic significance, in the Parthenon. New and bold asymmetrical compositions of buildings are created (Propylaea, Erechtheion). The use of orders achieves considerable freedom: the order colonnade not only surrounds the temples and serves as a means of highlighting them in the surrounding space; it also serves to separate separate parts of space, or vice versa - to open one space into another. Being the most important means of artistic characterization of a public building, orders vary considerably in their proportions. The combination of the Doric and Ionic orders in one building makes it possible to achieve a great variety of impressions. Appeared at the end of the 5th century. BC e. the Corinthian order is used in combination with the Doric and Ionic (temple in Bassae). The combination of various orders in one structure later, in the 4th century. BC e., generally becomes a characteristic feature of Hellenic architecture.

39. Athens. Acropolis. General plan and sections: 1 - gate, II c. BC e.; 2 - Pyrgos and temple of Nike Apteros; 3 - Propylaea; 4 - Pinakothek (northern wing of the Propylaea); 5 - a statue of Athena Promachos; 6 - sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia; 7 - Halkoteka; 8 - Pelasgian wall; 9 - Parthenon; 10 - preperiklov Parthenon; 11 - temple of Roma and Augustus; 12 - modern museum building; 13 - modern belvedere; 14 - sanctuary of Zeus; 15 - the altar of Athena; 16 - Temple of Athena Poliada (Hekatompedon); 17 - Erechtheion; 18 - courtyard of Pandroseyon; 19 - theater of Dionysus; 20 - the old temple of Dionysus; 21 - a new temple of Dionysus; 22 - odeion of Pericles; 23 - monument to Thrasil; 24 - two memorial columns; 25 - the sanctuary of Asclepius; 26 - standing Eumenes; 27 - odeion of Herod Atticus

Ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis. Athens in the second half of the 5th century. BC e. were the political and cultural center of Greece and reached a special brilliance. This is the time of the activity of the tragic poets Sophocles and Euripides, the author of the comedies Aristophanes, the famous sculptor Phidias and the brilliant galaxy of architects Callicrates, Iktin and Mnesicles. The highest achievement of the architecture of this era was the ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis. The dominant position of Athens in the maritime union of the Greek policies led to the fact that the union treasury was already in 454 BC. e. moved from Delos to Athens. This gave Pericles the funds necessary for the implementation of a grandiose architectural plan for that time.

The project of Pericles, which caused many objections both among the allies of Athens and within them, was based on far-reaching calculations: the exaltation of Athens in the eyes of its citizens and the entire Greek world and the solution of important internal economic problems. Plutarch tells us: “Slanderers shouted at public meetings that he was dishonoring the people, dropping his good name by transferring (about 454 BC) the allied Greek treasury from Delos to Athens ... Who does not see - they said, - that Greece is obviously under the rule of a tyrant - before her eyes, with the money that she is obliged to contribute to the conduct of the war, we, like a vain woman, gild and decorate our city. It glitters with gems, statues, and temples worth a thousand talents.

Pericles explained to the people that the Athenians were not obliged to give an account to the allies in the use of their money, since wars were waged for their protection; that they do not give cavalry, not fleet or infantry, but only money, and that if those who receive them use them for their intended purpose, they do not belong to those who gave them, but to the one who received them. “The city,” he continued, “sufficiently supplied with the necessary for the war; therefore, the surplus in money should be used for buildings, which, after their completion, will bring immortal glory to the citizens, while at the same time strengthening their well-being during the work. It will be impossible to do without various kinds of workers, many things will be needed: all crafts will be revived; no one will sit idly by; almost the whole city will serve on a salary and, thus, take care of its own amenities and food. Young and healthy people received salaries from the state during the war, but Pericles wanted the artisans, who were not obliged to serve in the troops, to have their share in the income, but they did not receive them for free, but by working. That is why he proposed to the people a plan for large buildings, architectural works, which required performers of art and a long time, so that the settled population could have a field of activity and use state revenues on a par with sailors or those who served in garrisons and infantry. The state had wood, stone, honey, ivory, gold, ebony and cypress; he had craftsmen to work it all: carpenters, potters, coppersmiths, masons, dyers, goldsmiths and ivory carvers, artists, embroiderers, chasers, then commission agents and suppliers, merchants, sailors, helmsmen for shipping by sea, and for transportation by land - carts, team keepers, cabbies, ropemakers, weavers, saddlers, workers, road foremen and miners. Each of the crafts had its workers from the common people, like a commander commanding his detachment; they served as tools and means for the production of works. Thus, these occupations were distributed, so to speak, among all ages and professions, increasing the well-being of everyone.

The rock of the Acropolis of Athens rises in the middle of a valley, which is surrounded on three sides by hills, and on the fourth, southern side, adjoins the sea. It is a mass of lilac-gray limestone with steep, winding slopes, making access possible only from the western side. The top is, as it were, cut off and forms a platform elongated from west to east (Fig. 38-40). Its length is 300 m and the greatest width is about 130 m. The mark of the highest point of the Acropolis above sea level is 156.2 m, and the Acropolis rises 70-80 m above the adjacent basin and the city spread at its foot. It is, as it were, a fortified place by nature itself. , located 6 km from a convenient bay - Piraeus, was chosen for settlement from a very early time. The remains of the Cyclopean masonry fortress wall have been preserved, the construction of which the Athenians attributed to their legendary predecessors, the Pelasgians. In ancient times, the Acropolis, as already mentioned above, was a fortress in which, in case of danger, the surrounding inhabitants took refuge; public buildings and temples built here in the archaic era were destroyed by the Persians in 480-479. BC.

After the expulsion of the Persians, the Athenians began to rebuild the walls of the Acropolis, using the stones of the destroyed buildings. At first, the northern wall was built, the construction of which was used, among other fragments, for drums of temple columns. Cimon rebuilt the entire southern wall, giving it the correct shape of two segments converging at an obtuse angle. The complex of architectural structures of the Acropolis was supposed to take a dominant position over the city and the valley, while retaining the features of an ancient fortress in its new look.

Later, under Pericles, almost all the most important monuments of the ensemble were erected: Parthenon - the main temple of Athena the Virgin, the patroness of the city, placed at the southern edge of the rock, at its highest point (was built in 447-438 BC, ended with decoration until 432 BC), the Propylaea - the front gate on the western, gentle slope of the Acropolis (437-432 BC) and the grandiose statue of Athena the Warrior (Promachos), the work of the genius Phidias, towering on a high pedestal facing the entrance and dominating the entire western part of the ensemble. The execution of the broadly conceived reconstruction was carried out with great energy and speed under the direction of Phidias himself. But after Pericles, only the Little Temple of Nike Apteros was built, placed somewhat ahead of the Propylaea on a high rock (Pyrgos), expanded and reinforced with substructures (designed around 449 BC, but built around 421 BC) , and the Erechtheion - a temple dedicated to Athena and Poseidon and located almost parallel to the Parthenon on the north side. Its construction began in 421, but was delayed by the Peloponnesian War until 407-406. BC e. Thus, the construction of all buildings took about forty years. “Little by little,” writes Plutarch, “majestic buildings began to rise, inimitable in beauty and grace. All craftsmen tried to bring their craft to< высшей степени совершенства. В особенности заслуживает внимания быстрота окончания построек. Все работы, из которых каждую могли, казалось, кончить лишь несколько поколений в продолжение нескольких столетий, были кончены в кратковременное блестящее управление государством одного человека. Легкость и быстрота произведения не дают еще ему прочности или художественного совершенства. Лишняя трата времени вознаграждается точностью произведения. Вот почему создания Перикла заслуживают величайшего удивления: они окончены в короткое время, но для долгого времени. По совершенству каждое из них уже тогда казалось древним; но по своей свежести они кажутся исполненными и оконченными только в настоящее время. Таким образом, их вечная новизна спасла их от прикосновения времени, как будто творец дал своим произведениям вечную юность и вдохнул в них нестареющую душу» (Плутарх. Перикл, 13.).

There is no reason to doubt that the composition of the Acropolis was based on a single plan, in which, however, certain changes could be made during its implementation.

The ensemble of the Acropolis (Fig. 41) was supposed to perpetuate the victory of the Greek states over the Persians, their heroic liberation struggle against foreign invaders. The theme of struggle, victory and military power is one of the leading ones in the Acropolis. She is depicted in the image of Athena Promachos, standing guard and crowning the entire composition of the ensemble, in the image of Athena Lemnia with a helmet and a spear in her hands, and, finally, in the statue of the Wingless Victory, named so, according to Pausanias, because the wooden statue of the goddess in the temple was depicted without wings so that she could not leave the Athenians. The same motif sounds in the scenes of battles between the Greeks and centaurs and Amazons, which on the metopes of the Parthenon and on the shield of Athena the Virgin symbolize the struggle against the Persians.

The second ideological line, embedded in the architectural images of the Acropolis, is directly related to the policy of Pericles. His monuments were supposed to embody the idea of ​​the hegemony of Athens as the foremost socio-political and cultural center of all Greece and as a powerful capital of the union of Greek policies. This ensemble was also supposed to perpetuate the victory of the most progressive tendencies in the social development of the policy, which in the middle of the 5th century. BC. Athenian slave-owning democracy won over the most inert elements of the ruling class - the aristocracy.

The largest Greek architects and artists of that time participated in the creation of the Acropolis: Iktin, Callicrates, Mnesicles, Callimachus and many others. The sculptor Phidias, a close friend of Pericles, supervised the creation of the entire ensemble and created the most important of its sculptures.

The compositional idea of ​​the ensemble is inextricably linked with the Panathenaic celebrations and the procession to the Acropolis, which were the most important ritual of the polis cult of Athena, the patroness of the city. On the last day of the Great Panathenaic, celebrated every four years, a solemn procession, led by the most noble and valiant citizens of the city, offered Athena a sacred veil - peplos. The procession started its journey from Keramik (the outskirts of the city), passed through the agora and moved further through the city in such a way that throughout the entire journey to the Acropolis, the participants in the procession saw a rock rising above the city and the valley, and on it - the Parthenon, which, due to its size, silhouette clarity and location dominated the entire natural and architectural environment. The Acropolis, with its marble structures shining against the blue southern sky, was revealed to the participants of the procession in various aspects.

Indeed, having passed the market square and the Areopagus hill, the solemn procession bypassed the Acropolis from the east and then moved along its southern wall and further west past the Odeion built under Pericles and the theater of Dionysus, adjacent to the southeastern corner of the hill (at that time it was a very simple building).

The first structure of the Acropolis, which opened before the procession, was a small amphiprostile temple of the Wingless Victory (Niki Apteros), which seems miniature and airy compared to the powerful ledge of the fortress wall - Pyrgos, on which it is placed (Fig. 42,43). At first, it was turned to the viewer with its side southern facade, and when the participants of the procession, having reached the western slope, turned to the facade of the Propylaea, Nike's temple loomed in the open sky, facing the viewers with a northwestern corner. From below, from this point of view, it seemed to be a continuation of the shortened southern wing of the Propylaea. The ascent to the Acropolis went in a zigzag: first towards the northern edge of Pyrgos, and then turned to the central passage of the Propylaea.

The solemn Doric colonnade of the Propylaea rose at the top of a steep rise between two arrays of side wings, turned towards the viewer with their blank walls and opening towards the passage with narrow colonnades. Passing through the Propylaea, the procession found itself on the upper surface of the rock of the Acropolis, which rose rather steeply in the direction of the Parthenon, located at the very top. From the eastern facade of the Propylaea, the "Sacred Road" began, stretching along the longitudinal axis of the entire hill. A little to the left of it, thirty meters from the Propylaea, stood the colossal statue of Athena Promachos (Fig. 44). She dominated not only the front half of the Acropolis, but also the valley spreading ahead.

To the right of the "Sacred Road" were the sanctuaries of Artemis Brauronia and Athena Ergana, the patroness of crafts and arts, and a long hall - halkoteka, the portico of which, adjacent to the southern wall of the Acropolis, was turned to the north.

Seen in perspective from the northwest corner, the Parthenon was raised high on an elevated platform (Fig. 45). Nine narrow steps carved into the rock separated it from the sanctuary of Ergana. Here it is appropriate to note the main feature of these steps - curvatures, which, as will be shown below, are also characteristic of all horizontal parts of the Parthenon. The steps in the rock, carved a few meters in front of the western facade of the temple, are not located along its main axis, but are shifted to the left. And also to the left of the axis of the temple the tops of their curvature are shifted.

45. Athens. Acropolis. Schemes of the actual and perceived by the viewer position of the curves of the steps and the western facade of the Parthenon (according to Choisy): a - the upper point of the stylobate; b - the upper point of the steps carved into the rock; c - the position of the viewer at the entrance to the sanctuary of Athena Ergana

46. ​​Athens. Acropolis. The location of buildings in the VI century. BC e. (left) and in the 5th c. BC. (on right). Choisy schemes: a - the place of the imprint of the trident of Poseidon and the tree of Athena (according to legend): b - the old temple dedicated to Athena and Poseidon (the so-called temple of Athena Poliada, or Hekatompedon); c - the new temple of Athena and Poseidon (Erechtheion); d - the old Parthenon (temple of Athena Parthenos); e - the new Parthenon; e - old Propylaea; g - new Propylaea; h - statue of Athena Promachos

Such an asymmetry, noticeable to the viewer, standing along the axis of the western facade of the Parthenon, is not an accident, the curvatures of the steps seem symmetrical relative to the facade for anyone who goes to the Acropolis from under the eastern portico of the Propylaea. Namely, from here the viewer for the first time completely covers the Parthenon with his eyes. It was this point of view that the architect was guided by, striving to achieve the impression of perfect harmony and make his work as alive as the creation of nature (in Fig. 46, on the right, the steps are not shown).

Further, the "Sacred Road" ran along the northern facade of the Parthenon. Passing by the colonnade, the viewer could see behind it, on the wall of the temple, a sculptural frieze depicting the very procession of the Great Panathenas in which he participated.

To the left, behind the statue of Athena Promachos, almost at the very northern edge of the Acropolis and opposite the long colonnade of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion temple, small in size, but distinguished by its extraordinary asymmetrical composition, loomed. Half-hidden at first behind a low wall and a clump of Pandroseion trees, it opened a little further in all its complexity and richness, with half-columns of the western facade and a portico of caryatids against the smooth southern wall. The opposition of this building and the Parthenon is one of the most striking features of the ensemble.

The festive procession ended at the altar of Athena, in front of the eastern facade of the Parthenon, where there was a solemn transfer to the priest of a newly woven and richly embroidered coverlet (peplos) brought as a gift to Athena, on which scenes of the struggle of the gods with the giants were presented. Thus, by successive changes in a number of architectural effects, this ensemble, which constituted their pride and glory, was revealed to the Athenians at close range.

The architectural methods by which the unity and integrity of the impression, which to a certain extent were also characteristic of other complexes of the classical time, were achieved in the ensemble of the Acropolis differ significantly from the methods of ensemble solutions of previous periods. The opinion was expressed that the Acropolis of the 5th century, like other ensembles of Greece, arose without a definite plan and that each architect, starting his construction, solved the problem of unity in the building of the sanctuary anew, being bound only by the location of previously erected buildings. However, we cannot agree with this. The presence of a single plan is evidenced by quite reliable ancient sources, such as the above excerpt from Plutarch, as well as the impression of artistic unity that the ensemble produces on all those who visit it.

A comparative analysis of the location of buildings on the Acropolis in the archaic and classical periods was convincingly carried out as early as the 19th century. Choisy. On the plans he compared (Fig. 46), the Acropolis is shown on the left in the form in which the Pisistratids left it and how it remained until the burning of Athens by the Persians in 480. The right image corresponds to the relative position of the buildings after the restoration of the Acropolis in the 5th century. BC.; the dotted line shows the path of the Panathenaic procession coming from the Propylaea.

The difference in the principles of staging buildings begins with the Propylaea. In the 6th century they were turned at an angle to the main direction of approach and consisted of one simple volume placed across a saddle along which a winding path went up; it is possible that such an arrangement of the Propylaea was also associated with their function as fortress gates, the approach to which was usually laid along a winding, broken line. The two main temples - Athena Poliada and Poseidon, built first as an ant, and then surrounded by a peripteral colonnade, and the temple of Athena Parthenos (unfinished) were placed in parallel on the very crest of the rock. Their western facades were almost on the same line. The basis of the composition, as in other ensembles of the archaic (for example, in the acropolis of Selinunte), was a comparison of similar, typical architectural images.

In the classical era, the approach to the Acropolis was straightened and focused directly on the main portico of the Propylaea, which now should not block the road to the fortress, but solemnly head the public shrine, the object of worship and pride of the citizens of the policy.

Separate parts of the ensemble of the Acropolis are skillfully interconnected. This is achieved by comparing free-standing buildings of different sizes and shapes, balancing each other not by the size and symmetry of the location, but by the finely calculated free balance and features of their architecture. The Parthenon and the Erechtheion are conceived in this comparison. With the similarity of forms and symmetrical arrangement, the Erechtheion, small and placed below the Parthenon, would have been completely suppressed by him. But with an asymmetric composition, contrasting with the Parthenon with the whimsical originality of its appearance, it, together with the statue of Athena Promachos, was able to create a balance between the northern and southern half of the ensemble. The deeply thought-out use of the relief for artistic purposes was also of great importance in shaping the composition. This technique in the classical era generally becomes a common architectural tool.

So they became a means of forming an artistic image of the unevenness of the rock on which the Propylaea and the Erechtheion were erected. The significance of the Parthenon is emphasized by its location not far from the edge of the platform, which, as it were, serves as its foundation. The entire ensemble as a whole turned the irregularities and meanders of the natural rock into an artistic regularity. Striking is the deliberate avoidance of all the architects who built on the Acropolis in the 5th century from parallelism in the arrangement of structures and taking into account the different points of view that opened on the buildings. This not only allowed them to avoid the monotony of the ensemble, but also served as a source of an exceptionally picturesque play of light and shadow. Indeed, despite the seeming freedom of arrangement of parts, the composition of the Acropolis is based on a strict system and accurately calculated. Some observations made by Choisy are indicative. He points out, for example, that the portico of caryatids, which was miniature compared to other elements of the ensemble, which would have looked too small at the moment when the huge statue of Athena was in front of the viewer, was located so that the high pedestal of the statue completely covered it. The artist wanted to show it when the statue and the western facade of the Parthenon were left behind.

Propylaea- no less important building in the composition of the ensemble than its main temple, the Parthenon - were erected by the architect Mnesicles. Like all the buildings on the Acropolis, they are completely (including roof tiles) built of white Pentelian marble and are distinguished by unusual thoroughness of construction work and subtlety of details (Fig. 47).

The Propylaea are the richest and most developed example of monumental entrances that have long been built in the sanctuaries of Greece. Such entrances were end-to-end porticos in antah, turned inside and outside the sanctuary and cut into the temenos fence. But this traditional scheme was significantly reworked in the Propylaea of ​​the Acropolis in accordance with their location and role in the ensemble, and also complicated: the central part was accompanied by wings. Instead of one entrance, five openings were made in the Propylaea, the middle of which, designed for riding and leading sacrificial animals, was much larger than the others (Fig. 48-51). The outer and inner facades of the central part were majestic six-columned prostyle Doric porticos, with the middle intercolumns being made wider than the others. The western portico, facing the main approach to the Acropolis, is much deeper, more complex in composition and somewhat higher than the eastern one: with the same proportions of the entablature, the heights of the columns are 8.81 and 8.57 m, respectively. The western portico is supported by a substructure and stands on the top platform of a four-step staircase. The eastern portico is set at the level of the western edge of the site of the Acropolis. The difference in floor level between the porticoes is 1.43 m, therefore, inside the Propylaea, five rather steep steps (0.32-0.27 m) are arranged in the side aisles. Entablatures, ceilings, pediments and roofs of both porticos were also at different levels, which can be clearly seen in the section. JB nature, due to the great steepness of the ascent to the Propylaea, this difference should not have been perceived at all. Behind the glaring whiteness of the western portico, of which only the shafts of the columns now remain, the ceiling, in deep shadow, must have seemed to extend far into the sky. The outer contours of the roof were generally hidden when approaching the Propylaea. However, from the hills surrounding the Acropolis - from the Areopagus or from the hill of the Muses - the roof of the Propylaea, covered with marble tiles, could be clearly seen.

In the middle passage, instead of steps, there is a ramp, on both sides of which there are two rows of Ionic columns. This is one of the most striking examples of combining two orders in one building. The very concept of the Acropolis as a pan-Greek sanctuary prompted the combination of various orders; it also reflected the desire to create a pan-Hellenic style, which was generally characteristic of Athenian art from the time of Pericles.

The wings of the Propylaea, somewhat moved forward in relation to the entrance western portico, are not symmetrical. Both are facing the main axis with small three-column Doric porticos, the modest size of which emphasizes the grandeur of the main entrance. However, their volumes are completely different. The northern wing is a very restrained and heavy little temple in antah crowned with a pediment (in this room there was an art gallery - a pinakothek). The southern wing was not completed; behind the front row of columns ending in a pillar, devoid of a pediment, it has only a short closing wall.

This composition, clearly left unfinished, has given rise to many speculations and reconstructions.

Bon and Dörpfeld's reconstruction suggests that Mnesicles' original design included two more large halls with nine-columned porticos, which were to be located on the sides of the eastern portico, as well as an additional room behind the southern wing with an open colonnade of four columns instead of the western wall. However, the latter assumption is not well founded. The Propylaea were built taking into account the temple of Nike, which stood on Pyrgos, and this should have prompted Mnesicles to reduce the size of the southern wing of the building. Balance instead of the symmetry of the facade was apparently provided by the architect, regardless of the need to change the project. Indeed, the architect achieved a remarkable visual balance of the sides, which was analyzed in detail by Choisy. The high temple of Nike was probably matched by a large statue standing on the left, the pedestal of which was used in the Roman era for the sculpture of Agrippa.

The main Doric porticos of the Propylaea are among the finest works of Greek classics (Fig. 54). They are characterized by a restrained, not in the least exaggerated monumentality; at the same time, the impression of lightness and some amazing elation caused by their architecture does not leave the viewer.

Indeed, the proportions of the porticos are light. In the eastern portico, completely restored in 1910-1918, the ratio of the height of the entablature to the height of the column is 1:3.12, close to the ratio in the Parthenon. The ratio of the parts of the entablature - architrave, frieze and cornice, which is 10: 10.9: 3.05, also indicates the lightness of the cornice (Fig. 52).

The height of the columns of the eastern portico is different - from 8.53 to 8.57 m, which is 5.48 of the lower diameter. The central columns are slightly higher, since the stylobate in both porticoes is horizontal, and the entablature has a curvature, the rise of which reaches 4 cm in the center. The height of the columns of the western portico is somewhat greater. It reaches 8.81 m, including 0.702 m of the height of the capital. The lower diameter of the columns is 1.558 m, the upper one is 1.216 m9, which gives a thinning of 0.045 m per 1 linear meter. m trunk. The entasis is somewhat more pronounced than in the Parthenon.

The order of the lateral wings of the Propylaea is much smaller. The height of the columns is 5.85 m, the diameter is 1.06 m. Its proportions are heavier than those of the order of the main porticos: the entablature is higher in relation to the columns, the columns themselves are thicker, the capitals are relatively larger. The large-scale structure of the side wings determined by these proportions is subtly calculated to emphasize the significance of the main portico.

In contrast to the restrained external appearance of the Propylaea, their internal architecture was of a festive, elegant character. Six slender Ionic columns supporting a magnificent marble ceiling are the first example of the use of the Ionic order in the interior of a Doric building available for our review (Fig. 53). The height of these columns is 10.25 m; the diameter of the trunk at the base is 1.035 m, the upper one is 0.881 m. Thus, the proportions are about 10 D, which makes it possible to attribute them to the lightest in the ionics of this time. The bases, an early example of the Attic type, are slightly conical and consist of two large shafts separated by a fillet and ledges.

Capitals amaze with the maturity of forms and have no equal in perfection of lines in all Hellenic architecture. Volute spirals, outlined by a double roller, end with a convex eye, lying slightly below the upper line of the echinus. An elastic, taut pillow, connected on the sides with a triple belt with flutes, faces the aisle.

The architraves above the Ionic columns are divided into three fasciae. In the middle part of the span, they were reinforced with iron bars, the existence of which is indicated by grooves in the upper surface of the architrave with traces of rust. Low transverse beams are laid on the architrave.

The ceiling, as in other buildings of the Acropolis, was made of marble. The slabs were lightened with caissons painted inside: golden stars were written in the depths of the spotlights on a blue background.

It should be specially noted that the ceiling of the Propylaea and the ceiling of the pteron of the Parthenon, completed ten years earlier, are, apparently, the first stone ceilings in ancient Greek architecture. There is no evidence of the existence of earlier examples. This fact in itself is very significant, since throughout the 6th and 1st half of the 5th century. BC. the colonnade of the pteron was not connected to the walls of the cella by any stone elements. This, on the one hand, testifies to the imperfection of archaic construction techniques and, perhaps, the architects' fear of blocking the spans with stone, which in the end porticoes of the temples were at least one and a half times higher than the spans of the outer colonnade (wooden beams of the ceiling and rafters were, by the way, good elements connections between individual parts of the building in high seismic conditions in many areas of the Mediterranean). On the other hand, the absence of a connection between the outer colonnade and the cella made in stone during the entire first stage of the existence of the orders once again confirms the pictorial, frankly conditional character of both the Doric and the Ionic frieze.

Propylaea also have some remarkable design features. Thus, the frieze above the central intercolumnium of the eastern portico, which, due to the large span, contained two triglyphs (instead of the usual one), was peculiarly designed to reduce the load on the architrave (Fig. 54). The blocks that made up the frieze were located above the column, so that their ends worked as consoles and the load from the block was transferred directly to the support itself (the design of the frieze of the temple of Athena in Poseidonia is similar, see above). Triglyphs were cut into the front surface of the blocks and closed the seams between them. The architrave of the middle span, reaching a length of 5.43 m, was reinforced with iron strips. There were two windows in the premises of the Pinakothek - these are the first windows known to science in monumental Greek buildings.

The architecture of the Propylaea is characterized by some deviations, which were then repeated also in the Parthenon - the curvature of the entablature (the stylobate did not have them), the slopes of the supports, etc. mm. The columns of the façade porticos, which have a significant entasis, are tilted inward by 76.4 mm, while the corner ones have a diagonal slope. The entablature is tilted inwards. Thus, in the Propylaea, as well as in the Parthenon, there are almost no straight lines and vertically arranged planes. Mnesicles' approach to his architectural creation, as to a work of plastic art, apparently differed little from Phidias' approach to a work of sculpture.

56. Athens. Temple of Nike Apteros. Facade, plan, general view

Temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory) was built by Callicrates in honor of the goddess of Victory (Fig. 55, 56). This is a small Ionic four-column amphiprostyle measuring 5.4 X 8.14 m along the stylobate, set, as already mentioned, on a high ledge - Pyrgos. The area around the temple was surrounded by a marble parapet, decorated with beautiful sculptural reliefs. Here, in front of the temple, was the altar of Nike.

The project of the temple of Nike and the altar in front of it was executed by Kallikrates after the completion of the construction of Pyrgos. After the democrats came to power, when a new building plan for the Acropolis was being developed, this project and the model of the temple were (in 449 BC) approved by the people's assembly. The construction was begun at the same time, but the construction of the temple dates back to a later period, possibly after the start of the Peloponnesian War (it was completed by 421).

The massive walls of Pyrgos, made of limestone slabs, have long served as a place for the Athenians to hang trophies. Thus, Pyrgos and the Temple of the Wingless Victory played an important role in creating a common ideological and artistic image of the Acropolis ensemble as a monument to the victory of the Greeks over the Persians.

The cella of the temple has neither a pronaos nor an opisthodom. The ends of its longitudinal walls are processed in the form of ants. On the eastern side, there were two narrow stone pillars placed between the ants, to which metal bars were attached, blocking the entrance to a shallow cella.

The height of the monolithic columns of the temple is 4.04 m. Ionic capitals are similar in type to the capitals of the Propylaea (Fig. 57). They have a wide, rather strongly curved cushion. Volute spirals are outlined by a thin roller and end with an eye with a hole. The low echinus is covered with cut ovs. In the temple - the first corner Ionic capitals that have come down to us.

The temple of Nike gives us a classic example of a three-part variant of the Ionic entablature: an architrave divided into three fascia, a continuous sculptural frieze and a cornice without teeth. On the bas-reliefs of the frieze (Fig. 58, 59), on its three sides, the battle of the Greeks with the Persian cavalry was presented; on the east side, the Olympian gods are depicted watching the battle.

If there are elements of Ionic architecture in the Doric buildings of the Acropolis, then in the Ionic temple of Nike Apteros one can note the features characteristic of Doric architecture, for example, the picturesque, rather than carved sima decoration, the three-sided profiling of the antes capitals, and heavier proportions of the order. Thus, the height of the architrave is increased relative to the span it covers and the total height of the entablature as a whole, which is 2/9 of the height of the order. The proportions of the columns, whose height is 7.85 diameters, are also heavy for the Ionic order. These features, as well as the absence of curvatories, which gave the appearance of the temple a touch of exquisite dryness, bring its architecture closer to the monuments of the 1st half of the 5th century BC. BC, for example, with a temple on the river. Ilis than with other buildings of the Acropolis of the time of the highest flowering of the Athenian slave-owning democracy.

The weighting of the proportions of the order, most likely, was carefully thought out by the architect and was intended to create a certain scale: in this way, an impression of rigor and significance was achieved, which could be lacking with lighter proportions in a small temple compared with the monumental Doric architecture of the Propylaea.

The history of Nike's temple is interesting. It stood until the end of the 18th century, when the Turks, fortifying the Acropolis, dismantled it and used the stones to build an embankment for the battery. After the liberation of Greece, parts of the building and reliefs (Fig. 60) were removed from the ground, and in 1835-1836. The temple was rebuilt and given its current appearance. In the winter of 1935/36, when the masonry of Pyrgos and the temple began to threaten to fall, the temple and its pedestal had to be dismantled again, after which all the stones were again stacked, and the temple of Nike was again restored in the most thorough manner.

Parthenon- one of the most perfect and deservedly famous works of world architecture (Fig. 61, 62). It was erected on the site of a large temple, the construction of which the Athenians began at the turn of the 5th century BC. BC. after the overthrow of tyranny. The highest part of the rock was chosen and the size of the construction site was increased to the south, where a retaining wall was erected along a steep cliff, as well as a powerful foundation and a stereobath of the temple. They began to install the drums of the columns, but during the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BC. e. all the work begun, as well as other structures, were ruined (Fig. 39, 63). A new temple of Athena was begun in 447 BC, and at the celebration of Panathenaia in 438 BC. the church was consecrated. Sculptural work continued until 432 BC.

The architects of the Parthenon, Iktin and Kallikrates, faced an unusual, complex and majestic task: to create not only the main temple of the policy, dedicated to its divine patroness Athena, but also the main building of the entire ensemble of the Acropolis, which, according to Pericles, was to become an all-Hellenic sanctuary. If the ensemble of the Acropolis as a whole immortalized the heroic liberation struggle of the Greek states, then the Parthenon, dominating the new all-Hellenic sanctuary, was supposed to clearly express the leading role of Athens both in the struggle and in the post-war life of the Greek states. In connection with the most important state role of the Parthenon, it was decided to make it the place of storage of the treasury of Athens and the Maritime Union headed by them, as well as agreements with other policies.

In order to solve the ideological and architectural and artistic tasks that confronted them, the builders of the Parthenon creatively reworked the composition of the Doric peripter, deviating in many respects from the established type, in particular, resorting to a free combination of Doric and Ionic architectural traditions.

The Parthenon is the largest Doric temple in the Greek metropolis (the size of the stylobate is 30.86X69.51 m), and its outer colonnade - 8x17 - exceeded the usual number of colonies for Doric peripters. Both ends of the cella ended with six-columned prostyle porticos (Fig. 64, 67).

In accordance with the purpose of the Parthenon, his plan included not only an extensive cella for a cult statue, but also an independent room facing the west, which served as a treasury and was called the Parthenon, i.e. "room for girls" According to Acad. Zhebeleva, it was here that the chosen Athenian girls wove a veil for the goddess.

The main premises of the Parthenon differed significantly from other temples with three naves: its longitudinal two-tiered colonnades were connected along the rear wall of the cella by a third, transverse colonnade, forming a U-shaped bypass around the cult statue. This organically completed the interior space and strengthened the significance of the central nave with the sculpture located in it. This technique, first used by Iktin and emphasizing the importance of the cella as the culminating point of the entire composition, was the most important step in the development of monumental interior architecture, interest in which has steadily increased over time.

The two-tier inner colonnade was supposed to play an important role in the large-scale characterization of the interior of the Parthenon (Fig. 64,67,86). It not only emphasized the extraordinary size of the central space of the cella (its width exceeded 19 m, the span between the colonnades was about 10 m), but against its background the grandiose statue of Athena Parthenos (Virgo), made by Phidias himself and reaching a height of 12 m, should have seemed even more. There was no information about the overlap of the central part of the cella. It is possible that it had a large light hole and that the cella was open to the sky. On the other hand, one can imagine what exceptional chiaroscuro effects could be obtained by illuminating the cult statue, made of gold and ivory, only through the entrance. The wealth of possible reflexes must have further strengthened the impression she made.

The ceiling of the western cella of the temple was supported by four columns, which, judging by their harmony, were probably Ionic. Ionic features also appeared in the external architecture of the temple: behind the majestic outer Doric colonnade of the Parthenon, along the top of the cella walls and over its Doric porticos, there was a continuous sculptural frieze, under which, however, Doric shelves with drops were preserved on the eastern and western facades (Fig. 67) .

67. Athens. Parthenon. Fragments of longitudinal and transverse (along the portico) sections, longitudinal section (reconstruction), acroterium

The order of the Parthenon is significantly different from the order of the Doric temples that preceded it (Fig. 68-74). The columns, equal in height to the columns of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, i.e. 10.43 m with a diameter of 1.905 m (1.948 in the corner columns), have much lighter proportions: their height is 5.48 lower diameters, while in Olympia it is the ratio is 4.6:1. The thinning of the columns was not strong, the upper diameter of the trunk was 1.481 m for the middle and 1.52 m for the corner columns. Entasis is small - the maximum deviation from a straight line is 17 mm. The spans on the sides (4.291 m) are almost the same as on the end facades (4.296 m). The extreme corner span was narrowed to 3.681 m (3.689 m on the sides). However, the narrowing was not single, which led to the subtlest, but quite consistent deviations from the regularity of the frieze, since the width of the metopes ranges from 1.317 m to 1.238 m, decreasing from the center of the facade to the corners.

The proportions of the order as a whole, as well as the columns, are greatly facilitated. With a total height of 3.29 m, the entablature is 0.316 of the height of the column, while in the temple of Zeus in Olympia this ratio is 0.417, and in the II temple of Hera in Poseidonia - 0.42. The architrave is equal in height to the triglyph frieze, and the ratio of both these parts to the cornice is 10:10:4.46.

Of great importance for the characteristics of the order was the capital of the Parthenon, which can be called a model of the Doric capital of the classical era. Echin is distinguished by a close to straight, but exceptionally elastic outline. The offset is small - only 0.18 of the upper diameter of the column. The height of the abacus and echinus is the same (0.345 m). There are some remarkable innovations in these capitals. Their abacuses support the architrave only with their middle, slightly protruding part, which indicates a clear distinction between the architects of the practical and artistic (figurative) functions of the capital. Another innovation that testifies to the free circulation of architects with the order system - the above-mentioned Doric shelves with drops, located on the wall of the cella under the Panathenaic frieze - speaks of the fusion of Doric and Ionic architectural elements in the architecture of the Parthenon.

Thanks to the clarity of the tectonic design and the simplicity of the overall volume of the Parthenon, its role in the ensemble and its ideological significance were revealed from afar. When, at the conclusion of the Panathenaic celebrations, the participants in the procession finally found themselves in close proximity to the monumental structure that dominated the ensemble of the Acropolis, over the city and the entire natural environment spread out at its sole, the Parthenon appeared before them in all its grandeur and richness. Here - a deep understanding of the task and the masterful use by architects of the artistic and expressive possibilities hidden in the order, first of all, the extreme thoughtfulness of the remarkably found proportions of the order with the perfection of its execution.

Taking into account the actual dimensions of the building and all the aspects in which it was consistently revealed to the viewer, the architects managed to give the temple such a “scale”, thanks to which its heroic majesty did not suppress the viewer even up close, but, on the contrary, gave rise to patriotic pathos, proud self-awareness and confidence in him. their forces, which were characteristic of the Athenians, contemporaries of Pericles. This feature of the architecture of the Parthenon, keenly felt by everyone who saw it in nature, can only be guessed by a thoughtful examination of those photographs in which the figure of a standing person is visible directly at the colonnade. Man is perceived by us as more than one would expect when considering the architecture of the temple; in other words, the scale characteristic of the Parthenon is such that its actual size exceeds the expected, but does not suppress.

Up close, another side of the artistic image of the Parthenon was revealed - its solemn festivity, created by the color richness of its architecture, strong contrasts and complex play of chiaroscuro, wonderful plastic properties of noble Pentelic marble. This stone, which is now mined near Athens, on the Pentelikon hill, has good mechanical qualities and can be finely worked. It has a fairly large grain, and in some places includes thin layers of mica.

Immediately after being mined, the marble is almost completely white, but over time it acquires a warm hue. Due to the presence of iron, it is covered with a golden patina of extraordinary beauty. In the Parthenon, this patina lay mainly on the sides of the stones facing east and west, while their southern side almost retained its original shade. On the north side, over the past millennia, microscopic gray moss has appeared (with which scientists are now waging a most serious struggle, since its destructive effect on stone has been established).

These transitions of shades give the temple colonnade an extraordinary warmth, characteristic of a living body, and not of a dead stone.

Of great importance for the architecture of the temple is the perfection of its execution, and especially the system of “refinements” or slight deviations from the geometric correctness of lines, implemented with exceptional care. These deviations, found separately in various archaic temples, and more consistently - in the temples of the 2nd quarter of the 5th century. BC e., for the first time used simultaneously in the Parthenon. To a large extent, the possibility of such a wide introduction of "refinements" is explained by the use of marble as the only building material for all the most important structures of the Acropolis. Of all the types of stone used by the Hellenic civilization, it was marble that allowed such high precision and subtlety of detail, sharper angles and polished surfaces.

These deviations include, firstly, the curvatures of all horizontal lines, starting with the steps of the stereobat and ending with the parts of the entablature (Fig. 75, 76). It is noteworthy that with a slight curvature of all horizontal lines, the verticality of the masonry joints is fully maintained, so that, for example, the blocks of steps of a stereobat have the shape of irregular quadrangles along the facade, which, moreover, change from the corners to the middle of the sides of the structure. All other “deviations” were also carried out with amazing accuracy: the inclination of the axes of the columns and the entablature to the walls of the temple, and the geison outward, the thickening of the corner columns, the reduction of the corner intercolumns, the inclination to the outside of the pediment tympanum, etc. The inclination to the outside of the vertical surfaces the crowning parts of the temple - in particular the gaison, antefixes and acroteria, as well as the abacus of the outer columns (a detail first found in the Parthenon, but then also observed in the temple of Concordia in Akragant and Segesta) - may have been made to better reflect light in the direction of the viewer, in other cases, for example, in ant capitals, its purpose was to emphasize the contrast of a detail and a larger element - the surface of the ant itself, tilted in the opposite direction.

73. Athens. Parthenon. Details: 1 - water cannon sims; 2 - angle of entablature; 3 - the corner of the triglyph-metope frieze and the ceiling of the portico with the remains of painting; 4 - capital
74. Athens. Parthenon. North-western corner of the entablature (according to Collignon): 1 - view from the north side; 2 - view from the western side; 3 - plan of the entablature at the level of the frieze and view of the gaison from below
77. Athens. Parthenon. West pediment corner, south side metope - centaur and lapith

It is noteworthy that the curvature of the architrave in the Parthenon was made in the form of a broken line so that the lower and upper surfaces of each block were not curved, but straight. On the other hand, exceptionally accurate trimming of the vertical seams at the junction of adjacent blocks was required, as well as trimming the abacus, the upper surface of which turned out to be, as it were, a gable.

These deviations, no doubt, cannot be explained only by the struggle against optical distortions and illusions, as was originally supposed. Some of them are so subtle that they are almost invisible to the eye, while others are undoubtedly perceived by the viewer, giving the forms of the Parthenon an amazing plasticity and vitality.

The sculptures of the Parthenon, made by the best masters of Greece according to the plan and with the direct participation of the great Phidias, played an important role in deepening and revealing the rich artistic and ideological content of the temple (Fig. 77). Groups of complex composition, made in a round sculpture, well projected against the background of the wall of tympanums, were installed on the horizontal cornice of both pediments. These figures were of the largest scale and were designed for perception from distant points of view: they, no doubt, were quite clearly distinguishable already along the entire route of the Panathenaic procession along the southern side of the Acropolis. The next place belonged to metopes made in large relief (corresponding to the strong plasticity of the architectural forms of the temple), with figures of a somewhat smaller scale, which, however, should have been well perceived from the very exit from the Propylaea to the Acropolis. With a direct approach to the western facade of the Parthenon and when moving along its northern colonnade, the third sculptural element in the external architecture of the temple also came into play - the famous frieze (Fig. 78), which stretched along the top of the walls of the cella along its entire perimeter, which reached 160 m. The frieze was made in relatively low relief. With a height of 1 m, its exceptionally thin relief, in places depicting four figures projected one on top of the other, did not exceed 6 cm in the upper part of the sculptural plates and reached only 4 cm in their lower part. Such a difference in relief, obviously, was deeply thought out and took into account the specific conditions for the perception of the frieze - from a strong perspective.

All outdoor sculptures remained in place, and the Parthenon itself, despite a number of alterations, remained intact until 1687, when, during the Venetian-Turkish war, a direct hit by a Venetian bomb destroyed its entire middle part. The current state of the temple is the result of careful restoration. His sculptures, which are currently kept in many museums in Europe (mainly in the British Museum in London, where they were taken by Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to Turkey), came partially and in varying degrees of safety. The frieze is the best preserved.

The ideological subtext of the theme developed in the sculptures of the Parthenon is closely connected with the recent events (the fierce struggle and victory of the Greeks over the Persians) and the desire to embody in a visual and convincing form the idea of ​​the hegemony of Athens, consecrated and supported by their divine patroness herself.

The group of the western pediment, of which only fragments remained (Fig. 79), depicted a dispute between Athena and Poseidon over dominion over Attica. Since the goddess - the patroness of crafts - was especially revered by the Athenian demos, and Poseidon in ancient times was considered the patron of the tribal nobility, this group undoubtedly reminded ancient viewers of the recent fierce intra-class struggle. Thus, in the sculptures of the Parthenon, the second side of the general ideological concept of the Acropolis ensemble was also emphasized: by erecting it, the Athenian slave-owning democracy sought to perpetuate not only the triumph of the Greeks over the barbarians, but also their victory over the reactionary forces within the policy. The sculptural group of the eastern pediment, from which individual figures came (Fig. 80, 83), depicted the myth of the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. Thus, as it were, the special place of Athens in the Hellenic world was emphasized.

81-82. Athens. Parthenon. Fragment of a Panathenaic frieze from the east side of the cella

The composition of the pediment groups is known only from sketches made 13 years before their destruction. Nevertheless, there is no doubt about the serious shifts that have taken place in the development of this type of sculptural compositions, as well as individual sculptures, since the execution of the pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The composition is now built not on the strict correspondence of the figures of the left and right parts, but on the cross-opposition of mutually balanced figures. So, for example, a naked male figure on the left invariably responds to a dressed female figure on the right side of the pediment, and vice versa. Three exceptionally finely executed, full of femininity figures of Moir (goddesses of fate) correspond to the naked reclining hunter Kefalu and the seated female deities - Oram. A bold innovation is the filling of the corners of the east pediment; the place of ordinary reclining figures is occupied by the heads of horses, on the left - Helios (the sun), rising from the Ocean on his chariot, on the right - Nyx (night), descending into the Ocean with his horses. These images are significant. Using the ideas of Greek mythology about the Universe, about the Earth, surrounded by a wide river Ocean, they symbolically reveal the greatness and significance for the entire Hellenic world of the event depicted in the pediment sculpture - the birth of a new deity, powerful Athena, from the head of Zeus. Phidias tried to convey the authenticity of this incredible miracle by showing what a stunning impression it made on the gods present. This is evidenced by the full movement, draped in flowing clothes, the figure of Iris.

It is characteristic that the pediment sculptures are technically completely finished not only from the front and sides, but also from the rear. This is the result of a new technique of gradual and repeated processing of the entire surface of the statue at once, which replaced the archaic technique of processing a block from its four facades. Only with this, more flexible technique, it became possible to perform in marble complex in composition, dynamic forms characteristic of the classical era.

On the metopes of the frieze of the outer colonnade, the events of Greek mythology were depicted: on the eastern facade - gigantomachia; on the south (the most preserved metopes) - the struggle of the Lapiths against the centaurs; on the west - the battle of the Greeks with the Amazons; on the north - the capture of Troy. Metope sculpture is far from equal in technique. Above them, under the general direction of Phidias, a large number of sculptors worked. The very nature of individual images is also different, in which the transition from archaic stiffness of movements (for example, a centaur holding a young man by the hair) to the dynamics of bodies striking in its vitality (a centaur rearing over a defeated enemy) is clearly noticeable. For all that, metope sculpture is characterized by a vivid depiction of emotions.

The most important element of sculpture, which directly determined the appearance of the Parthenon, is the grandiosely conceived Panathenaic frieze, which includes hundreds of figures of gods, people, horses and sacrificial animals. Its theme is an expression of gratitude from the Athenians to their divine protector. On the western side, the formation of the Panathenaic procession is shown: young men saddling horses. The action unfolds in a measured rhythm along the longitudinal sides of the temple: here are men carrying olive branches (trees of Athena), musicians, horsemen, performing in rows of four, women and girls in flowing folded clothes, slowly moving towards the eastern side of the Parthenon, where seated on elegant seats are the gods and the priest of Athena, unfolding the precious peplos with the help of a boy (Fig. 81, 82, 84).

Passing by this solemnly unfolding composition of the frieze, depicting the successive stages of the Panathenaic procession, the spectators - participants in the actual procession - were more deeply aware of their connection with the temple and its enormous social significance.

The last sculptural image, which was the center of the entire compositional and ideological concept of the Parthenon, is the cult statue of Athena, executed by Phidias from gold and ivory and was one of his masterpieces (44 talents were spent on its manufacture, i.e. 1140 kg of gold). Numerous descriptions of ancient authors, images on coins and several later sculptural copies give us an idea of ​​this image, of which the marble figurine from Varvakion in Athens (its height is 1 m) is apparently the closest to the original. Athena stands in a calm, solemn pose (Fig. 85). The head is covered with a high helmet, the body is dressed in a tunic, the folds of which were supposed to correspond to the flutes on the columns of the huge cella surrounding the statue of Phidias (the entire middle part of the cella was destroyed by an explosion, and now the walls of the second room of the temple, the Parthenon itself, are open to the viewer). The left hand rests on a large round shield covered with reliefs, behind which is hidden a snake that, according to legend, lived in the temple of Athena Polias. The right arm, slightly extended forward and supported by a small column, carries a small figure of Nike. The bell-shaped capital of the column, probably painted in a statuette and plastically developed in the original, can clearly be considered an early form of the Corinthian capital, later first used as a truly architectural form by Iktin in the temple of Apollo in Bassae. The image of Athena was supposed to reflect the restrained power and majesty inherent, according to Hellenic ideas, to the Olympian goddess.

Thus, in the sculptural images of the Parthenon, as well as in its architecture, that combination of monumental peace with vitality and noble grandeur with simplicity, which distinguishes ancient Greek art at the time of its highest heyday, was fully embodied.

Using the means of architecture and sculpture, the creators of the Parthenon brilliantly solved the tasks facing them, reflecting in it those features of Athens that, according to Pericles and his associates, gave their policy the right to a leading role throughout the Hellenic world: the most perfect state structure for its time Athens, their political wisdom and economic power, the advanced nature of their ideals and undeniable primacy in all areas of Greek culture, which turned Athens of that time into an advanced center and school of Hellas. And the brighter the Parthenon reflected the brilliant image of Periclean Athens, the power of their worldview, ethical and aesthetic ideals, the better it fulfilled its role in the pan-Hellenic ensemble of the Acropolis.

The significance of the ideological content and the perfection of the artistic form make the Parthenon the pinnacle of all ancient Greek architecture.

89. Athens. Erechtheion. Sections (transverse and longitudinal)

Erechtheion- the last construction of the Acropolis, which completed its entire ensemble (Fig. 87). This marble temple of the Ionic order is located in the northern part of the hill, near the site of the ancient Hecatompedon, which later burned down. The Erechtheion was dedicated to Athena and Poseidon. The area reserved for the temple was associated with a number of relics related to the cult.

At the end of the 1st century BC e. the interior of the Erechtheion was damaged by fire. During the Byzantine period, the Erechtheion was converted into a church. In the XII century, under the crusaders, it was attached to the palace built on the Acropolis and, finally, in the era of Turkish rule, it served as the premises of the harem of the local ruler. At the beginning of the XIX century. The temple was destroyed during military operations. Excavations and study of it began in 1837; The first attempts at restoration date back to the forties of the 19th century. Large restoration work was carried out in 1902-1907. under the leadership of N. Balaios; in particular, many of the missing stones were found and the most important parts of the temple were restored. Now the appearance of the Erechtheion can be considered basically clarified.

In the arrangement of the internal parts of the temple, in view of the many later reconstructions, much still remains unclear.

The features of the Erechtheion are its asymmetric plan, which has no analogues in Hellenic temple architecture, as well as a very complex spatial composition of its premises and three porticoes located at different levels (Fig. 88, 89).

The main core of the building is a rectangular building with a stylobate size of 11.63X23.50 m. The roof is gabled, covered with marble tiles, with pediments on the eastern and western sides. From the east, the cella ends with a six-columned Ionic portico that runs the entire width of the building, similar to prostyle temples. The western end of the structure was unusually solved (Fig. 90). There were two peculiarly located porticos, which completed not the end, but the longitudinal sides of the cella and were oriented to the north and south (the northern portico and the Kor portico).

On the western side of the temple there was a high plinth, over which four columns in ants rose. The gaps between the columns were covered with bars. The gratings were placed in the 5th century. BC e., as can be seen from the report of the construction commission. In Roman times, the lattices were replaced by masonry with window openings, as a result of which the columns became semi-columns.

The height of the columns and antlers of the western facade is 5.61 m. The height of the plinth on which they stand is 4.8 m. The profiled base is 1.30 m higher than the similar base of the southern portico. It was necessary to raise the western colonnade so high, perhaps in order to make it completely visible because of the trees and the fence of the garden of Pandrosa, located in front of it. In addition, this made it possible to place in the plinth the door from Pandroseion to the temple; it is located asymmetrically, closer to the southern corner.

It is believed that during the construction at the southwestern corner of the Erechtheion, under the foundations of the Hekatompedon, an ancient grave was discovered. It was recognized as the grave of Kekrops and, in order to keep it intact, the foundation of the Erechtheion was moved to the west, and a large marble beam 1.5 m wide and 4.83 m long was placed over the grave.

	90. Athens. Erechtheion. View from the west. West facade

The southern wall stands on a three-stage base and is built of carefully fitted polished squares (Fig. 91). Orfostats (squares of the lower row of masonry) are placed on a profiled base, which serves as a continuation of the base of the antae of the eastern portico. A wide ribbon of ornamental cutting, passing from the neck of this ant to the southern wall, stretches along its top. The motif of this ornament, composed of palmettes and lilies, is called anthemium and, in less developed forms, is also found on archaic capitals found in Naucratis and Samos. In the Erechtheion, his more complicated drawing acquires a special elegance and completeness. Separate elements are more dissected, winding tendrils connecting palmettes and lilies are strongly developed. Anthemius is used in the Erechtheion with extreme generosity - it is found on the ants, under the capitals of the columns, in the upper part of the door casing.

On all the walls of the Erechtheion, with the exception of the western one, under a three-part entablature, there is a wide strip of the same ornament - anthemia, crowned with a belt of ovs and a lesbian cymatium. This decorative belt formed an exquisite and elegant frame for the magnificent surface of the wall, enhancing its independent artistic significance.

The frieze of the Erechtheion deserves special attention: it was made of dark (violet-black) Eleusinian marble-like limestone, against which sculptures separately carved from light (white) marble and then attached were emphasized. Above stretched a cornice topped with ovals. This frieze, together with the entire entablature, passed to the eastern portico and other facades of the structure.

A small portico adjoins the western end of the southern wall - the famous Kor portico, in which the columns are replaced by six marble figures of caryatid girls (or cor) somewhat taller than human height - 2.1 m (Fig. 92, 93).

The high plinth with a profiled base, on which the caryatids stand, rests on a three-stage base. Built of large slabs and crowned with a tie-bar with large cut ov, it served as a massive base for the figures of girls carrying the entablature of the portico. An intermediate link between sculpture and architecture are capitals over the heads of caryatids, consisting of echinus, cut with large ovs, and a narrow abacus.

In an effort to visually lighten the entablature, in order to avoid the impression of the tension of the caryatids, the architect with great tact applied the original form of the Ionic entablature, reducing it to two parts: an architrave and a cornice with denticles. Freeze is missing. On the upper fascia of the architrave, small, slightly protruding circles are visible, on which, perhaps, rosettes were supposed to be carved.

In the northeast corner of the portico of the caryatids there is a narrow passage and behind it a ladder connecting the portico with the cella. When the viewer approaches the Erechtheionus from the side of the Propylaea and the temple opens before him from the southwest corner, the small portico of Cor, rich in chiaroscuro, stands out clearly on the brilliant surface of the southern wall, greatly reduced from this point of view. The portico enlivens the composition in a new way when viewed from the platform in front of the Parthenon (ie from the east).

93. Athens. Erechtheion. Portico of the Caryatids: fragment, profiles
94. Athens. Erechtheion. East façade, east corner of the south wall, south pillar of the east portico
95. Athens. Erechtheion. Eastern portico: view towards the Parthenon, profiles: 1 - anta's capital; 2 - base of anta; 3 - column base

Going around the temple and reaching the platform in front of the eastern facade, the viewer sees a shallow six-column portico of very light proportions (Fig. 94-96). The height of its columns is 9.52 D (6.58 m) with an intercolumnium of 2.05 D. In the back wall, there was a door decorated with rich architraves and two (partially preserved) windows.

Coming out to the northeast corner of the building, the viewer found himself on the top step of the stairs descending to the northern courtyard - or rather, the platform at the northern edge of the Acropolis. The two lower steps turned onto the plinth of the northern wall and stretched along its base, up to the steps of the northern portico. The northern portico served as the entrance to Poseidon's cella. Here, near the wall, the altar of Zeus was placed, and through the hole in the floor, the visitor could see the trace of a trident on the rock, with which, according to legend, the god Poseidon hit the rock of the Acropolis. A cassette was removed above this spot in the ceiling so that the sacred sign would be in the open.

The northern portico measures 12.035 x 7.45 m along its lower step (width and depth). There are six columns along its perimeter (Fig. 97-99). They are heavier than the columns of the eastern portico (their height is 7.63 m, i.e. 9.2 D) and are spaced wider (intercolumni 2.32-2.27 m, or 2.8 D).

The trunks of the columns have a slight entasis and slight thinning (the difference between the lower and upper diameters is 0.1 m), 24 flutes have oval recesses. The columns of the portico correspond to the antes, which only slightly protrude from the wall. The corner columns tilt slightly inward diagonally. The marble ceiling is cassetted.

98. Athens. Erechtheion. View from the northeast corner. North facade. Portal of the northern portico, fragment

The decor of the northern portico repeats the motifs of the ornamentation of other parts of the temple, standing out with the elegance of the bases. At the bases of its columns, the upper shaft is covered with carved wickerwork, which is not the case with the columns of the eastern portico. In the capitals, spiral volutes elegantly outlined by a double roll with a slight deflection in the middle end with a convex eye, once decorated with a golden rosette. The balusters of the capitals are fluted; a string of beads runs along the edges of each of the seven shallow flutes. The narrow abacus is covered with ovs and tongues, the echin is decorated with carvings (ovs) and underlined with astragalus beads from below; Below is a wide ribbon of anthemia.

The total height of the capitals of the northern portico is 0.613 m, of which the anthemium and echinus account for 0.279 m and the cushion and abacus 0.334 m.

Of all three types of capitals of the Erechtheion, the capital of the northern portico has the richest interpretation.

The entablature of the north portico is located somewhat lower than the entablature of the cella. On top of a light architrave (0.72 m), divided into three fasciae and crowned with an Ionic cymatium and an astragalus, there was a dark strip of a frieze, similar to the frieze of the eastern portico and cella. Crowned with a belt of ovs, the cornice had a slight offset (0.31 m). Sima was decorated with water cannons in the form of lion heads, and the roofs covering the tiles ended with antefixes (with palmette and volutes).

Particularly richly decorated in the north portico is the door to the pronaos. Its opening narrowing upwards (4.88 m high, 2.42 m wide at the bottom and 2.34 m at the top) is framed by a casing with rosettes and a sandrik on consoles, decorated with anthemium. The framing of the doorway is well preserved and is the best example of the architraves of the classical period (only the casket was restored in Roman times).

In contrast to the portico of the caryatids, the northern portico is significantly shifted to the west, going beyond the northern wall, so that its axis coincides with that of the narrow pronaos. The northern wall ends in the west with an ant, which has two front sides and resembles the same ant on the western facade of the northern wing of the Propylaea.

Such is the complex and varied construction of the external appearance of the Erechtheion.

The interior of the Erechtheion was divided into two parts by a blank transverse wall.

The eastern, somewhat smaller, was the sanctuary of Athena: there stood an ancient, carved from wood, especially revered statue of the goddess. An unquenchable fire burned in front of her in a golden lamp made by the famous master Callimachus. This room was an “inaccessible sanctuary of the goddess”, where only priests could enter, so the doors to it were always closed and it was necessary to arrange two windows for lighting.

The western part of the temple was actually the temple of Poseidon. It was divided into several rooms: a wall that did not reach the ceiling separated the pronaos elongated from north to south, and, probably, a wall of the same height separated two rooms adjoining it from the east. According to Pausanias, there were three altars in the temple: Poseidon and Erechtheus, the hero But, Hephaestus; on the walls were pictures from the life of the Butad family. Under the floor of the cella was a crypt in which the sacred serpent Erichthonius lived; under the floor of the pronaos there was a well of salt water (“Erechteev Sea”), which appeared, according to legend, from the blow of Poseidon with a trident on a rock.

The western part of the building lay 3.206 m below the floor of the eastern part (raised about 1 m above the level of the site adjacent to the southeast corner). The difference in levels introduced into the composition of the Erechtheion no less unusual than the asymmetry of the plan.

At a lower level there are also two courtyards adjacent to the Erechtheion. One lies between the northern wall of the temple, the wall of the Acropolis and the wide staircase at the northeast corner of the Erechtheion. Another, surrounded by a fence, adjoined the western wall of the temple: it was the sanctuary of Pandrosa, the daughter of the legendary king Kekrops. In it grew the sacred olive of Athena.

This location of the temple, as well as its segmentation, was probably dictated by the desire to create a structure that contrasts with the monumentally simple, majestic Parthenon with all its complex architectural composition, but does not compete with it. Such was the new principle of freely and picturesquely assembled ensembles of the 5th century. The place of relics, located in the recess of the rock behind Hekatompedon, was now within the temple.

The Ionic order in the Erechtheion is notable for its lightness, elegance and variety of forms; its three variants are close to each other. Each of the facades, which have received their own individual appearance, is at the same time skillfully connected with the whole. This is served by a common entablature with a kind of common frieze around the entire building, a common profiled base stretching along the bottom of all the walls of the temple, base steps fused with the steps of the northeast staircase.

The same purpose is served by the similarity of individual parts (for example, the plans and arrangement of supports of the northern and southern porticos, the plinths of the portico of the cores and the western colonnade, etc.), as well as the system of correlations connecting the forms of the porticos and articulation of the walls. So, the squares of the southern wall are strictly coordinated with the height of the plinth of the portico, which is equal to the height of the orthostat and one row of masonry; the height of the core is equal to five rows of masonry, the height of the entablature is the height of two rows, the distance between the antefixes is half the length of the square, etc. All these techniques create the impression of harmonic unity, despite the diversity of individual elements.

There was less coloring in the Erechtheion. It was replaced to a large extent by the polychromy of various materials (stone of different colors). The report of the construction commission mentions the encaustic coloring of only parts of the internal ornament (for example, the lesbian heel of the architrave), but often it is gilded. White Pentelian marble with a warm yellowish tint, a dark ribbon of Eleusinian limestone frieze with figures standing out on it, and gilding of ornamented parts - such, perhaps, was the color scheme of the outer parts of the Erechtheion.

From the construction of the Parthenon to the beginning of the construction of the Erechtheion, less than twenty years passed, and yet these two monuments differ sharply from one another in ideological content. The sublime heroism of the previous decades fades into the background, in the images of art and literature, not monumental heroic themes begin to prevail, but in-depth psychological motives, on the one hand, and the desire for refined elegance of form, on the other. The author of the Erechtheion no longer adheres to the traditional forms of Greek cult architecture and, having received the task of uniting a number of ancient relics under one roof, uses bold innovation techniques: many features of the structure in terms of the plan resemble an unestablished type of Greek temple, and the front gate of the Acropolis - the Propylaea. At the same time, the architect combines in a free asymmetric composition Ionic porticos with porosity; teak caryatids (kor), in which the classical column is replaced by a sculptural statue. This is another feature that violates the strictness of the composition in the temples of the middle of the 5th century BC. BC.

In addition to the similarity of the plans of the Erechtheion and the Propylaea, the commonality of a number of architectural techniques in these two buildings is indicated by: the form of ants with two front sides - in the northern portico of the Erechtheion and at the corners of the eastern facade of the Propylaea; the use of window openings for lighting (eastern portico and pinakothek); the use of solid masonry as an artistic element of architecture (the southern wall of the Erechtheion and the right wing of the Propylaea); the use of Eleusinian stone in the polychrome of the building; the decision of the composition at different levels and, finally, the balance of the parts by means of free artistic combination instead of simple symmetry - the general principle of the entire ensemble of the Acropolis.

Important for understanding the Attic architecture of the heyday are also several monuments located both in Athens and outside of them.

100. Athens. Agora in the 5th century. BC: 1 - southern standing; 2 - folos; 3 - old bouleuterium; 4 - new bouleuterion; 5 - Hephaestion; 6 - standing Zeus; 7 - altar of the Twelve Gods
101. Athens. The Temple of Hephaestus, or Hephaestion (formerly known as Thezeion), between 440-430 BC BC e.: 1 - facade; 2 - transverse section in front of the pronaos; 3 - order of the outer colonnade; 4 - entablature of the pronaos portico; 5 - plan

Hephaestion (Temple of Hephaestus) near the agora of the market square (Fig. 100) in Athens (formerly erroneously called Tezeion) - the best preserved monument of the era of Pericles. The temple is made entirely of Pentelian marble in the Doric order and has 13.72 X 31.77 m in stylobate, the number of columns is 6 X 13 (Fig. 101-105). Cella has pronaos, naos and opisthos; it was found that a little later, an internal colonnade was built into the cella, now destroyed.

The Hephaestion was built shortly after the completion of the Parthenon (probably between 440 and 430 BC) and is in many ways an imitation of it. However, it is very far from the power of the artistic image and from the compositional perfection of the Parthenon. The mechanical repetition of the compositional scheme of the Parthenon and a number of its details could not, of course, give the same artistic effect. So, for example, the proportions of the outer order of the Parthenon, almost exactly repeated in the Hephaestion in relation to the order of a different (smaller) size, led to a completely different large-scale nature of the structure, and the U-shaped inner colonnade only squeezed the cella of the Hephaestion and turned out to be so close to the walls of the room , which has lost its tectonic credibility (Fig. 101).

A peculiar compositional feature of Hephaestion was a technique that singled out both end parts of the pteron space. The ant porticos of the pronaos and opisthodome were completed with an entablature consisting of an architrave and a sculpted frieze, continued to the intersection with the entablature of the outer colonnade. This kind of method of highlighting the end porticoes of the outer colonnade seems to be specific to the Attic architecture of the late 5th century BC. BC, as it is repeated in the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnunte and in the temple of Poseidon at Cape Sunius.

In the Hephaestion, the method of highlighting the eastern portico, facing the agora, was further strengthened by sculptural metopes, which were installed not only on the eastern facade, but in the two extreme bays of the side facades adjacent to it (four metopes on each side).

107. Eleusis. Telesterion Iktina: sections, plan (filled in black, completed parts), view of the ruins

Telesterion in Eleusis ("Hall of Initiations"), built by Iktin, the architect of the Parthenon, probably in the 3rd quarter of the century (in 435-430 BC), occupies a special place among Greek religious buildings.

This is an indoor assembly hall, intended for the mysterious Eleusinian mysteries, famous in antiquity, associated with the cult of the goddess of agriculture, Demeter (Fig. 106). The nature of these ceremonies required a closed room, and the meager remains of such a room, discovered in the same place, date back to the end of the 7th century. BC.

The rectangular hall of the ancient Telesterion, divided by two rows of internal supports, was oriented to the northeast. On the opposite side, a narrow adyton adjoined it - the holy of holies of the structure. This room - the so-called anaktoron (palace) of the goddess - remained intact during all subsequent reconstructions, carried out until Roman times.

After Eleusis became the deme of Attica, an expansion of the sanctuary was required, which was undertaken by the Peisistratids towards the end of the 6th century. BC e. This second Telesterion, which was apparently the earliest covered building of the Greeks, intended for large meetings, already received many of the distinctive features of the "future grandiose building: a square hall closed by blank walls was surrounded on three sides by stepped rows of places; to the fourth wall, in which had three doors adjoined a nine-column portico, the roof was supported by five rows of columns (possibly Ionic) The Anactoron adjoined the western corner of the building, which, apparently, was richly decorated; tiles.

The building was burned down by the Persians and around 465 BC. under Cimon, they began to rebuild it. The size of the hall was significantly increased, and at the same time the number of internal supports. But the reconstruction was never completed.

The telesterion of Iktin in plan was an almost regular square, adjoining the rock on the western side, in which a terrace was carved at the level of half the height of the building. On the other three sides, the Telesterion may have been surrounded by a colonnade. At both ends of the terrace, two staircases were carved into the rock, connecting it with the level of the stylobate in a single wide detour around the entire building (now it is suggested that Iktin designed the portico on one side only, leaving the side stairs open).

Inside the Telesterion, along the perimeter of its walls, there were eight rows of narrow steps, partly carved into the rock even under Cimon. On them stood spectators of a mystical action, which apparently took place in the center of the building. Rejecting the frequent grid of numerous columns envisaged according to the Kimonov scheme (49 columns were supposed: seven rows of seven columns each), Iktin boldly reduced their number to 20, placing them in four rows, five columns each. This spacious arrangement of internal supports undoubtedly indicates that the girders and other elements of the floor were made of wood. Two-tier colonnades carried a roof and galleries located above the seats for spectators; these galleries could probably be reached through the mentioned terrace from the western side of the Telesterion (Fig. 107).

According to a convincing, but still guesswork, reconstruction, the roof of the Telesterion had a pyramidal shape with a light hole in the middle. The central part of the hall located under this opening, in which the most important part of the mysteries took place, could be closed from the audience by curtains, as is known, used in the cellae of some temples (for example, in Olympia). Thus, Iktin gave a completely new solution to the interior of a large building and the ceiling above it.

After the death of Pericles, the construction of the Telesterion probably passed into new hands. The Iktin project was abandoned, and the new builders returned to the "kimonov" scheme. Pteron remained unfulfilled, the roof received a more usual gable shape (with a ridge located along the east-west axis), and 42 columns (six rows of seven each) were installed inside the room, somewhat expanded towards the rock. Nevertheless, the light lantern designed by Iktin was, apparently, made (Fig. 106 below).

In the middle of the IV century. BC. the construction of a Doric 12-column portico on the east side was begun, the construction of which was continued at the end of the same century by Philo. This portico, although not completely finished (the flutes of the columns were never completed), still existed in Roman times. In the Telesterion, perhaps for the first time in Greek architecture, the difficult questions associated with the large covered assembly hall were raised and resolved, and the Eleusinian temple undoubtedly occupies a very important place in the development of this architectural type.

110. Bass. Temple of Apollo. Facade. Plans (schematic and general), detail of the outer colonnade
		112. Bass. Temple of Apollo. Details of the Doric order: 1 - capital anta; 2 - cornice above the ant portico of the pronaos; 3 - capital of the pteron column; 4 - bummer crowning the metope; 5 - stage of pronaos
115. Bass. Temple of Apollo. Corinthian column. Axonometric reconstruction of the cella according to Choisy with modifications according to V. Marcuson. Fragments of the frieze
116. Bass. Temple of Apollo. Ionic order, fragment of a frieze

Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae, not far from Phigalia (Arcadia) - one of the most remarkable buildings of the last third of the 5th century. BC. (Fig. 108-111). Located in a desert and wilderness, high in the mountains (ISO m above sea level), from where a wide view of the surrounding valleys opened up to the Messenian Gulf, the temple, after many centuries of oblivion, was rediscovered only in the second half of the 18th century. and was first examined in detail in 1810. The Greek traveler Pausanias, who still saw the temple intact and admired it, reports that it was built in gratitude for deliverance from the plague of 430 BC. Iktin, the architect of the famous Athenian Parthenon. This circumstance, as well as a number of remarkable features of the architecture of the temple, attracted much attention to it from later researchers.

With the exception of a few details, the temple is made of beautiful bluish-gray marble-like limestone and is a rather strongly elongated Doric peripter (6X15 columns) measuring 14.63 X 38.29 m on the stylobate (Fig. 110). Externally, the temple (with the exception of length) differs little from the established type of Doric peripter of the middle of the 5th century BC. BC e., but the absence of curvature, entasis at the trunks of the columns, their strict verticality (including the corner columns), as well as the antes of the pronaos and opisthodom, the characteristic processing of the masonry seams (in the steps of the stylobate) emphasized the elements of regularity. This strict, almost dryish architecture embodied an image full of inner composure and energetic strength. This character of architecture was determined primarily by the proportions of the order, the features of which become clear when comparing it with the order of the Parthenon. Despite their great similarity, the differences are still very significant: the columns of the Figalian temple are squat; the entablature and capitals are larger in relation to the height of the column than in the Parthenon; the dry contour of the echinus rises steeper to a higher abacus (Fig. 110, 112). The proportions of the order determine the scale expressiveness of this essentially small structure and lead to the fact that it is not visually suppressed by the harsh mountain nature surrounding it.

Only when approaching the temple did the viewer discover its subtle details: the tall sims that crowned the pediments were made of marble and decorated, in contrast to the traditional Dorica painting, with beautiful ornamental carvings. Thanks to the sparing use of decor, carved sims took on a special meaning and enriched the entire austere appearance of the temple (* It is possible that there were sculptures in the rather deep pediments of the temple.), in the exquisite simplicity of which the conscious restraint of the architect was reflected. The wonderful coffered ceilings of the pronaos made of marble and the marble roof of the temple also played the role of decoration. But besides this, in the external architecture of the temple there were no indications of a completely unusual solution to its Ionic interior, which opened to the viewer through a very wide (compared to the cella) opening of the main entrance and presented an unexpected contrast with the strict doric facades.

The cella of the temple, strongly receding at the ends from the outer colonnade (another row of columns could have been placed here), located with its longitudinal axis in the north-south direction, consisted (not counting the deep pronaos and opisthodom) of two unequal interconnected rooms. This unusual composition and orientation of the temple may be due to the fact that Iktin included in his construction the cella of an older small temple located here. At the same time, the new cella was built at right angles to the old temple on its northern side; its southern longitudinal wall became the rear wall of the new cella, while the northern side wall that separated both cellas was demolished. Therefore, the new cella turned out to be elongated in the direction from south to north, where the main entrance to the temple was located. The entrance to the old temple on the east side has also been preserved.

The architectural composition of the main part of the cella is completely unusual: it was framed on both sides by five short walls protruding from the side walls of the cella, forming a series of small niches on the sides, similar to those that were in the temple of Hera at Olympia (Fig. 114). The last, fifth, pair of walls was turned at an angle of 45° to the walls of the cella.

The ends of these transverse walls are processed in the form of Ionic semi-columns (Fig. 116). On the walls lay an entablature with a sculptural frieze that ran around the entire cella in a continuous ribbon. He depicted the struggle of the centaurs with the Lapiths and the Greeks with the Amazons. This frieze, full of expression and pathos of the struggle, was apparently the most important cult element of the cella, and the statue of Apollo was probably placed in the adyton, separated from the cella by a single internal free-standing column with a Corinthian capital. In contrast to the frieze of the Parthenon, carved on a load-bearing wall in low relief, the Phigalian frieze, located inside the temple, is made in strong relief with rich chiaroscuro. The stylistic features of his sculpture gave rise to a later dating of the temple (the end of the 5th century BC). But the frieze, carved on removable marble boards, could be installed even after the construction of the temple itself was completed.

There is another opinion about the time of construction of the temple. Dinsmoor, who regards its forms as immature, places the entire building before the Parthenon. An analysis of the composition of the temple shows, however, that it has taken the next step in the architectural development of the inner space of the cella compared to the Parthenon, and the details and profiles of the order testify to the exceptional maturity of the architect, who purposefully changed the generally accepted breaks, in accordance with the specific functions of one or another element. The best researcher of Greek breaks - L. Shu refers them, as well as the entire temple, to about 420 BC, strongly disagreeing with Dinsmoor.

The architect perfectly revealed the significance of the frieze and made it the most important element of the temple interior, tearing off the frieze from the walls of the cella and bringing it forward to the center of the room. When solving the supports on which the entablature with a frieze rested, the architect did not want to mechanically reproduce the usual forms of the Ionic order that had developed in connection with the free-standing supports, but tried to show that the semi-columns were only processing the ends of the transverse walls. Bases and capitals made of marble (preserved only in separate fragments) emphasized the tectonicity of the walls and the conditional nature of the semi-columns. The bases are strongly broadened downwards and are separated from the floor by a slit. The volutes of Ionic capitals are given a steep, unusually plastic bend, which does not touch the abacus, thereby emphasizing that not the columns, but the walls are load-bearing. Thus, following the specific processing of ante in Greek temples, the interpretation of the Ionic half-columns of the temple in Bassae is an extremely important step in this conditional application of order forms to characterize the wall.

The cult statue was most likely installed in the adyton facing the east door and was visible to those looking at it through the main north entrance from an unusual point of view (Fig. 113).

The only free-standing column that separated the adyton and organically closed the main part of the cella, as if indicating the inaccessibility of the adyton. Its special significance in the spatial composition of the interior was emphasized by the Corinthian capital - the earliest example known to us: perhaps the entire column was marble. Its base expanded downwards very little, which emphasized the constructive significance of this free-standing support. The Corinthian capital, known only from drawings by Cockerell and Hallerstein (the capital was broken immediately after the excavations), is a further development of the capital of the Massalian treasury at Delphi in the 6th century. BC. (Fig. 115). Its internal spirals were large, the abacus was heavy: there was only one row of leaves at the bottom.

Given the place and role of the Corinthian column in the composition of the cella, it is necessary to reject the reconstruction of the interior proposed by the archaeologist Dinsmoor. Based on a new interpretation of some fragments, he argued that the temple had not one, but three Corinthian capitals: one at a free-standing column and two at the semi-columns of diagonal walls on its sides. But a Greek architect would hardly have made identical capitals on supports so different in their constructive essence and tectonic interpretation (compare, for example, their bases). Dinsmoor's reconstruction does not fit in either with the architectural and compositional solution of the cella, or with the nature of the artistic thinking of the Greeks. Rather, it can be assumed that on the diagonal transverse walls on the sides of the column, the side volutes of the Ionic capitals did not break off in the middle, but had a second curl (in old reconstructions of the cella, such scrolls were erroneously indicated on all semi-columns), showing a special type of tripartite Ionic capital, which differs in its form and from the Corinthian capital of a free-standing column and from the capitals of the other Ionic semi-columns.

The issue of cella overlap has not been clarified. If the fragments found during excavations turned out to be sufficient for the reconstruction of the marble ceilings of the pteron, then the ceiling of the cella, usually depicted in the drawing, is entirely Cockerell's conjecture. In the ceiling of the pteron, which was not inferior in luxury to the ceiling of the Acropolis Propylaea, Iktin applied technical innovations - in the northern and southern porticos, the earliest of the U-shaped (channel) beams that have come down to us, made in marble and possibly reinforced with iron, were placed.

As for the ceiling of the cella, its design is associated with the problem of lighting it, which is necessary for viewing the frieze. Found fragments of the marble "tiles" of the roof suggested that at least some of them had holes that allowed light to penetrate into the cella.

It is easy to see that in the temple of Apollo in Bassae, while maintaining the external appearance of the traditional peripteral temple and despite the elongated proportions of the plan and the niche along the walls of the cella, traditional for the Peloponnese, the temple had a completely new interior design. The unusual plan of the temple, as well as all its other features, are understandable only in their mutual connection as elements of an integral composition. At the heart of this composition and all its constituent elements is a bright contrast between the traditional restrained appearance of the newly designed rich interior, which emphasizes the dominant importance of the frieze and the inaccessibility of the adyton in the depths of the cella.

A comparison of the three structures of Iktin that have come down to us (Parthenon, Telesterion and the temple in Bassae) allows us to outline some of the individual features of this master, in whose work the main trends of Greek architecture at the time of its highest heyday were expressed. Iktin's inclination leaves no doubt; to the search for new ways in art, starting with the general solutions of the entire composition and plan and ending with individual architectural elements (Corinthian column, tripartite Ionic capitals, etc.); his interest in the interior (affecting in all three buildings known to us by the master); his technical innovation (Telesterion light lantern, U-beam in Bassae); innovative use of a wide variety of artistic and expressive means and the combination of elements of different orders in one structure (in the Parthenon and in the temple in Bassae); the desire to organically include sculpture in the composition (the Frieze of the Figalian temple, which is the next step in this direction compared to the frieze of the Parthenon), as well as the consistent development of a number of compositional techniques related to the interior (the use of a centrally located column to organically complete the interior - cf. Parthenon). Vitruvius, listing the works he used, names Iktin among other authors of architectural treatises. The interest of the master in the theory of his art, thus testified, is an essential touch that complements the characterization of Iktin as an outstanding representative of the Athenian architecture of the 3rd quarter of the 5th century, which was advanced for his time. BC, in the remarkable monuments of which new trends found the earliest and most vivid expression, which determined the further development of all Hellenic architecture.

Despite the clashes between various Greek communities and their associations, the growth of private slave ownership and the strengthening of trade ties between various parts of the Greek world destroyed the internal structure of the classical Greek city-state and broke down the external economic partitions between individual Greek policies, contributing to a closer fusion of various currents of Greek culture. into the general direction. These trends were reflected in the architecture of the Temple of Apollo in Bassae, which not only boldly violated traditional techniques, but also combined into a single whole the compositional techniques and artistic forms that previously constituted the specific features of the architecture of various regions of Greece - Attica and the Peloponnese.

Local traditions were reflected in the interior of the temple, the transverse walls of which resemble such important and ancient religious buildings of the Peloponnese as the temple of Artemis Orthia in Sparta and the Heraion in Olympia *

*The stability of this tradition can also be traced in the monuments of the later era - the temples in Tegey and Lusy.

The features of the Phigalian temple, which make it possible to bring it closer to the Athenian monuments of the time of Pericles, were noted above. These are the increased interest in the interior space and the complication of the interior composition, the desire for an organic combination of various order systems in one building, the development of new architectural forms and the new use of old ones, and a number of other features that reflected the search for such architectural and artistic means that allowed to express a new ideological and artistic content in the typical forms of the Doric peripter, consecrated by tradition and cult. Similar aspirations are characteristic of the Bassae temple and the Erechtheion, as well as of the contemporary tragedies of Euripides.

Tholos at the Sanctuary of Athena Pronaia at Delphi, built around 400 BC, is the first of the three round structures of the Peloponnese (Fig. 117, 118). The round cella of the folos was surrounded by twenty Doric columns. The interior reflected the influence of Iktin - on a profiled plinth made of dark Eleusinian stone, there should have been 10 (without one missing due to a wide doorway) Corinthian columns attached to the wall. Their axes were opposite the middle of every second outer intercolumnium. The shape of the Corinthian capital (following in time the capital in Bassae) with its clearly defined bell and two crowns of low acanthus leaves clearly resembles Iktin's. However, the angular volutes here began with two large spirals.

The Delphic tholos was notable for its elegance and richness of decoration. Its Doric columns - three of which were restored in 1938, are slender (R = 6.3 D) \ along the edge of the roof, behind the sima, there was a number of additional carved decorations, there was a sculpture in the metopes. The curvature of the surface of the triglyphs, corresponding to the radius of the circle of the entablature, testifies to the high skill of the builder and sculptor.

The architect of the folos - Theodore of Phocaea - wrote, according to Vitruvius (VII, 12), a treatise about his work.

Temple of Nemesis at Ramnunte was built around 430 BC. e. next to a small temple destroyed by the Persians in antah of the end of the 6th century. BC e. (temple of Themis). The temple of Nemesis was a marble Doric peripter, which had six columns on the front sides, and only twelve columns on the longitudinal ones. Its dimensions according to the stylobate are about 10.1X21.3 m. Cella had a two-columned ant pronaos and the same opisthodode; the entablature above the ants had a continuous frieze, reaching the entablature of the pteron, which testified to the wide spread of ionisms in the Attic Dorica of this era. Eight damaged columns stand to this day; their flutes were left unfinished.

120. Cape Suniy. Sanctuary and temple of Poseidon. Reconstruction of the general view from the side and end sides of the temple
121. Cape Suniy. Temple of Poseidon. Facade, plan, section, entablature over ant and pteron

Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sunius built, perhaps, a little later than the temple in Ramnunt. Its ruins rise picturesquely on top of a 60-meter cliff, which marked the sailors' exit to the Aegean Sea and, since the time of Homer, has been dedicated to the god of the sea element. The excellent location of the temple perfectly characterizes the ability of Greek architects to connect the creations of architecture with nature, to the deified forces of which they were dedicated (Fig. 119).

It was a Doric peripter with the canonical number of columns (6X13), made (with the exception of the frieze) from local marble and, apparently, repeating the main forms of the earlier temple on the site of which it was placed (Fig. 120, 121). The length of the temple along the stylobate is 31.15 m, the width is 13.48 m. The columns are very slender, they are 6.1 m high and have a diameter of about 1 m. at the eastern end of the cella. It is possible that there was also a frieze at the western end of the cella, as in the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnous. The architrave block still lies in its place, thrown over from the northeast anta to the third column of the northern facade (Fig. 122, 123). The frieze was made of Parian marble, as in the Hephaestion, but, unlike it, it was covered with bas-relief on all four inner sides of the part of the pteron located in front of the pronaos.

The temple at Cape Sunius is one of the most attractive and poetic works of Greek architecture in its heyday.

Bouleuterium in Athens- a public building built on the agora by the end of the 5th century. BC e. (it is conditionally called New, in contrast to the Old, which it replaced, built at the end of the 6th century BC), anticipates the famous bouleuterium in Miletus (see Fig. 100). This is a rectangular hall with seats arranged in a semicircle and rising in the form of an amphitheatre. The roof of the building was supported by internal supports. On one side was a portico, in which state laws were carved on stone slabs.

In addition to the Old and New Athenian bouleuteriums, the Odeion of Pericles (about 440-435 BC), which is attributed to Iktinus, and the Telesterion mentioned above, played an important role in the development of the corresponding types of public buildings.

In connection with the development of Greek drama (tragedy and comedy) in the 5th century. BC e. the architecture of the Greek stone theater is also being formed. However, its main elements get a well-established, well-established character already in the 4th century. BC, and therefore this type of structures is considered in the next chapter.

Designated in the State Standard, the student must know / understand:

Know the main types and genres of art; studied trends and styles of world artistic culture; masterpieces of world artistic culture.

- Understand the peculiarities of the language of various art forms.

To be able to recognize the studied works and correlate them with a certain era, style, direction; establish stylistic and plot connections between works of different types of art; use various sources of information about world art culture; perform educational and creative tasks (reports, messages);

Use the acquired knowledge in practical activities and everyday life for: choosing the paths of one's cultural development; organization of personal and collective leisure; expressing one's own opinion about the works of classics and contemporary art; independent art work.

№	the date	Lesson topic	Content elements	Questions Project activity	Tasks
1	September 02-06	ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE PRIMARY WORLD - 3 hours Myth is the basis of early ideas about the world. Cosmogonic myths. ancient images	Reflection of ideas about the world and life in myths. Myth as a fact of attitude. Cosmogonic myths. Ancient images at the heart of the vertical and horizontal models of the world: world tree, world mountain, road. Magic ritual as a way of illusory mastery of the world. The rite of fertility is a reproduction of the primary myth.	What role did myths play in the lives of primitive people? What myths are classified as cosmogonic? What is common in the myth-making of various ancient civilizations?	Lesson 1. Page 14-18
2	09-13	Slavic agricultural rites. Folklore as a reflection of the primary myth.	Reproduction of the primary myths of the ancient Slavs. Pagan fertility rites. Christmas time. Pancake week. Russian week. Semik. Ivan Kupala. The Tale of Princess Nesmeyana as a Reflection of the Idea of ​​Fertility.	What modern rituals do you know? What does the rite of Shrovetide testify to?	Lesson 2 Page 19-23 Creative task. Find ancient images and symbols in the literature studied in the school curriculum
3	16-17	The birth of art. Artistic image The main means of reflection and knowledge of the world in primitive art. Geometric ornament. Imagery of architectural primary elements.	The birth of art. Reflection in artistic images of ideas about the world around. Rock art of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic in the caves of Altamira and Lascaux. Neolithic geometric ornament as a symbol of the transition from chaos to form. Religious building - Stonehenge.	What forms of art are characteristic of the primitive world? How do the artistic images of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic reflect the conditions of life during these periods? Creative question. What superstitions are associated with ancient mythological images? Complete the final task on the culture of the primitive world from the file in ElZhur.	Lesson 3 Page 23-29
	23-27	ART CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD – 14 hours MESOPOTAMIA Mesopotamian ziggurat - dwelling of god. Glazed brick and rhythmic pattern are the main decorative means.	Mesopotamian ziggurat - dwelling of god. The ziggurats of Ette-meniguru in Ur and Etemenanki in Babylon. Glazed brick and rhythmic pattern are the main decorative means. Ishtar Gate, Procession Road in New Babylon. The realism of images of wildlife is the specificity of Mesopotamian fine arts.	What features are characteristic of architectural structures in the city-states of Mesopotamia? What are they due to? What decorative means did the architects use to decorate the temples of Eteienniguru in Ur and Etamenanki in New Babylon? What realities are reflected in the Assyro-Babylonian reliefs?	Lesson 4 Page 32-37
5	October 30-04	ANCIENT EGYPT The embodiment of the idea of ​​eternal life in the architecture of necropolises. The ground temple is a symbol of the eternal self-rebirth of the god Ra.	The embodiment of the idea of ​​Eternal Life in the architecture of necropolises. Pyramids at Giza. The ground temple is a symbol of the eternal self-rebirth of the god Ra. Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak.	What was the funeral cult of the ancient Egyptians? How does the architecture of Egyptian necropolises reflect the idea of ​​eternal life?	Lesson 5 Page 38-43 Creative task. Compare the Egyptian pyramid and the Mesopotamian ziggurat. What are the similarities and differences (by purpose, decoration, location)?
6	14-18	ANCIENT EGYPT Magic. Decor of the tombs. The canon of the image of a figure on a plane	The role of magic in the funeral cult. Decor of sarcophagi and tombs as a guarantor of Eternal life. The canon of the image of a figure on a plane. Sarcophagus of Queen Kaui. Tomb of Ramesses IX in the Valley of the Kings.	How did the design of the tombs of the nobility change in different periods of Egyptian culture? How do the decorative elements of sarcophagi indicate their role as a talisman for “sacred remains”? What is the novelty of the design of the funeral cult in the era of the New Kingdom?	Lesson 6 Page 44-49
7	21-25	ANCIENT INDIA The Hindu temple is a mystical analogue of the body-sacrifice and the sacred mountain. The role of sculptural decoration	Hinduism as a fusion of beliefs, traditions and norms of behavior. The Hindu temple is a mystical analogue of the body-sacrifice and the sacred mountain. Temple of Kandarya Mahadeva in Khajuraho.	How do the architectural forms of the Hindu temple reproduce the mythology of the Hindus? What role does Hindu temple decor play?	Lesson 7 Page 50-54 Creative task. Compare a ziggurat in Mesopotamia, a pyramid in Yegita, and a Hindu temple in India. How does architecture reflect the prototype of the world mountain? How is myth-making different in these regions?
8	28-03	ANCIENT INDIA Buddhist religious buildings - a symbol of the cosmos and the divine presence	Religious buildings of Buddhism as a symbol of the cosmos and the divine presence. Big stupa in Sanchi. Peculiarities of Buddhist sculpture: the relief of the gate of the Great Stupa in Sanchi. Fresco painting of the cave temples of Ajanta.	What are the main types of Buddhist temple architecture. What is the difference and decorative design? Why are the Ajanta murals called the encyclopedia of Indian life? How do they compare (in terms of plots, images, mood) with the stone high relief of Hindu temples?	Lesson 8 Page 55-59
9	November04-08	ANCIENT AMERICA The Temple Architecture of the Indians of Mesamerica as the Embodiment of the Myth to the Victim Who Gave Life	Sacrificial ritual in the name of life is the basis of religious architecture and relief. The Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan is a prototype of the temple architecture of the Indians of Mesamerica. Temple of Huitzilopochtli in Tenochtitlan. Maya complex in Palenque.	Which Nahua Indian myth is the basis of the Feast of the Dead in present-day Mexico? Formulate the key idea of ​​the fine arts of the Indians of Mesamerica. Give examples. Project activity. Track the influence of ancient images on modern life. How does the aesthetics of Egyptian, Indian, ancient American	Lesson 9 Page 60-67
10	11-15	CRETE-MYCENEAN CULTURE Cretan-Mycenaean architecture and decor as a reflection of the myth	Crete-Mycenaean architecture and decor as a reflection of the myth of Europa and Zeus, Theseus and the Minotaur. Knossos Labyrinth of King Minos in Crete. Palace of King Agamemnon in Mycenae.	Compare the architecture of Knossos and Mycenaean palaces. Find the differences. What type of decor was used to decorate the palace of King Minos?	Lesson 10 Page 68-73
11	18-22	ANCIENT GREECE Greek temple - an architectural image of the union of people and gods	Mythology is the basis of the worldview of the ancient Greeks. The Acropolis of Athens as an expression of the ideal of beauty of Ancient Greece. The Parthenon is an example of high classics.	What are the main features of architectural orders that arose in Greece during the archaic period. What gods were Greek temples dedicated to? What characteristic features of the classics did the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis have? Why is the Parthenon considered the most perfect temple of the Doric order?	Lesson 11 Page 74-79
12	December 02-06	ANCIENT GREECE Evolution of Greek Relief from Archaic to High Classical	The evolution of Greek relief from archaic to high classic. Temple of Athena at Selinunte. Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Metopes and the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon as a reflection of the mythological, ideological, aesthetic program of the Athenian Acropolis.	What new did Phidias bring to relief? Why is his work the pinnacle of Greek plastic arts? What idea did the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon express? How does the appearance of the Parthenon combine the strict forms of the classics with the decorative brilliance of archaia?	Lesson 12 Page 80-83
13	09-13	ANCIENT GREECE Sculpture of Ancient Greece from archaic to late classic	Sculpture of Ancient Greece: Evolution from the Archaic to the Late Classic. Kuros and bark. The statue of Doryphoros is an example of the geometric style of Polykleitos. The sculpture of Phidias is the pinnacle of Greek plastic art. The new beauty of the late classics. Scopas. Maenad.	What, in your opinion, is the charm of archaic sculpture? What role does clothing play in the interpretation of the image? How does sculpture allow us to represent the attitude of the Greeks in the era of early, high, late classics?	Lesson 13 Page 84-88
14	16-20	ANCIENT GREECE Synthesis of Oriental and Ancient Traditions in Hellenism. Gigantism of architectural forms. Expression and naturalism of sculptural decoration	Synthesis of Eastern and ancient traditions in Hellenism. Sleeping hermaphrodite. Agesander. Venus Melos. Gigantism of architectural forms. Expression and naturalism of sculptural decoration. Pergamon altar.	What are the characteristics of Hellenistic art? What is the reason for the appearance of two faces of beauty in the plasticity of Hellenism? What pictorial techniques did Hellenistic sculptors use to convey drama and expression?	Lesson 14 Page 88-93
15	23-27	ANCIENT ROME Features of Roman urban planning. Public buildings of the Republic and Empire periods	Architecture as a mirror of the greatness of the state. Characteristics of Roman urban planning. Roman Forum, Colosseum, Pantheon.	What structures shaped the cities of Ancient Rome? What architectural element is the core of any Roman structure - a bridge, an aqueduct, an amphitheater, a triumphal arch? How do you understand the expression: “August took Rome brick, and left it marble? Give examples.	Lesson 15 Page 94-99
16	January 30.12-09.01	ANCIENT ROME Roman house plan. Fresco and mosaic - the main means of decor	Roman house plan. Frescoes and mosaics are the main means of decoration. House of the Vettii, home of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii. Sculptural portrait. Julius Brutus, Octavian August, Constantine the Great.	What was the peculiarity of the Roman house? What artistic means did the Romans use to decorate their homes? Give examples. Project activity. Find in Moscow architectural structures built in the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian orders. What decorative elements help determine their compliance with a particular order. Gather information and explain how the strict observance of proportions inherent in Antiquity affects the creation of everyday clothes, interior decoration, and garden planning.	Lesson 16 Page 100-105 Creative task. Make up a story in any genre, where, imagining yourself as a resident of Ancient Rome, you describe your house.
17	13-17	EARLY CHRISTIAN ART Types of Christian churches: rotunda and basilica. Mosaic decor. Christian symbolism	Types of temples: rotunda and basilica. The order of placement of mosaic decor. Christian symbolism. Mausoleums of Constance in Rome, Galla Placidia in Ravenna. Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.	What types of temples were widespread in the era of early Christianity? What is common in the decoration of early Christian churches of any type? What places stand out especially when decorating the interior with mosaics in the central-domed churches, in basilicas? What interpretation did the images of ancient Roman mosaics receive in Christian art? Complete the final task on the artistic culture of the ancient world from the file in ElZhur.	Lesson 17 Page 105-111
18	20-24	ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES - 14 hours Byzantium and Ancient Russia - 7 hours Byzantine central-domed temple as the abode of God on earth. Space symbolism	Byzantine central-domed temple as the abode of God on earth. Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Architectural symbolism of the cross-domed church. The order of placement of decor. Cosmic symbolism of the cross-domed church.	What are the features of the Byzantine style? What determines the cosmic symbolism of the Byzantine cathedral? How does the decor of the cross-domed church reflect the symbolic idea of ​​the Eternal Church?	Lesson 18 Page 114-118
19	27-31	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Topographic and temporal symbols of the temple. Stylistic diversity of the cross-domed churches of Ancient Russia	Topographic and temporal symbolism of the cross-domed church and its stylistic diversity.	How is the earthly life of Jesus Christ reflected in the architecture of the cross-domed church? Explain how the feeling of the eternal circulation of time is achieved in the decoration of the Byzantine temple? What differences are typical for the local construction schools of Ancient Russia?	Lesson 19 Page 119-123
20	February 3-7	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Byzantine style in mosaic decoration	Byzantine style: St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Vladimir-Suzdal construction school: Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. Novgorod construction school: Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin. Byzantine style in mosaic decor. Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. Cathedral of St. Sophia in Kyiv.	What pictorial techniques in the Byzantine temple created the atmosphere of the supersensible world? What is the reason for the transition from the technique of colorful face modeling to linear stylization?	Lesson 20 Page 123-126
21	10-14	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Formation of the Moscow school of icon painting. Russian iconostasis	Moscow school of icon painting. Russian iconostasis. Andrei Rublev. Saved the Zvenigorod rank. Rublev's icon "Trinity" is a symbol of the national unity of the Russian lands.	Tell us about the features of Byzantine iconography. By what artistic methods did Theophanes the Greek achieve the impression of the saints' complete detachment from the sinful material world?	Lesson 21 Page 126-131 Creative task. Relying on materialCD and the text of the textbook ANALYZE how Theophanes the Greek connects the detached state with the individual characteristics of each character.
22	17-21	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Moscow architectural school. Early Moscow architecture. Renaissance features in the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin. A new type of tent temple	The evolution of the Moscow architectural school. Early Moscow school. Spassky Cathedral of the Spa-so-Andronikov Monastery. Renaissance tendencies in the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin. Assumption Cathedral. Cathedral of the Archangel. Faceted Chamber. A hipped-roof temple as a figurative synthesis of a ciborium temple and Renaissance architectural elements. Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. Dionysius.	Explain why Andrei Rublev is considered the creator of the Russian iconostasis. Compare Andrei Rublev's "Trinity" and an early Christian mosaic from the Roman church of Santa Maria Maggiore. By what pictorial means does the artist convey to the viewer the idea of ​​uniting the Russian lands?	Lesson 22 pp.132-135
23	March 03-07	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Fresco paintings on the theme of the Magnification of the Virgin. 10-14 Znamenny chant	Fresco paintings on the Akathist theme in the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Ferapontovo. Znamenny chant.	How does the architecture of the temple reflect the key ideas of the time? What are the architectural and decorative elements of the cathedrals of the beginningXVIcenturies testify to the continuity of Moscow architecture from Vladimir-Suzdal and Renaissance? Complete the final task on the culture of the Middle Ages from the file in ElZhur.	Lesson 23 Page 135-140 Creative task. Make up a story in any genre with the obligatory inclusion of a description of churches: the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye
24	17-21	Western Europe - 4 hours pre-roman culture. "Carolingian Renaissance". Architecture, mosaic and fresco decoration	Pre-Roman culture: the "Carolingian Renaissance". Architectural symbolism and mosaic decoration of the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen. The evolution of the basilica type of the temple. Church of Saint-Michel de Cux in Languedoc. Fresco decoration of a pre-Romanesque basilica. Church of St. Johann in Müster.	Why is the murals of Dionysius on the theme of Akathist consonant with the solemn-major appearance of the temples of IvanIII? How do the church melodies that sounded in Russian churches of the earlyXVIcentury, with paintings on the walls? Give examples. Project activity. Find architectural buildings in Moscow built in the Byzantine style. What elements of architecture and decor testify to the continuity of Russian churches from Byzantine ones? Highlight elements reminiscent of the influence of the Byzantine style on Russian culture in fashionable clothes, jewelry, theatrical scenery, and fair events.	Lesson 24 Page 140-145
25	24-28	Western Europe Roman culture. Displaying the life of a person of the Middle Ages in the architecture of monastery basilicas, bas-reliefs, frescoes, stained glass windows	Credo of the Romanesque culture. Displaying the life of a person of the Middle Ages in architecture, bas-reliefs, fresco decoration, stained-glass windows of monastery basilicas. Abbey of Saint-Pierre in Moissac. Church of St. Johann in Müster. Church of St. Aposteln in Cologne.	By what signs is the Aachen chapel perceived as a replica of the architecture of ancient Rome? How do the basilicas of the "Carolingian Renaissance" differ from the early Christian ones? What are the features of the picturesque decoration of pre-Romanesque basilicas?	Lesson 25 Page 146-152
26	April 31.03-04.04	Western Europe Gothic - 2 hours. Gothic temple - an image of the world. The interior decor of the temple: stained glass windows, sculpture, tapestries	Gothic temple - an image of the world. Church of Saint-Denis near Paris. The interior decoration of a Gothic temple: stained glass windows, sculpture, tapestries. Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. Gregorian chant.	How is the main idea of ​​the cultural development of the western and eastern areas expressed in the architecture and decoration of the Romanesque basilica and the Byzantine cathedral? What was the purpose of the stone decoration of a Romanesque basilica? How was the Romanesque ideal of spiritual beauty reflected in sculpture and fresco painting?	Lesson 26 Page 152-158
27	14-18	Western Europe Gothic. The main stages in the development of the Gothic style. Regional features of the Gothic. France	The main stages in the development of the Gothic style. Regional features of the Gothic. France: Notre Dame Cathedral in Chartres, Saint Denis Abbey near Paris, Notre Dame Cathedral in Rouen. Germany: St. Peter's Cathedral in Cologne, Frauenkirche Church in Nuremberg. England: Westminster Abbey Cathedral in London. Spain: Cathedral in Toledo. Italy: Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence.	What is the difference between a Gothic cathedral and a Romanesque basilica (in terms of ideological content, functions, decor)? What role did stained glass play in the interior of a Gothic cathedral? Complete the final task on Western European culture from the file in ElZhur. Complete the final task on the artistic culture of Western Europe from the file in ElZhur.	Lesson 27 Page 158-164
28	21-25	New art - Ars no Proto-Renaissance in Italy. Aesthetics of Ars is new in literature wa (3 hours)	Proto-Renaissance in Italy. The "Divine Comedy" by Dante Alighieri as a reflection of the aesthetics of Ars is new in literature. The ancient principle of "imitating nature" in painting. Giotto. Fresco cycle in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.	What are the main stages in the development of the Gothic style in France? What are the features of Gothic in Germany, England, Spain, Italy? Creative question. Compare the decorations of a Byzantine cathedral, an Old Russian church, a pre-Romanesque and Romanesque basilica, a Gothic cathedral. The answer must be presented in the form of a table.	Lesson 28 Page 165-171
29	May 28.04-02.05	New art - Ars nova Allegorical cycles Ars nova	Allegorical cycles Ars nova on the theme of the Triumph of Repentance and the Triumph of Death. Fresco cycle by Andrea da Bonaiuti in the Spanish Chapel of the Cathedral of Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Fresco cycle of the Master of the Triumph of Death in the Pisa cemetery of Camposanto. The musical current Ars nova.	How did the new humanistic thinking manifest itself in literature? What is the innovation of Giotto?	Lesson 29 Page 172-178
30	05-08	New art - Ars nova The specificity of Are is new in the North	The specificity of Ars is new in the North. Jan Van Eyck. Altar "Adoration of the Lamb" in the Church of St. Bavo in Ghent.	What semantic parallel can be seen between the painting and music of Ars nova? Complete the final task on the artistic culture of Ars nova from the file in ElZhur.	Lesson 30. Wed 178-184
31	12-16	ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE FAR AND NEAR EAST IN THE MIDDLE AGES - 4 hours China The interaction of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese culture. Architecture as the embodiment of mythological and religious and moral ideas of Ancient China Japan Japanese gardens as the quintessence of the mythology of Shintoism and the philosophical and religious views of Buddhism	The eternal harmony of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese culture. The ensemble of the Temple of Heaven in Beijing is an example of the fusion of mythological and religious and moral ideas of Ancient China. The cult of nature is the credo of Japanese architecture. Japanese gardens as a fusion of Shinto mythology and philosophical and religious beliefs of Buddhism. Garden of Eden at Byodoin Monastery in Uji. Ryoanji Philosophical Rock Garden in Kyoto. Tea garden "Pines and lutes" Villa Katsura near Kyoto.	What determines the characteristics of Ars nova in the Netherlands? What Gothic features does Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece retain? Why is Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece considered an example of Renaissance painting? Complete the final task on the Ars nova culture from the file attached in ElZhur. How is the idea of ​​harmony between Heaven and Earth reflected in the architectural forms of the Temple of Heaven? What is the sacred nature of the interior design of the Hall of Prayer for the Harvest?	Lesson 31 Page 184-
32	19-23	Middle East - 2 hours The image of paradise in the architecture of mosques. Near East	The image of paradise in the architecture of mosques and public buildings. Columned mosque in Cordoba. Domed Blue Mosque in Istanbul. Registan Square in Samarkand.	Why are gardens a special type of Japanese art? How does the idea of ​​finding an "empty heart" find expression in the design of philosophical gardens? Complete the final task on the culture of the Far East from the file in ElZhur.	Lesson 32 Page 192-201 Lesson 33 Page 202-209
34	26-30	The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces	The Umayyad Mosque in Cordoba. Domed Blue Mosque in Istanbul. Registan Square in Samarkand. The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces. Alhambra in Granada.	What differences exist in the organization of the interior space and the decor of the columned mosque and basilica? What decorative means did the architects use to create the image of the Garden of Eden in domed mosques? What elements formed the image of the Garden of Eden in the Alhambra? What ornament, invented by the Arabs, was used to decorate the chambers and interior palaces of the Alhambra? Complete the final Middle Eastern culture assignment from the file in ElZhur. Project activity. Find examples of how the Arab-Muslim decor, which influenced the artistic life of Western Europe, is reflected in our everyday life. Show the specificity of the combination of the Arab-Muslim idea and the national artistic tradition in the World Cup.	Lesson 34 Page 210-216 Lesson 35 Page 216-225

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM OF THE COURSE

WORLD ART

Grade 11

based on the program of Emokhonova L.G.

Basic level

Textbook: Grade 11: Emokhonova L.G. World art culture: a textbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level): Publishing Center "Academy". 2009

Compiled by: Slepko Zoya Ivanovna- teacher of fine arts, the highest qualification category

2013 - 2014 academic year

EXPLANATORY NOTE

The work program is based on:

Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of 05.03.2004 No. 1089 “On Approval of the Federal Component of State Educational Standards for Primary General, Basic General and Secondary (Complete) General Education”;

Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of 09.03.2004 No. 1312 “On Approval of the Federal Basic Curriculum and Exemplary Curricula for Educational Institutions of the Russian Federation Implementing General Education Programs”;

L.G. programs Emokhonova "World Art Culture" Grade 10-11 // Programs of educational institutions: World Art Culture "Academic school textbook". 10-11 grades. - M .: "Enlightenment", 2008.

The program is designed for 35 training hours at the rate of 1 hour per week.

The World Artistic Culture program was compiled on the basis of the State Standard of Secondary (Complete) Education (basic level), taking into account the recommendations of the exemplary program.

Based on the mandatory part of the curriculum, fixed in the standard and disclosed in the exemplary program, the program, observing continuity, offers its own approach to the disclosure of content, its own sequence of studying topics and sections of the subject.

The study of the MHC is aimed at achieving the following goals and objectives:

The formation of students' holistic ideas about the historical traditions and values ​​of the artistic culture of the peoples of the world.

The study of masterpieces of world art created in various artistic and historical eras, the comprehension of the characteristic features of the worldview and style of outstanding creative artists;

Formation and development of concepts about the artistic and historical era, style and direction, understanding the most important patterns of their change and development in historical civilization;

Awareness of the role and place of Man in artistic culture throughout its historical development, reflection of the eternal search for an aesthetic ideal in the best works of world art;

Education of artistic taste;

Development of feelings, emotions, figurative-associative thinking and artistic and creative abilities.

The course on world artistic culture at the basic level systematizes knowledge about culture and art obtained at previous levels of education in educational institutions. It gives a holistic view of world artistic culture and the logic of its development in a historical perspective.

The oldest layer of culture is characterized by a direct connection between art and mythology, therefore, to study the culture of the Ancient World, monuments were chosen that most fully reflected the influence on the creative process of mythological consciousness, the recurrences of which are sometimes found in modern life.

The study of the MHC is aimed at developing general educational skills and abilities in students:

Ability to independently and motivatedly organize their cognitive activity;

Establish simple real connections and dependencies;

Assess, compare and classify the phenomena of art culture;

To search for the necessary information in sources of various types;

Use multimedia resources and computer technologies to design creative works;

To understand the value of art education as a means of developing the culture of the individual; to determine one's own attitude to the works of classics and contemporary art;

In accordance with the requirements specified in the State Standard, the student must:

know/understand:

- the main types and genres of art;

- studied trends and styles of world artistic culture;

- masterpieces of world artistic culture;

- features of the language of various types of art;

be able to:

- to recognize the studied works and correlate them with a certain era, style, direction;

- establish stylistic and plot connections between works of different types of art;

- use various sources of information about world art culture;

- perform educational and creative tasks (reports, messages);

use the acquired knowledge in practical activities and everyday life for:

- choice of ways of their cultural development;

- organization of personal and collective leisure;

- expressing one's own opinion about the works of classics and contemporary art;

- independent artistic creativity.

Taking into account the ideological nature of the discipline, the ratio between traditional classroom and extracurricular activities aimed at broadening one's horizons and active participation in the modern cultural process is decided in favor of the latter. It is no coincidence that the names of cultural monuments are in italics in the standard, acquaintance with which is desirable in order to obtain a more complete and colorful picture of artistic development, but the study of which in the lesson is not necessary. The emphasis is on acquiring skills that would allow one to analyze works of art.

MAIN CONTENT OF THE COURSE GRADE 11 (35 HOURS)

RENAISSANCE ART CULTURE (9 HOURS)

Renaissance in Italy (5 hours)

Humanistic vision of the world as the basis of the culture of the Renaissance. Florence is the embodiment of the Renaissance idea of ​​an "ideal" city in treatises, architecture, and painting. Leon Battista Alberti. "Ten Books on Architecture". Filippo Brunelleschi. Dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Shelter of the innocent. Annunziata Square. Church of San Spirito. The image of the square and the street in painting. Masaccio. "The Resurrection of Tobitha and the Healing of the Paralytic", "The Distribution of Alms", "Healing by the Shadow". Renaissance realism in sculpture. Donatello. "Flattened" relief "Feast of Herod". Statue of David. High Renaissance. Qualitative changes in painting. The new beauty of Leonardo da Vinci. Altar image "Madonna with a flower", "La Gioconda" (portrait of Mona Lisa). Synthesis of painting and architecture. Rafael Santi. Frescoes in the Stanza della Senyatura in the Vatican: "Parnassus". Sculpture. Michelangelo Buonarroti. The Medici Chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. Features of the Venetian school of painting. Aesthetics of the late Renaissance. Titian. "Love earthly and heavenly", "Pieta". Music of the Renaissance. The role of polyphony in the development of secular and cult musical genres. The transition from "strict writing" to madrigal. Giovanni da Palestrina. "Mass of the Pope Marcello". Carlo Gesualdo. Madrigal "I languish without end."

Northern Renaissance (4 hours)

Specifics of the Northern Renaissance. Grotesque-carnival character of the Renaissance in the Netherlands. Pieter Brueghel the Elder (Peasant). "Battle of Maslenitsa and Lent". Picturesque cycle "Months": "Hunters in the snow". The mystical character of the Renaissance in Germany. Albrecht Durer. Engravings of the "Apocalypse": "Four horsemen", "Trumpet voice". Painting "Four Apostles". The Secular Character of the French Renaissance. The Fontainebleau School of Architecture and Fine Arts. Castle of Francis I at Fontainebleau. Rosso Fiorentino. Francis I Gallery. Jean Goujon. Fountain of the Nymphs in Paris. Renaissance in England. Dramaturgy by William Shakespeare: the tragedy "Romeo and Juliet", the comedy "The Taming of the Shrew".

ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE 17TH CENTURY (5 HOURS)

Baroque (4 hours)

New worldview in the Baroque era and its reflection in art. Architectural ensembles of Rome. Lorenzo Bernini. St. Peter's Square. Navona Square. Bridge of the Holy Angel. New interior design. Tent-ciborium in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The specifics of Russian baroque. Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Winter Palace and Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg. Catherine's Palace in Tsarskoye Selo. Baroque plafond painting. Giovanni Battista Gauli (Baciccia). "Adoration of the Name of Jesus" in the Church of Il Gesu in Rome. Interaction of baroque and realism tendencies in painting. Peter Paul Rubens. Altar triptychs "The Hoisting of the Cross" and "Descent from the Cross" in Notre Dame Cathedral in Antwerp. "The Education of Marie Medici". Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn. "Repudiation of the Apostle Peter". Baroque music. Cl Audio Monteverdi. Opera "Orpheus". Arcangelo Corelli. Concerto grosso "On Christmas Eve" Johann Sebastian Bach. Passion "Passion according to Matthew".

Classicism (1 hour)

The "great royal style" of Louis XIV in architecture. Versailles. Classicism in the Fine Arts of France. Nicholas Poussin. "The Kingdom of Flora", "Orpheus and Eurydice".

ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE XVIII - THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY (8 HOURS)

Rococo (1 hour)

"Gallant festivities" by Antoine Watteau. "Isle of Cythera". Rococo interior. The picturesque pastorals of Francois Boucher. Musical bagatelles by Francois Couperin.

Neoclassicism, Empire (5 hours)

Music of the Enlightenment. Joseph Haydn. Sonata-symphonic cycle. Symphony No. 85 "Queen". Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Opera Don Juan. Requiem: "Day of Wrath", "Lacrimosa". Ludwig van Beethoven. Fifth Symphony, Moonlight Sonata. The image of the "ideal" city in the classic ensembles of Paris and St. Petersburg. Jacques Ange Gabriel. Place Louis XV in Paris. Giacomo Quarenghi. Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Andrei Dmitrievich Zakharov. Admiralty in Petersburg. Sculptural decor. Ivan Ivanovich Terebnev. Russia's exit to the sea.

Imperial style in architecture. The specificity of the Russian Empire. Carl Rossi. Palace Square, Mikhailovsky Palace in St. Petersburg. Empire interior. White Hall of the Mikhailovsky Palace in St. Petersburg.

Neoclassicism in painting. Jacques Louis David. "Oath of the Horatii". Classicist canons in Russian academic painting. Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. "The last day of Pompeii" . Alexander Andreevich Ivanov. "The Appearance of Christ to the People".

The origin of the classical music school in Russia. Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka. Artistic generalizations in operatic art. Opera "Life for the Tsar". Unusual expressive means: the march of Chernomor, the Persian choir from the opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila". The Birth of Russian Symphony: Overture "Night in Madrid". New Features in Chamber Vocal Music: Lyrical Romance "I Remember a Wonderful Moment".

Romanticism (2 hours)

Romantic ideal and its embodiment in music. Franz Schubert. Vocal cycle "Winter way". Richard Wagner. Opera Tannhäuser. Hector Berlioz. "Fantastic Symphony". Johannes Brahms. "Hungarian Dance No. 1". Painting of romanticism. Religious plots and literary themes in the painting of the Pre-Raphaelites. John Everett Milles. "Christ in the house of his parents." Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Beata Beatrix. Exotic and mystical. Eugene Delacroix. "Death of Sardanapalus". Francisco Goya. "Colossus". The image of a romantic hero in painting. Orest Adamovich Kiprensky. "Portrait of Evgr. V. Davydov.

ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX - BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY (7 HOURS)

Realism (3 hours)

Social themes in painting. Gustave Courbet. "Funeral in Ornan". Honore Daumier. Series "Judges and Lawyers". Russian school of realism. Wanderers. Ilya Efimovich Repin. "Barge Haulers on the Volga". Vasily Ivanovich Surikov. Boyar Morozova. Directions in the development of Russian music. Social theme in music. Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky. "Orphan". Appeal to the Russian rite as a manifestation of nationality in music. Nikolai Andreevich Rimsky-Korsakov. "Seeing Shrovetide" from the opera "The Snow Maiden". Historical theme in music. Alexander Porfiryevich Borodin. "Polovtsian Dances" from the opera "Prince Igor". Lyrical-psychological principle in music. Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Ballet "The Nutcracker". The theme of "man and rock" in music. Opera "The Queen of Spades".

Impressionism, Symbolism, Post-Impressionism (2 hours)

The main features of impressionism in painting. Claude Oscar Monet. "Magpie". Pierre Auguste Renoir. "Breakfast of the Rowers". Impressionism in sculpture. August Rodin. "Citizens of the City of Calais". Impressionism in music. Claude Debussy. "Gardens in the rain", "Clouds". Symbolism in painting. Gustave Moreau. "Salome" ("Vision"). Post-impressionism. Paul Cezanne. "Bathers". Vincent Van Gogh. "Sower". Paul Gauguin. "Landscape with a Peacock".

Modern (2 hours)

The embodiment of the idea of ​​absolute beauty in Art Nouveau. Gustav Klimt. "Beethoven Frieze". Modern in architecture. Victor Horta. Tassel's mansion in Brussels. Fedor Osipovich Shekhtel. The building of the Yaroslavl railway station in Moscow. Antonio Gaudi. Cathedral of the Holy Family in Barcelona. Myth-making is a characteristic feature of Russian Art Nouveau in painting. Valentin Alexandrovich Serov. Odysseus and Nausicaa, The Rape of Europa. Mikhail Alexandrovich Vrubel. "Demon". The specifics of Russian modern in music. Alexander Nikolaevich Scriabin. "Poem of Ecstasy".

ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE XX CENTURY (6 HOURS)

Modernism (5 hours)

Modernism in painting. A new vision of beauty. Aggression of color in Fauvism. Henri Matisse. "Dance". Vibration of the pictorial surface in expressionism. Arnold Schoenberg. "Red Look". Deformation of forms in cubism. Pablo Picasso. "Avignon Girls" Refusal of pictorialism in abstractionism. Wassily Vasilyevich Kandinsky. "Composition No. 8". Irrationalism of the subconscious in surrealism. Salvador Dali. "Tristan and Isolde". Modernism in architecture. The constructivism of Charles Edouard Le Corbusier. Villa Savoy in Poissy. "Soviet constructivism" by Vladimir Evgrafovich Tatlin. Tower of the III International. Organic architecture by Frank Lloyd Wright. "House over the waterfall" in Ber-Ran. Functionalism by Oscar Niemeyer. Brasil City Ensemble. Modernism in music. Stylistic heterogeneity of music of the 20th century. Dodecaphony of the "New Viennese school". Anton von Webern. "The Light of the Eyes" "New Simplicity" by Sergei Sergeevich Prokofiev. Ballet Romeo and Juliet. Philosophical music of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich. Seventh Symphony (Leningrad). Polystylistics of Alfred Garrievich Schnittke. Requiem.

Synthesis in the art of the XX century. Director's theater of Konstantin Sergeevich Stanislavsky and Vladimir Ivanovich Nemirovich-Danchenko. Moscow Art Theatre. Performance based on the play by Anton Pavlovich Chekhov "Three Sisters". The epic theater of Bertolt Brecht. "A kind man from Sichuan." Cinema. Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein. Battleship Potemkin. Federico Fellini. Orchestra rehearsal.

Postmodernism (1 hour)

The postmodern worldview is a return to mythological origins. New types of art and forms of synthesis. Andy Warhole. "Press the lid before opening." Fernando Botero. "Mona Lisa". Georgy Puzenkov. "Tower of Time Mona 500". Salvador Dali. The Mae West Room at the Dalí Theatre-Museum in Figueres. Yuri Leiderman. Performance "Hasidic Duchamp".

TOTAL

: 35

TYPOLOGY OF LESSONS

IN THE SYSTEM OF ARTISTIC AND PEDAGOGICAL SUPER-TASK

The lessons of world artistic culture are not similar to each other, nor to the lessons of other subject areas. By designing lessons, the development of students is indirectly projected. And in this context, the semantic center is extremely important, the idea that underlies the interaction of the teacher with the children, inspiring and guiding him. This is a kind of artistic and pedagogical super-task.

There are four types of artistic and pedagogical super-tasks of the lessons of world artistic culture in the 11th grade. This is immersion, comprehension, comparison, generalization.

The artistic and pedagogical super-task of immersion is set by the teacher in the case when the inspiring idea of ​​the lesson is the emotional and figurative living of an artistic masterpiece, the personal and semantic penetration into its aura, its deep essence, its style. In the process of such immersion, the effect of presence is achieved, enhanced by the subjective perception of each participant in the lesson (both students and teachers). The emotional coloring of knowledge allows us to bring the studied eras and styles as close as possible to us, to experience them "here and now".

Musical, poetic accompaniment contributes to greater emotional saturation and openness of the boundaries of the lesson, giving rise to a personal vision of a work of art.

The artistic and pedagogical super-task of comprehension has a pronounced cognitive and creative character. In the course of lessons built on this semantic dominant, there is not only mastering, but also a personal rethinking of works of art and those cultural and historical conditions, thanks to or despite which they were created. Such lessons are extremely important for the formation and development of a teenager's worldview.

Comprehension involves the use of children's knowledge about the studied cultural phenomenon and the active stimulation of their abilities for reasoning and independent analysis of the features of art monuments.

The artistic and pedagogical super-task of comparison is aimed at the emotional and analytical comparison of artistic images, their style-forming features, the stages of development of art forms, and the ideological foundations of cultural epochs.

The artistic and pedagogical super-task of generalization is the semantic core of the final lessons in various thematic sections. Lessons based on such a super-task allow you to:

1) generalize the socio-cultural experience accumulated by students by the time of studying a specific artistic and historical material;

2) activate the emotional and cognitive baggage received in the MHC course;

3) reach a new level of understanding of the central artistic image of the era.

For the successful implementation of the artistic and pedagogical super-task, the type of lesson is important. We have chosen four types: image-model, research, contemplation, panorama. A flexible ratio of the type of lesson and the set super-task has proved its effectiveness in practice, increasing the level of emotional responsiveness and creative activity of students.

In an image-model lesson, it is important to find an emotional and artistic grain that most accurately embodies the semantic dominant of the topic. An architectural detail, a pictorial technique, a literary or musical form can act as such a grain.

The lesson, built according to the type of image-model, gives the teacher the opportunity to holistically cover both the content and the emotional-figurative context of the material, and the students - to fully and deeply experience the work, style, era, while finding an echo of their own thoughts and feelings in the subject of art.

In an image-model lesson, one can organically combine the emotional and rational aspects of the perception of artistic culture.

As part of the research lesson, it is important not to slip into the didactic tone of the presentation of the material. This type of lesson places special demands on the teacher. The study of the masterpieces of world artistic culture in the classroom is a process of thoughtful study, constant reasoning and reflection of the teacher together with the children. The teacher in the context of the lesson (we mean both informative, and artistic, and emotional-figurative context) does not declare the truth, but constantly involves the children in the process of discovering it, making only small comments from time to time.

It is proposed to combine group work with independent, individual work in this type of lessons, which can be organized with the help of individual maps - a cognitive-creative map, a reflection map, a research map.

Just like an image-model lesson, a contemplation lesson most fully reflects the nature of art and is designed primarily for external, sensual influence. You cannot teach children the art of contemplation with the help of instructions and imposed schemes. This process is as individual and unique as every child, every person on earth is unique. At the lessons of contemplation, both intonation and a special benevolent atmosphere are important, allowing you to freely express your opinion and ask questions. Any work of art exists not only in its material form (on canvas, in stone, in musical notation, in words, on film, etc.). It truly begins to live and reveal its deep, true meaning at the moment of its perception.

Such artistic and pedagogical techniques include artistic and emotional contemplation, artistic and figurative comparison, artistic and psychological observation.

A broad overview, which allows one to cover the works of one or several styles, different types of art, is simply necessary in the context of studying the world's artistic culture. Such lessons are contained in each thematic section of the course. They, as a rule, are appropriate for final, generalizing topics or for topics that include a wide range of works and images.

Classification by types of lessons of the thematic section "Renaissance Artistic Culture"

Contemplation

- Lesson 33

Explanatory note

The course of world artistic culture systematizes knowledge about culture and art obtained in educational institutions that implement programs of primary and basic general education in the lessons of fine arts, music, literature and history, forms a holistic view of world artistic culture, the logic of its development in a historical perspective, about its place in the life of society and every person.

The developing potential of the course of world artistic culture is directly related to the ideological nature of the subject itself, on the basis of which various historical and regional systems of world perception are modeled, captured in vivid images. Taking into account the specifics of the subject, its direct access to the creative component of human activity, the program focuses on active forms of learning, in particular on the development of perception (function - active viewer / listener) and interpretive abilities (function - performer) of students on the basis of updating their personal emotional, aesthetic and socio-cultural experience and their assimilation of elementary techniques for analyzing works of art. In this regard, the program in the headings "experience of creative activity" provides an approximate list of possible creative tasks on relevant topics.

In terms of content, the program follows the logic of historical linearity (from the culture of the primitive world to the culture of the twentieth century). In order to optimize the load, the program is based on the principles of highlighting the cultural dominants of the era, style, national school. On the example of one or two works or complexes, the characteristic features of entire eras and cultural areas are shown. Domestic (Russian) culture is considered inextricably linked with world culture, which makes it possible to appreciate its scale and general cultural significance.

The study of world artistic culture at the level of secondary (complete) general education at the basic level is aimed at achieving the followinggoals :

development of feelings, emotions, figurative-associative thinking and artistic and creative abilities;

education of artistic and aesthetic taste; the need to master the values ​​of world culture;

mastering knowledge about styles and trends in the world artistic culture, their characteristic features; about the peaks of artistic creativity in domestic and foreign culture;

mastering the ability to analyze works of art, evaluate their artistic features, express their own judgment about them;

the use of acquired knowledge and skills to broaden one's horizons, consciously form one's own cultural environment.

The author of the program and textbook offers an originaltypology of MHC lessons : image-model, research, contemplation, panorama. This typology is taken into account in planning.

As a result of the study of world artistic culturethe student must:

Know/Understand:

main types and genres of art;

studied trends and styles of world artistic culture;

masterpieces of world art culture;

features of the language of various types of art.

Be able to:

recognize the studied works and correlate them with a certain era, style,

direction.

establish stylistic and plot connections between works of different types of art;

use various sources of information about world art culture;

perform educational and creative tasks (reports, messages).

Use the acquired knowledge in practical activities and everyday life to:

choosing the paths of their cultural development;

organization of personal and collective leisure; expressing one's own opinion about the works of classics and contemporary art;

Requirements for the level of mastering the subject

Graduates will learn:

navigate the cultural diversity of the surrounding reality, observe the various phenomena of life and art in educational and extracurricular activities, distinguish between true and false values;

organize their creative activity, determine its goals and objectives, choose and put into practice ways to achieve them;

think in images, make comparisons and generalizations, highlight individual properties and qualities of a holistic phenomenon;

perceive aesthetic values, express an opinion on the merits of works of high and popular art, see associative connections and be aware of their role in creative activity.

personal results Art studies are:

a developed aesthetic sense, manifesting itself in an emotionally valuable attitude to art and life;

realization of creative potential in the process of collective (or individual) artistic and aesthetic activity in the embodiment (creation) of artistic images;

assessment and self-assessment of artistic and creative opportunities; the ability to conduct a dialogue, argue your position.

Graduates will learn:

to accumulate, create and transmit the values ​​of art and culture (enriching one's personal experience with emotions and experiences associated with the perception, performance of works of art); feel and understand their involvement in the world around them;

use the communicative qualities of art; act independently in the individual fulfillment of educational and creative tasks and work in a project mode, interacting with other people in achieving common goals; show tolerance in joint activities;

participate in the artistic life of the class, school, city, etc.; analyze and evaluate the process and results of their own activities and correlate them with the task.

Artistic Culture of the Ancient World (14 hours)

Mesopotamia (1 hour)

The Mesapotamian ziggurat is the home of the god. Realism of images of wildlife - the specificity of the Mesopotamian fine arts

Ancient Egypt (2 hours)

Ancient India (2 hours)

Ancient America (1 hour)

Ancient Greece (4 hours)

Ancient Rome (2 hours)

Roman house plan. Fresco and mosaic are the main means of decoration. sculptural portrait.

Artistic Culture of the Middle Ages (14 hours)

Byzantine central-domed temple as the abode of God on earth. Space and topographic symbols.

Generalization on the topic "The Artistic Culture of Byzantium and Ancient Russia"

Western Europe (4 hours)

New art - Ars nova (3 hours).

Artistic culture of the Far and Near East in the Middle Ages (3 hours).

China (1 hour)

The interaction of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese architecture. Architecture as the embodiment of the mythological and religious and moral ideas of the Ancient Whale

Japan (1 hour)

Ancient East (2 hours)

Calendar - thematic distribution of the number of hours

Notes

(ICT, etc.)

the date

plan

fact

1st quarter "Artistic culture of the primitive world" (3 hours)

Myth is the basis of early ideas about the world. Ancient images in vertical and horizontal models of the world: world tree, world mountain, road. The rite of fertility as a reproduction of the primary myth

Image-model

Know: what role did myths play in the life of primitive people, what myths belong to the category of cosmogonic ones. World tree, world mountain, road.

EUM "Mythological thinking and the primitive picture of the world", card-scheme of the horizontal model of the world, card-scheme of the vertical model of the world, text of the ritual dedicated to Osiris

Folklore as a reflection of the primary myth. "The Tale of Princess Nesmeyana". Slavic agricultural rites: Christmas time, Shrovetide, Semik, the feast of Ivan Kupala.

Study

Know: Slavic rituals - Christmas time, Shrovetide, Rusal Week, Semik, Ivan Kupala. Folklore as a reflection of the primary world.

Texts of the rites of Christmas time, Shrovetide, Rusal Week, Semik, Ivan Kupala.

The birth of art. Artistic image as the main means of cognition and comprehension of the world in primitive art. Rock art of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Imagery of architectural primary elements.

Panorama

Know: what forms of art are characteristic of the primitive world, how the artistic images of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic reflect the conditions of life in these periods.

EUM "Syncretism of primitive art", images of rock art of the caves of Altamira and Lasko, images of Stonehenge

2. Artistic culture of the ancient world (14 hours)

Mesopotamia (1 hour)

The Mesapotamian ziggurat is the home of the god. Realism of images of wildlife - the specificity of Mesopotamian fine arts

Study

Know: what features are characteristic of architectural structures in the cities - states of Mesopotamia, what they are due to.

Flash diagram of a ziggurat model, depictions of the ziggurats at Ur and Etemenank, flash diagram of the Ishtar Gate

Ancient Egypt (2 hours)

The embodiment of the idea of ​​eternal life in the architecture of necropolises. The ground temple is a symbol of the eternal self-rebirth of the god Ra.

Image-model

Know: what was the funeral cult of the ancient Egyptians, how the architecture of Egyptian necropolises reflects the idea of ​​eternal life.

Flash diagram of the pyramid model, EUM "Pyramids - monuments of the immortality of the pharaohs", images of the pyramid in Giza, the temple of Amun-Ra in Karnak

Magic. Decor of the tombs. The canon of the image of a figure on a plane.

Study

Know: how the design of the tombs of the nobility changed in different periods of Egyptian culture, what elements of the decor of sarcophagi indicate their role as a talisman of "sacred remains"

OMC “Ancient Egyptian canon. Painting, relief and sculpture", the image of the tomb of RamsesIX in the Valley of the Kings

Ancient India (2 hours)

The Hindu temple is a mystical analogue of the body-sacrifice and the sacred mountain. The role of sculptural decoration.

Image-model

Know: hindu temple architectural forms, hindu temple decor

EUM "The Art of Ancient India", images of the Kandarya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho

Buddhist religious buildings are a symbol of the cosmos and the divine presence. Features of divine plasticity and painting.

Image-model

Generalization

Know: the history of the emergence of Buddhism, the main types of Buddhist temple architecture, their difference.

Image of a large stupa at Sanchi, a fresco painting of the cave temples of Ajanta

2nd quarter Ancient America (1 hour)

The temple culture of Mesaamerica Indians as the embodiment of the myth of the sacrifice that gave life.

Panorama

Know: which determines the architectural appearance of the temples on the territory of the Central Mexican plateau.

Image of the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan, a Mayan complex in Palenque

Cretan-Mycenaean culture (1 hour)

Cretan-Mycenaean culture and decor as a reflection of the myth.

Study

Know: the birth of the Crete-Mycenaean culture, the myth of the abduction of Europa.

Images of the Knossos Palace-Labyrinth, the palace of King Agamemnon in Mycenae

Ancient Greece (4 hours)

Greek temple - an architectural image of the union of people and Gods

Study

Know: the main features of the architectural orders that arose in Greece during the archaic period, what gods Greek temples were dedicated to, what characteristic features the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis had.

Flash-scheme of the Athenian Acropolis, the image of the Parthenon

Evolution of Greek Relief from Archaic to High Classical

Study

Know: what new did Phidias bring to the relief, why his work is considered the pinnacle of Greek plastic art, what idea was expressed by the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon.

Image of the temple of Athena at Selinunte, the temple of Zeus at Olympia, the friezes and metopes of the Parthenon

Sculpture of Ancient Greece from archaic to late classic.

Contemplation

Know: ancient Greek sculptors and their works (Polikleitos, Phidias, Skopas), as a sculpture, allows us to imagine the worldview of the Greeks in the era of early, high, late classics.

EUM "Outstanding sculptors of Ancient Greece", images of kouros and kors, "Dorifor" by Polikleitos; "Torso of the Goddess" by Phidias; "Maenad" by Scopas

Synthesis of Eastern and ancient traditions in Hellenism. Gigantism of architectural forms. Expression and naturalism of sculptural decoration.

Panorama

Know: characteristic features of Hellenistic art, what pictorial techniques were used by Hellenistic sculptors to convey drama and expression.

Depiction of a sleeping hermaphrodite, Venus of Melos, an altar to Zeus in Pergamon

Ancient Rome (2 hours)

Features of Roman urban planning. Public buildings of the times of the republic and the empire.

Image-model

Know: what structures created the appearance of the cities of Ancient Rome, what architectural element was the core of any Roman structure.

Images of the Roman Forum, Pantheon, Colosseum

Roman house plan. Fresco and mosaic are the main means of decoration. Sculptural portrait.

Contemplation

Know: what was the architectural feature of the Roman house, what artistic means did the Romans use to decorate their dwellings.

Images of the House of the Vettii and the House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii, depiction of portraits of Brutus, Augustus, Constantine the Great

Early Christian Art (1 hour)

Types of Christian churches: rotunda and basilica. Christian symbolism. Mosaic decor.

Panorama

Know: what types of churches became widespread in the era of early Christianity, what is common in the decor of early Christian churches of any type, what places stand out especially when decorating the interior with mosaics in the central-domed churches, in basilicas.

Images of the mausoleums of Constance in Rome and Galla Placidia in Ravenna, an image of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome

3. Artistic culture of the Middle Ages (14 hours)

Byzantium and Ancient Russia (7 hours)

holy cathedral

Image-model

Know: what are the features of the Byzantine style, what determines the cosmic symbolism of the Byzantine cathedral, how the decor of the cross-domed church reflects the symbolic idea of ​​the Eternal Church.

Flash-scheme of the Byzantine temple, images of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople

Temporary symbolism of the cross-domed church. Byzantine style in mosaic decor.

Contemplation

Know: how the earthly life of Jesus Christ is reflected in the architecture of the cross-domed church.

Images of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna and Hagia Sophia in Kyiv

Byzantine style in the icon painting of Ancient Russia.

Study

Know: what pictorial techniques in the Byzantine temple created the atmosphere of the supersensible world, what is the reason for the transition from colorful face modeling to linear stylization.

EUM "Our Lady of Vladimir", the image of the deesis of the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin by Theophan the Greek

Formation of the Moscow school of icon painting. Russian iconostasis.

Study

Know: how the difference in the perception of the Day of Judgment manifests itself in the works of Theophan the Greek and Andrei Rublev, why Rublev is considered the creator of the Russian iconostasis.

Flash-scheme "Iconostasis of the Orthodox Church", EUM "Andrei Rublev" Trinity "", the image of the Savior of the Zvenigorod rank

Stylistic diversity of the cross-domed churches of Ancient Russia. Moscow architectural school.

Contemplation

Know: architectural temple structures of the early 16th century. Cathedral of the Savior Not Made by Hands of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery, Cathedral of the Assumption, Cathedral of the Archangel, Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye.

EUM "Temples of Ancient Russia", images of the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the Church of the Transfiguration in Novgorod, images of the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin, EUM "Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye"

Fresco paintings on the theme of the Magnification of the Virgin. Znamenny chant.

Contemplation

Know: what is a "fresco", the artist Dionysius, his work.

Presentations "Frescoes of Dionysius in the Ferapontov Monastery"; EUM “Old Russian Music. Znamenny chant "

Generalization on the topic "The Artistic Culture of Byzantium and Ancient Russia".

Panorama

Be able to: answer questions correctly.

EUM “Architecture of Ancient Russia. Practical task”, EUM “Old Russian icon painting. Practical task”, EUM “Old Russian music. Znamenny chant. Practical task.

Western Europe (4 hours)

pre-roman culture. "Carolingian Renaissance". Architecture, mosaic and fresco decor.

Panorama

Know: on what grounds the Aachen chapel is perceived as a replica of the architecture of Ancient Rome, how do the basilicas of the "Carolingian Renaissance" differ from the early Christian ones.

Images of the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen, the Basilica of Saint-Michel de Cux in Languedoc, the Church of St. Johann in Müster

Roman culture. Displaying the life of a person of the Middle Ages in the architecture of monastery basilicas, bas-reliefs, frescoes, stained glass windows.

Image-model

Know: how the main idea of ​​the cultural development of the western and eastern areas was expressed in the architecture and decoration of the Romanesque basilica and the Byzantine cathedral, what role did the stone decoration of the Romanesque basilica play.

Flash-scheme "Model of the Romanesque temple", EUM "Romanesque style in architecture", the image of the Church of St. Apolsten in Cologne, the Abbey of St. Pierre in Moissac

Gothic. Gothic temple - an image of the world. Architecture and sculptural decoration of the Gothic temple. The interior decor of the temple: stained glass windows, sculpture and tapestries. Gregorian chant.

Image-model

Know: the difference between a Gothic cathedral and a Romanesque basilica (in terms of ideological content, functions, decor), what role did stained glass windows play in the interior of a Gothic cathedral.

Flash-scheme "Model of a Gothic temple", EUM "Artistic culture of the Middle Ages. Gothic style", image of the Church of Saint-Denis near Paris, Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, EUM "Music of the Middle Ages"

Generalization on the topic "The Artistic Culture of Western Europe in the Middle Ages".

Panorama

Be able to to do practical work on the topic

EUM “Romanesque style in architecture. Practical creative work",

New art - Ars nova (3 hours).

Proto-Renaissance in Italy. The aesthetics of Ars is new in literature. The ancient principle of "imitating nature" in painting.

Contemplation

Know: how a new humanistic thinking appeared in literature, what is Giotto's innovation.

Text of 1, 5 and 32 songs of Dante's Inferno, depiction of the frescoes of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua by Giotto

Allegorical cycles Ars nova on the theme of the Triumph of Repentance and the Triumph of Death. The musical current Ars nova.

Contemplation

Know: what semantic parallel can be seen between the painting and music of Ars nova.

Images of Andrea da Boi nauti Triumph of Repentance, Master of the Triumph of Death, Camposanto Cemetery in Pisa

The specificity of Ars is new in the north.

Contemplation

Know: What determines the features of Ars nova in the Netherlands, what features inherent in the Gothic style are preserved by the Ghent altarpiece by Jan van Eyck, why the Ghent altarpiece by Jan van Eyck is considered a model of Renaissance painting.

Image of the altarpiece by Jan van Eyck "Adoration of the Lamb"

4. Artistic culture of the Far and Near East in the Middle Ages (3 hours).

China (1 hour)

The specificity of Ars is new in the north.

Image-model

The interaction of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese architecture. Architecture as the embodiment of the mythological and religious and moral ideas of Ancient China.

EUM “The Artistic Culture of China. Mythology and Philosophy", an image of the Temple of Heaven in Beijing

Japan (1 hour)

Japanese gardens as the quintessence of Shinto mythology and philosophical and religious beliefs of Buddhism.

Contemplation

Know: why gardens are a special kind of Japanese art, how the idea of ​​finding an “empty heart” finds expression in the arrangement of philosophical gardens.

Images of the Paradise Garden of Byodoin Monastery in Uji, Ryoanji Philosophical Rock Garden in Kyoto, Pines and Lute Tea Garden near Kyoto

Ancient East (2 hours)

The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of mosques.

Contemplation

Know: what differences exist in the organization of the internal space and the decor of the column of the mosque and the basilica, what decorative means did the architects resort to to create the image of the Garden of Eden in domed mosques.

Flash-scheme "Model of the Mosque", the image of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, the Umayyad Mosque in Cordoba, the Alhambra Palace in Granada

The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces.

(complete the final task on the culture of the Middle East)

Generalization

Know: what elements formed the image of the Garden of Eden in the Alhambra.

Emokhonova L. G. World art culture: program for grades 10 - 11: secondary (complete) general education (basic level) .- M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2007. - 16 p.;

Emokhonova L. G. World art culture: a textbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level). - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2009. - 240 p.

Emokhonova L. G. World artistic culture: a workbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level). - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008. - 48 p.

Albanese M. Ancient India. From the origin to the 13th century / M. Albanese.-M.,-2003.

Barskaya N.A. Plots and images of ancient Russian painting / N.A. Barskaya.-M., 1993.

Bongard-Levin G.M. Ancient civilizations / G.M. Bongard-Levin. - M., 1989.

Gnedich P.P. World History of Arts / P.P. Gnedich.-M., 1996.

Gombrich E. History of Art / E. Gombrich.-M., 1998.

Lyubimov L. D. The Art of the Ancient World / L. D. Lyubimov.-M., 1997.

China. Land of the Heavenly Dragon / ed. E.L. Shaughnessy.-M., 2001.