Carthage. History of the Phoenicians in North Africa

Carthage arose several centuries before the small Gallic settlement of Lutetia, which later became Paris. It already existed in those days when the Etruscans appeared in the north of the Apennine Peninsula - the Romans' teachers in art, navigation and crafts. Carthage was already a city when a furrow was made around the Palatine Hill with a bronze plow, thereby performing the ritual of founding the Eternal City.

Like the beginning of any of the cities, whose history goes back centuries, the founding of Carthage is also associated with a legend. 814 BC e. - The ships of the Phoenician queen Elissa moored near Utica, a Phoenician settlement in North Africa.

They were met by the leader of the Berber tribes who lived nearby. The local population had no desire to allow a whole detachment that arrived from across the sea to a permanent settlement. However, to the request of Elissa to allow them to settle there, the leader agreed. But with one condition: the territory that aliens can occupy must be covered with the skin of only one bull.

The Phoenician queen was not at all embarrassed and ordered her people to cut this skin into the thinnest strips, which they then laid out on the ground in a closed line - tip to tip. As a result, a rather large area came out, which was enough to lay a whole settlement, called Birsa - “Skin”. The Phoenicians themselves called it "Karthadasht" - "New City", "New Capital". After the name it was transformed into Carthage, Cartagena, in Russian it sounds like Carthage.

After a brilliant operation with the skin of a bull, the Phoenician queen took another heroic step. Then the leader of one of the local tribes wooed her to strengthen the alliance with the newcomer Phoenicians. After all, Carthage grew and began to gain respect in the district. But Elissa refused female happiness, chose a different fate. In the name of establishing a new city-state, in the name of the exaltation of the Phoenician people, and so that the gods would sanctify Carthage with their attention and strengthen royal power, the queen ordered a large fire to be built. For the gods, as she said, ordered her to perform the rite of sacrifice ...

And when a huge fire flared up, Elissa threw herself into the hot flame. The ashes of the first queen - the founder of Carthage - fell into the ground, on which the walls of a powerful state soon grew, which survived centuries of prosperity and died, like the Phoenician queen Elissa, in a fiery agony.

This legend has no scientific confirmation yet, and the most ancient finds that were obtained as a result of archaeological excavations date back to the 7th century BC. e.

The Phoenicians brought knowledge, craft traditions, a higher level of culture to these lands and quickly established themselves as skilled and skilled workers. Along with the Egyptians, they mastered the production of glass, excelled in weaving and pottery, as well as in leather dressing, patterned embroidery, and the manufacture of bronze and silver products. Their goods were valued throughout the Mediterranean. The economic life of Carthage was built as a rule on trade, agriculture and fishing. It was in those days that olive groves and orchards were planted along the banks of present-day Tunisia, and the plains were plowed up. Even the Romans marveled at the agrarian knowledge of the Carthaginians.

Hardworking and skillful inhabitants of Carthage dug artesian wells, built dams and stone water tanks, grew wheat, cultivated orchards and vineyards, erected multi-storey buildings, invented various mechanisms, observed the stars, wrote books...

Their glass was known throughout the ancient world, perhaps even more so than Venetian glass in the Middle Ages. The colorful purple fabrics of the Carthaginians, the secret of which was carefully concealed, were valued incredibly highly.

The cultural impact of the Phoenicians was also of great importance. They invented the alphabet - the same alphabet of 22 letters, which served as the basis for the writing of many peoples: for Greek writing, and for Latin, and for our writing.

Already 200 years after the city was founded, the Carthaginian state becomes prosperous and powerful. The Carthaginians founded trading posts in the Balearic Islands, they captured Corsica, and eventually began to take over Sardinia. By the 5th century BC. e. Carthage had already established itself as one of the largest empires in the Mediterranean. This empire covered a significant territory of the present Maghreb, had its possessions in Spain and Sicily; The fleet of Carthage through Gibraltar began to enter the Atlantic Ocean, reached England, Ireland and even the coast of Cameroon.

He had no equal in the entire Mediterranean. Polybius wrote that the Carthaginian galleys were built in such a way “that they could move in any direction with the greatest ease ... If the enemy, fiercely attacking, crowded such ships, they retreated without endangering themselves: after all, light ships are not afraid of the open sea. If the enemy persisted in the pursuit, the galleys turned around and, maneuvering in front of the formation of enemy ships or covering him from the flanks, again and again went to ram. Under the protection of such galleys, heavily loaded Carthaginian sailing ships could go to sea without fear.

Everything went well for the city. At that time, the influence of Greece, that constant enemy of Carthage, greatly decreased. The rulers of the city maintained their power through an alliance with the Etruscans: this alliance was a kind of shield that blocked the Greeks from reaching the trading oases of the Mediterranean. In the east, things also went well for Carthage, but in that era, Rome turned into a strong Mediterranean power.

It is known how the rivalry between Carthage and Rome ended. The sworn enemy of the famous city, Mark Porcius Cato, at the end of each of his speeches in the Roman Senate, no matter what was said, repeated: “But still I believe that!”.

Cato himself visited Carthage as part of the Roman embassy at the end of the 2nd century BC. e. Before him appeared a noisy, prosperous city. Large trade deals were concluded there, coins of different states settled in the chests of money changers, the mines regularly supplied silver, copper and lead, ships left the stocks.

Cato also visited the provinces, where he could see rich fields, lush vineyards, orchards and olive groves. The estates of the Carthaginian nobility were in no way inferior to the Roman ones, and sometimes surpassed them in luxury and splendor of decoration.

The senator returned to Rome in the most gloomy mood. Going on a journey, he hoped to see signs of the decline of Carthage - that eternal and sworn rival of Rome. For more than a century there has been a struggle between the two most powerful powers of the Mediterranean for the possession of colonies, convenient harbors, for dominance at sea.

This struggle went on with varying success, but the Romans were able to permanently oust the Carthaginians from Sicily and Andalusia. As a result of the African victories of Aemilian Scipio, Carthage paid Rome an indemnity of 10 thousand talents, gave away its entire fleet, war elephants and all Numidian lands. Such crushing defeats were supposed to bleed the state, but Carthage was reborn and strong, which means that it will once again pose a threat to Rome ...

So thought the senator, and only dreams of the coming revenge dispersed his gloomy thoughts.

For three years, the legions of Aemilian Scipio besieged Carthage, and no matter how desperately its inhabitants resisted, they could not block the path of the Roman army. The battle for the city continued for six days, and then it was taken by storm. For 10 days, Carthage was given to plunder, and then demolished from the face of the earth. Heavy Roman plows plowed what was left of its streets and squares.

Salt was thrown into the ground so that the Carthaginian fields and gardens would no longer bear fruit. The surviving inhabitants, 55 thousand people, were sold into slavery. According to legend, Aemilian Scipio, whose troops took Carthage by storm, wept, looking at how the capital of a powerful state was dying.

The winners took gold, silver, jewelry, ivory, carpets - everything that had accumulated over the centuries in temples, shrines, palaces and houses. Almost all books and chronicles perished in the fires. The Romans handed over the famous library of Carthage to their allies - the Numidian princes, and since that time it has disappeared without a trace. Only a treatise on agriculture by the Carthaginian Mago has survived.

But the greedy robbers who ravaged the city and razed it to the ground did not rest on this. It seemed to them that the Carthaginians, whose wealth was legendary, had hidden their jewels before the last fight. And for many more years, treasure hunters roamed the dead city.

24 years after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans began to build a new city in its place according to their own patterns - with wide streets and squares, with white-stone palaces, temples and public buildings. Everything that could somehow survive the defeat of Carthage was now used in the construction of a new city, which was already being revived in the Roman style.

In less than a few decades, Carthage, which had risen from the ashes, turned into the second city of the state in beauty and significance. All historians who described Carthage of the Roman period spoke of it as a city in which "luxury and pleasure reign."

But the Roman dominion did not last forever. By the middle of the 5th century, the city was under the rule of Byzantium, and a century and a half later, the first military detachments of the Arabs came here. By retaliatory strikes, the Byzantines again regained the city, but only for three years, and then it remained forever in the hands of the new conquerors.

The Berber tribes met the arrival of the Arabs calmly and did not interfere with the spread of Islam. Arab schools were opened in all cities and even small towns, literature, medicine, theology, astronomy, architecture, folk crafts began to develop ...

During the Arab rule, when the dynasties at war with each other changed very often, Carthage is relegated to the background. Destroyed once again, he could no longer rise, turning into a symbol of majestic immortality. People and ruthless time left nothing from the former greatness of Carthage - the city that ruled over half of the ancient world. Neither the German lighthouse, nor the stone from the fortress wall, nor the temple of the god Eshmun, on the steps of which the defenders of the great ancient city fought to the last.

Now on the site of the legendary city is a quiet suburb of Tunisia. A small peninsula cuts into the horseshoe-shaped harbor of the former military fort. Here you can see fragments of columns and blocks of yellow stone - all that remains of the palace of the admiral of the Carthaginian fleet. Historians believe that the palace was built so that the admiral could always see the ships he commanded. And only a pile of stones (presumably from the acropolis) and the foundation of the temple of the gods Tanit and Baal testify that Carthage was in fact a real place on earth. And if the wheel of history had turned differently, Carthage, instead of Rome, could have become the ruler of the ancient world.

Since the middle of the 20th century, excavations have been carried out there, and it turned out that not far from Birsa, under a layer of ash, a whole quarter of Carthage has been preserved. To this day, all our knowledge of the great city is mainly the testimony of its enemies. And therefore the evidence of Carthage itself is now becoming increasingly important. Tourists come here from all over the world to stand on this ancient land and feel its great past. Carthage is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, and therefore it must be preserved ...

a city in North Africa, according to legend, founded by Dido and Phoenician immigrants from Tire in 853 BC. e., that is, a hundred years before the founding of Rome. The Carthaginians (otherwise called Puns) were good merchants and artisans, and their city flourished. In the III century. BC e. Carthage entered into a struggle with Rome, and three so-called Punic Wars took place, unsuccessful for Carthage and ending with the capture and destruction of this city (146 BC).

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CARTHAGE

slave owner city-state (Phoenician - new city) in the North. Africa, in the 7th - 2nd centuries. BC. one of the largest powers. K. was founded in 825 BC. immigrants from the Phoenician. Thira. Thanks to convenient geographic position K. early became a major center intermediary. trade, maintaining close ties with the countries of the East. Mediterranean, Aegean Bass., Italy and Tartessus. In the 8th - 7th centuries. K. founded a number of colonies on the Mediterranean coast of the North. Africa, as well as on about. Ebes (Ebusus, middle of the 7th century). The withdrawal of colonies secured the dominance of K. for bargaining. ways to the south from the Pyrenees. peninsula, and also allowed to remove from the city those representatives of the social. the lower classes, to-rye could oppose the domination of the aristocracy. In the course of the struggle with the Greeks and Tartessites, representing. in the 7th century a serious threat to the Phoenician colonies in the West. Mediterranean, in the South. Spain, Zap. Spain, Zap. Sicily and Sev. Africa, there was a unit. Phoenician colonies, among which K. occupied a predominant position. K. was an oligarch. state., power in Krom was in the hands of otd. groupings trade.-agricultural. aristocracy, constantly borovsh. among themselves for supremacy and influence. In con. 9th c. BC. in K., perhaps, there was royal power: legends. founder K. Elissa is named in the source. "queen". However, after her death, power is unknown. circumstances passed to the Council of Ten, along with the Crimea, there was also a Council of Elders. In the 2nd floor. 6th c. BC. commander Malach established his military in K. dictatorship based on on nar. militia, but it did not last long and was replaced by an oligarch. the dictatorship of the Magonids, which relied on a mercenary army; with the loss of the Magonid dynasty in fact. power (in the middle of the 5th century BC), the aristocracy of K. created a “republican” system of government. The Council of Ten was transformed into the Council of Thirty, and the Council of Elders was expanded (from 100 to 300 members). Verkhov. perform. power was concentrated in the hands of two elected magistrates - the Suffets. To control the activities of the magistrates, the Council of 104 was created, members of which were appointed special. commissions - pentarchies, replenished. through cooptation. Independent of the will. nar. masses, these organs served as a reliable citadel of the aristocracy. Magistrates were elected on the principle of "nobility and wealth." Nar. the assembly in K. did not play a noticeable role; it acquired power only in the event of disagreement between the magistrates, having in this case the right not only to discuss proposals that were submitted. magistrates-ratami, but also to put forward their own. As a characteristic trait of a political life K. source. unanimously point out bribery and corruption. Large slaveholding was widely developed in K. s.-x. and crafts. production, in which, along with slaves, semi-free dependent producers - bods - were exploited. Along with private workshops, there were also state workshops in K., where the labor of the state was exploited. slaves. Zemledelch. the population of the territories subject to Carthaginia was obliged to pay the Carthaginian authorities a tax in the amount of 0.1 of the grain harvest. The brutal exploitation by K. of the population of the conquered territories, especially the Libyan peasantry, caused repeated uprisings. Phoenician colonies, located. to the sowing the coast of Africa (Utica, Hippo, Leptis Minor, Leptis Magna), which were part of the Carthaginian state, had a social community close to K. and political structure and, apparently, used ext. autonomy. They had to pay the carthago. authorities tax-duty from their trade. Having defeated the Phocian Greeks in alliance with the Etruscans at the Battle of Alalia (534 BC), and then, having destroyed Tartessus, K. consolidated his dominance in the West. Mediterranean and monopoly position in the Western Mediterranean trade. However, he was defeated. in the Battle of Himera (c. 480), K. was forced to last. time to suspend their attack on the west. Greeks. All R. 5th c. BC. K. resumed the fight for Sicily, to-ruyu he led with varying success with Syracuse approx. 100 years. In the beginning. 3 in. BC. under his rule was almost all of Sicily, except for Syracuse. Sicily was the main the object of the struggle between K. and Rome and in tech. 1st Punic War (264 - 241 BC). Having been defeated. both in Sicily itself and at sea, K. was forced to abandon Sicily in favor of Rome, and also to pay him the means. indemnity. Unrest among the mercenaries, Krym Carthage. Prospect after the end of the war delayed the payment of salaries, served as a signal for a powerful uprising in Libya. peasantry (241 - 238 BC), in which fugitive slaves also took part (the leaders of the uprising were the Libyan Matos and the fugitive slave Spendius). It was also supported by some Phoenicians. cities in Sev. Africa. The authorities of K. suppressed this movement with great difficulty; to conclude. stage of the struggle on-pressure. the uprising was led by one of the largest Carthaginian commanders, Hamilcar Barca, head. in K. democratic. movement and striving. to the resumption of the struggle with Rome. In the 30s - 20s. 3 in. BC. power in K. passed into the hands of a group headed by. Hamilcar Barca, and the democratic leaders who followed him. circles. Soon after the suppression of the uprising of the Libyans, the Carthaginians. armies under the first Hamilcar Barca, and then his successors - Hasdrubal and after the death of the latter - Hannibal, conquered Spain to the river. Iberus, which led the Carthaginians directly. contact with Rome. The siege and capture of Sagunt by Hannibal served as a pretext for the beginning. 2nd Punic War (218 - 201 BC), during which the Romans and Carthaginians fought for dominance in the West. Mediterranean, for predominance in trade and navigation. Intruder to Italy and inflicting a number of crushes on the Romans. defeat (the largest - at Cannes, 216 BC), Hannibal created directly. threat to the existence of Rome. However, he failed to keep the initiative in his hands. The Romans accumulated strength for a retaliatory strike and transferred the war to the territory. Africa. After the defeat under Zama (202 BC), K. was forced to conclude a peace treaty with Rome. However, this condition was violated during the attacks on K. Numidian. King Masinissa, to whom the Carthaginians resisted. Romans, fearful. economic growth. the power of K., used this event as a pretext for the beginning. The 3rd Punic War (149 - 146 BC), as a result of which K. was completely destroyed and the civilization he created almost perished without a trace.

Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tyre. After the fall of Phoenician influence in the Western Mediterranean, Carthage resubordinates the former Phoenician colonies. By the III century BC. e. he becomes the largest state in the west of the Mediterranean Sea, subjugating Southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica. After a series of wars against Rome, it lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e., its territory was turned into the province of Africa. Julius Caesar proposed to establish a colony in his place (it was founded after his death). After the conquest of North Africa by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, Carthage became the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate. It finally lost its name after the conquest by the Arabs.

Location

Carthage is located on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The location of the city made it the leader of the maritime trade in the Mediterranean. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city: one for the military fleet, capable of accommodating 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the coast, which made the city impregnable from the sea.

The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a city hall, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four identical residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times (by some estimates, only Alexandria was larger), and was among the largest cities of antiquity.

State structure

The aristocracy ruled Carthage. The highest body is the council of elders, headed by 10 (later 30) people. The People's Assembly formally also played a significant role, but in fact it was rarely addressed. Around 450 B.C. e. in order to create a counterbalance to the desire of some clans (especially the Magon clan) to gain full control over the council, a council of judges was created. It consisted of 104 people and was originally supposed to judge the rest of the officials after the expiration of their term of office, but subsequently concentrated all power in his hands. The executive (and the highest judicial) power was exercised by two Suffets, they, like the council of elders, were elected annually by open purchase of votes (most likely, there were other officials, but information about this has not been preserved). The Council of the 104 was not elected, but appointed by special commissions - pentarchies, which themselves were replenished on the basis of belonging to one or another aristocratic family. The Council of Elders also elected the commander-in-chief - for an indefinite period and with the broadest powers. The performance of the duties of officials was not paid, in addition, there was a qualification of nobility. The democratic opposition intensified only at the time of the Punic wars and did not have time to play almost no role in history. The whole system was highly corrupt, but the colossal state revenues allowed the country to develop quite successfully.

According to Polybius (i.e., from the point of view of the Romans), decisions in Carthage were made by the people (plebs), and in Rome - by the best people, that is, the Senate. And despite the fact that, according to many historians, Carthage was ruled by the Oligarchy.

Religion

Although the Phoenicians lived scattered throughout the Western Mediterranean, they were united by common beliefs. The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their Phoenician ancestors. Every year for centuries, Carthage sent emissaries to Tire to perform a sacrifice there in the temple of Melqart. In Carthage, the main deities were the pair of Baal Hammon, whose name means "master-fireman", and Tanit, identified with Astarte.

The most infamous feature of Carthage's religion was the sacrifice of children. According to Diodorus Siculus, in 310 BC. BC, during the attack of the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion says: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as a sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation for the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the well-being of both the family and society.”

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a place where several rows of urns were found with the charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was named Tophet. The burials were under the steles, on which the requests accompanying the sacrifices were recorded. It is estimated that the site contains the remains of over 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years. Today, some revisionists argue that the burial site was simply a graveyard for children who were stillborn or who were under the age to be buried in a necropolis. However, it cannot be said with complete certainty that people were not sacrificed in Carthage.

social system

The entire population, according to its rights, was divided into several groups according to ethnicity. The Libyans were in the most difficult situation. The territory of Libya was divided into regions subordinate to the strategists, taxes were very high, their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low. The Sicules - Sicilian Greeks - made up the other part of the population; their rights in the field of political administration were limited by the "Sidon law" (its content is unknown). The Siculi, however, enjoyed freedom of trade. Natives of the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, settlers - in a word, not Phoenicians) was similar to the Siculs - "Sidon law".

Wealth of Carthage

Built on the foundation laid by the Phoenician ancestors, Carthage created its own trade network (it was mainly engaged in the import of metals) and developed it to an unprecedented size. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Approximately 480 BC. e. navigator Himilcon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin. And after 30 years, Hanno, a native of an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships, on which there were 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to establish new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the coast of Africa, Hanno reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the coast of Cameroon.

Entrepreneurship and business acumen helped Carthage become, admittedly, the richest city in the ancient world. At the beginning of the 3rd century [BC. e.] thanks to technology, fleet and trade ... the city moved to the forefront, "says the book" Carthage "(" Carthage "). The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: “Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian.”

Army

The army of Carthage was mostly mercenary. The basis of the infantry was Spanish, African, Greek, Gallic mercenaries, the Carthaginian aristocracy served in the "sacred detachment" - heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of the Numidians, who were considered the most skilled warriors in antiquity, and the Iberians. The Iberians were also considered good warriors - Balearic slingers and cetrati (caetrati - correlated with Greek peltasts) formed light infantry, scutatii (armed with a spear, dart and bronze shell) - heavy, Spanish heavy cavalry (armed with swords) was also very much appreciated. The Celtiberian tribes used the weapons of the Gauls - long two-edged swords. Elephants also played an important role, which were kept in the amount of about 300. The “technical” equipment of the army (catapults, ballistas, etc.) was also high. In general, the Punic army was similar in composition to the armies of the Hellenistic states. At the head of the army was the commander-in-chief, elected by the council of elders, but by the end of the existence of the state, this election was also carried out by the army, which indicates monarchical tendencies.

Story

Carthage was founded by people from the Phoenician city of Tyre at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido. She promised the local tribe to pay a gem for a piece of land bounded by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of location was left to her. After the deal was made, the colonists chose a convenient place for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single oxhide.

The authenticity of the legend is unknown, but it seems unlikely that without the favorable attitude of the natives, a handful of settlers could gain a foothold in the territory allotted to them and found a city there. In addition, there is reason to believe that the settlers were representatives of a political party that was not pleasing in their homeland, and they hardly had to rely on the support of the mother country. According to Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, soon after the founding of the city, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated. Giarb, the leader of the Makaktan tribe, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Elissa, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years.

Judging by the items found during archaeological excavations, at the beginning of its history, trade links connected Carthage with the metropolis, as well as Cyprus and Egypt.

In the VIII century BC. e. the situation in the Mediterranean has changed dramatically. Phoenicia was captured by Assyria and numerous colonies became independent. Assyrian rule caused a massive outflow of population from the ancient Phoenician cities to the colonies. Probably, the population of Carthage was replenished with refugees to such an extent that Carthage was able, in turn, to form colonies itself. The first Carthaginian colony in the western Mediterranean was the city of Ebess on the island of Pitiuss (first half of the 7th century BC).

At the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries. BC e. Greek colonization began. In order to resist the advance of the Greeks, the Phoenician colonies began to unite into states. In Sicily - Panorm, Soluent, Motia in 580 BC. e. successfully resisted the Greeks. In Spain, an alliance of cities led by Hades fought Tartessus. But the basis of a single Phoenician state in the west was the union of Carthage and Utica.

The favorable geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the western Mediterranean (population reached 700,000 people), unite the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain and conduct extensive conquests and colonization.

6th century BC e.

In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and made an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punians were defeated, but Magon reformed the army (now mercenaries became the basis of the troops), an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. in the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessos was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed.

The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was a strict regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade; to this end, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. This brought huge incomes, but greatly hampered the development of subject territories and contributed to the growth of separatist sentiments. During the Greco-Persian wars, Carthage was in alliance with Persia, together with the Etruscans, an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main opponent of the Punians was Syracuse (by 400 BC, this state was at the height of its power and sought to open trade in the west, completely captured by Carthage), the war continued at intervals for almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punians.

3rd century BC e.

In the III century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the intensified Roman Republic. Relations, previously allied, began to deteriorate. For the first time this manifested itself at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began. It was conducted mainly in Sicily and at sea. Quite quickly, the Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of a fleet in Rome. Only by 260 BC. e. the Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila. In 256 BC. e. the Romans moved the fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet, and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. In this battle, as in many previous and subsequent, elephants brought victory (even though the Romans had already encountered them, fighting against Pyrrhus, king of Epirus). Only in 251 BC. e. in the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a big victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory (almost the only one in the entire war) and there was a lull due to the complete exhaustion of both sides.

Hamilcar Barka

In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca (Lightning) became the commander-in-chief of Carthage, thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean towards the Punians, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to put up a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after the defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and paying an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years.

After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, who were led by Hanno. The Carthaginian government made a highly unreasonable attempt to reduce the pay of the mercenaries, which caused a strong uprising - the Libyans supported the army. Thus began the uprising of mercenaries, which almost ended in the death of the country. Hamilcar was again called to power. During the three-year war, he suppressed the uprising, but the Sardinian garrison joined the rebels and, fearing the tribes that lived on the island, recognized the authority of Rome. Carthage demanded the return of the island. Since Rome was looking for an opportunity to destroy Carthage, then under an insignificant pretext in 237 BC. e. declared war. Only by paying 1200 talents to compensate for military expenses, the war was averted.

The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to effectively govern led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly gave him the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, his son-in-law Hasdrubal was chosen as the commander-in-chief of the army. For 16 years (236-220 BC), most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines brought very large incomes, a magnificent army was created in battles. In general, Carthage became much stronger than it was even before the loss of Sicily.

Hannibal

After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander-in-chief. Hamilcar raised all his children - Mago, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - to the spirit of hatred for Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason to start a war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Sagunt - a Greek city and an ally of Rome - the war began. Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around through the Alps to the territory of Italy. There he won a number of victories - at Ticino, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Cannes, Hannibal won a crushing victory, which resulted in the transition to his side of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city - Capua. Fighting took place in both Spain and Sicily. Initially, success accompanied Carthage, but then the Romans managed to win a number of important victories. With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him significant reinforcements, the situation of Carthage became very complicated. The landing of Mago in Italy was unsuccessful - he was defeated and killed in battle. Rome soon moved the fighting to Africa. Having entered into an alliance with the Numidian king Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punians. Hannibal was called to his homeland. In 202 B.C. e. in the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace. Under its terms, they were forced to give Rome Spain and all the islands, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. In addition, they did not have the right to fight with anyone without the permission of Rome.

After the end of the war, Gannon, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, who were hostile to Hannibal, the heads of the aristocratic parties, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. Hopes for revenge were associated with his name. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia in the war, which was an ally of Carthage. But there was one more ally - the king of the Seleucid Empire Antiochus. It was in alliance with him that Hannibal expected to wage a new war, but first it was necessary to put an end to the oligarchic power in Carthage itself. Using his powers as a Suffet, he provoked a conflict with his political opponents and practically seized sole power. His tough actions against corruption among the aristocratic bureaucracy provoked opposition from them. A denunciation was made to Rome about Hannibal's diplomatic ties with Antiochus. Rome demanded his extradition. Realizing that refusal would cause war, and the country was not ready for war, Hannibal was forced to flee the country to Antiochus. There he received practically no powers, despite the great honors that accompanied his arrival. After the defeat of Antiochus, he hid in Crete, in Bithynia, and, finally, constantly pursued by the Romans, was forced to commit suicide, not wanting to fall into the hands of the enemy.

III Punic War

Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to recover quickly and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade has long become an essential branch of the economy, the competition of Carthage greatly hindered its development. His quick recovery was also of great concern. Marcus Cato, who was at the head of one of the commissions investigating the disputes of Carthage, managed to convince most of the Senate that he was still a danger. The question of starting the war was resolved, but it was necessary to find a convenient excuse.

The king of the Numidians, Massinissa, constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; realizing that Rome always supports the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures. All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and decided in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punians were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately filed claims in connection with the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded that all weapons be handed over, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea. After asking for a month to think it over, the Punians prepared for war. Thus began the Third Punic War. The city was superbly fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, of the 500,000 population, only 50,000 survived. A Roman province was created on its territory, ruled by a governor from Utica.

Rome in Africa

Just 100 years after the destruction of Carthage, Julius Caesar decided to establish a colony on the site of the city. These plans were destined to come true only after his death. In honor of the founder, the colony was named "Colonia Julia Carthago" or "Carthaginian colony Julia". Roman engineers removed about 100,000 cubic meters of earth, destroying the top of Birsa to level the surface and destroy traces of the past. Temples and beautiful public buildings were erected on this site. After some time, Carthage became "one of the most luxurious cities of the Roman world", the second largest city in the West after Rome. To meet the needs of 300,000 residents of the city, a circus for 60,000 spectators, a theater, an amphitheater, baths and a 132-kilometer aqueduct were built there.

Christianity reached Carthage around the middle of the 2nd century AD. e. and quickly spread throughout the city. Approximately 155 AD. e. in Carthage, the famous theologian and apologist Tertullian was born. Thanks to his writings, Latin became the official language of the Western Church. In the 3rd century, the Bishop of Carthage was Cyprian, who introduced the system of the seven-level church hierarchy and was martyred in 258 AD. e. Another North African, Augustine (354-430), the greatest Christian theologian of antiquity, combined the creeds of the church with Greek philosophy.

By the beginning of the 5th century AD, the Roman Empire was in decline, and so was Carthage. In 439 a.d. e. The city was captured and plundered by the Vandals. A hundred years later, the conquest of the city by the Byzantines temporarily halted its final fall. In 698 a.d. e. the city was taken by the Arabs, its stones served as material for the construction of the city of Tunisia. In the following centuries, the marble and granite that once adorned the Roman city were looted and taken from the country. Later they were used to build cathedrals in Genoa, Pisa, as well as Canterbury Cathedral in England. Today it is a suburb of Tunisia and an object for tourist pilgrimage.

Carthage today

Just 15 km from Tunisia, on the coast, whitewashed with sea foam, opposite the Bucornina mountain range that guards its peace, stands ancient Carthage.

Carthage was built 2 times. The first time - in 814 BC, by the Phoenician princess Elissa, and was named Carthage, which means "new city" in Punic. Located at the crossroads of the Mediterranean trade routes, it grew rapidly, becoming the main rival of the Roman Empire.

After the destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BC. during the Punic Wars, it was rebuilt as the capital of the Roman colony of Africa and continued to flourish. But in the end, the sad fate of Rome also befell it: A powerful cultural and commercial center was overwhelmed by crowds of barbarians in 430, then it was captured by the Byzantines in 533. After the Arab conquest, Carthage gave way to Kairouan, which became the capital of the new Arab state. So many times they destroyed Carthage, but each time it rose again. It is not for nothing that during its laying, the skulls of a horse and a bull were found - symbols of strength and wealth.

The city is interesting for archaeological excavations. During excavations in the so-called Punic quarter under Roman buildings, Punic water pipes were discovered, the studies of which showed how ingeniously water was supplied to tall (even six-story) houses. At the beginning of our era, the Romans for the first time leveled the place where the ruins of the destroyed in 146 BC were located. Carthage, put expensive retaining fortifications around the hill and built a forum on its flat top.

According to information from ancient history, first-born boys were sacrificed at this place to the patron of the city, the god Baal-Hammon and the goddess Tanit, starting from the 5th century. BC. The whole ritual is expressively described by Gustave Flaubert in the novel "Salambo". Archaeologists during the search on the territory of the Punic burials found about 50,000 urns with the remains of babies. On the restored tombstones, one can discern the symbols of the gods carved with a chisel, the crescent of the Moon or a stylized female figure with raised hands - the symbol of the goddess Tanit, as well as the sun disk - the symbol of Baal-Hammon. Nearby are the harbors of Carthage, which later served the Romans: a trading harbor in the south and a military one in the north.

Attractions

Hill of Beers. Here is the Cathedral of St. Louis. The finds made during the excavations are displayed in the National Museum of Carthage (Musee National de Carthage) on Birsa Hill.

The greatest attention of tourists in Carthage is attracted by the baths of Emperor Antoninus Pius in the Archaeological Park. They were the largest in the Roman Empire after the terms of Trajan in Rome. The aristocracy of Carthage met here for relaxation, bathing and business conversations. Only a few massive marble seats have survived from the building itself.

Next to the baths is the summer palace of the beys: today it is the residence of the President of Tunisia.

Carthage is an ancient city whose name is known to almost everyone. This is a rare occurrence in history. Many cities no longer exist, and their names, as well as their history and significance, have gradually been forgotten. Carthage was included in the list of exceptions to this rule.

Carthage is a Phoenician (also called Punic) city-state that existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia. The founding date of Carthage is indicated precisely - 814 BC. e. Founded by colonists from the Phoenician city of Tyre, led by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tyre after her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, killed her husband Syche to take possession of his wealth.

Location of Carthage

Carthage was founded on a cape with outlets to the sea in the north and south. The location of the city made it the leader of the maritime trade in the Mediterranean. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia. The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters.

Most of the walls were located on the coast, which made the city impregnable from the sea. The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a city hall, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four identical residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times.

Ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time. Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.

The population of the city is unknown.

Carthage, conveniently located in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, at the crossroads of trade and sea routes, gradually began to strengthen and grow rich.

Initially, it was a small city, not much different from other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The city's economy was based mainly on intermediary trade.

The craft was underdeveloped and, in terms of its main technical and aesthetic characteristics, practically did not differ from the eastern one.

There was no agriculture, there was little land for agriculture.

The masters of Carthage did not succeed in creating works of art. Their works did not have any specific features that were different from the general Phoenician ones.

Religion of Carthage

The Carthaginians, like other Mediterranean peoples, imagined the universe divided into three worlds, located one above the other. Perhaps this is the same world serpent that the Ugaritians called Latana, and the ancient Jews called Leviathan.

The earth was thought to lie between two oceans. The sun rising from the eastern ocean, bypassing the earth, plunged into the western ocean, which was considered the sea of ​​darkness and the abode of the dead. The souls of the dead could get there on ships or on dolphins.

The sky was the seat of the Carthaginian gods. Since the Carthaginians were immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tyre, they revered the gods of Canaan, but not all of them. Yes, and the Canaanite gods on the new soil changed their appearance, absorbing the features of local gods.

Enemies of Tyr

Only one feature of the new city stands out, which influenced its future fate: the founders of the city were representatives of the opposition group that was defeated in Tyre. Therefore, from the very beginning, Carthage did not enter the Tyrian state, but occupied an independent position, although it retained spiritual ties with its metropolis.

The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy. However, she hardly existed longer than the life of Elissa Dido, the sister of the Tyrian king, who led the migration and became the queen of the newly founded city. The sources do not report anything about the children of the queen, and the context of Justin directly indicates their absence. With the cessation of the royal family, a republic was established in Carthage.

As the city grew rich, its inhabitants and city officials increased the landholdings around the city, seizing land or renting it from local tribes.

Power in Carthage was in the hands of the trade and craft oligarchy. The governing body is the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, the declaration of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected Suffet magistrates. Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civil, not involving control over the army. Together with the commanders of the army, they were elected by the people's assembly.

In the VII-VI centuries. BC. the Carthaginians began an active offensive policy in North Africa.

Along the sea coast towards the Pillars of Hercules (Strait of Gibraltar in our opinion), as well as behind them on the Atlantic coast, Carthaginian colonies were founded. By the end of the 7th c. BC. there were Carthaginian colonies on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco (This is the Face near the present city of Al-Araysh (Laroche). An unnamed settlement (Carian Wall?) was also found near the city of as-Suweira (Mogador).).

The emergence of predatory ambitions. Wars of Carthage

In the middle of the VI century. BC. the Carthaginians, under the leadership of Malchus, waged war against the Libyans and, apparently, as a result of the victory, they achieved exemption from paying rent for city land, which they had previously had to regularly contribute to one of the local tribes. At the end of the VI century. BC. the long-term struggle with Cyrene, a Greek colony in North Africa, for the establishment of a border between the two states was also completed. The border was significantly moved away from Carthage to the east, towards Cyrene.

In the same centuries, Carthage also strengthened on the Iberian Peninsula, where the Phoenician colonies, led by Hades (now Cadiz), even before that had been stubbornly fighting against Tartessos for trade routes to the British Isles, which were rich in tin. Tire and Carthage provided the inhabitants of Hades with all kinds of support. Having defeated Tartessus on land, they subjected him to a blockade and captured part of his territory. In the middle of the 7th century BC e. Carthage founded its own colony of Ebess (now Ibiza) in the Balearic Islands, off the coast of Spain. These islands were also captured by Carthage from Tartessus.

In the second half of the 7th c. BC. the Carthaginians decided to gain a foothold on the peninsula. Hades took this step of Carthage as a threat to his monopoly position in the international trade in non-ferrous metals and stubbornly resisted Carthage. But the Carthaginians took Hades by storm and destroyed its walls. After that, other Phoenician colonies on the Iberian Peninsula were undoubtedly under the rule of Carthage.

Further progress of the Carthaginians in this area was stopped by the Greek (Phocaean) colonization of the Mediterranean coast of the peninsula. Around 600 BC e. the Phocians inflicted a series of serious defeats on the Carthaginian fleet and stopped the spread of Carthaginian influence in Spain. The foundation of the Phocian colony on the island of Corsica interrupted for a long time the Carthaginian-Etruscan ties.

Trade policy

Carthage can well be called a trading state, since in its policy it was guided by commercial considerations. Many of his colonies and trading posts were no doubt founded for the purpose of expanding trade.

It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. So in the agreement concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was provided that Roman ships should not sail to the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage.

In the event of a forced landing anywhere else in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, they immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize the boundaries of Rome and respect its people, as well as its allies. The Carthaginians made agreements and, if necessary, made concessions.

They also resorted to force in order to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their fiefdom, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the coasts of Spain and Italy adjacent to it. They also fought against piracy. Carthage, did not show due attention to coinage.

Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century BC. BC, when silver coins were issued, which, if the surviving specimens are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coin of Athens and other states, and most transactions were made through direct barter.

Carthage before the Punic Wars

In the VI century BC. e. The Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and made an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punians were defeated, but Magon I reformed the army, an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. in the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated.

The Carthaginian-Etruscan coalition significantly changed the political situation in the Western Mediterranean. After the battle of Alalia, off the coast of Corsica, the dominance of the Greeks (Phocaeans) on the Mediterranean routes was destroyed. After that, Carthage launched a new attack on Sardinia, where colonies were founded on the coast and numerous small Punic settlements in the interior of the island.

The victory at Alalia isolated Tartess politically and militarily, and in the late 30s - early 20s of the 6th century. BC e. the Carthaginian invaders literally wiped Tartess from the face of the earth, so that the search for archaeologists trying to find its location has not yet yielded satisfactory results.

Trade remained the main source of wealth for Carthage. Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture based on the widespread use of slave labor.

There was a regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade; to this end, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. During the Greco-Persian wars, Carthage was in alliance with Persia, together with the Etruscans, an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades.

The main opponent of the Punians were Syracuse, the war lasted at intervals for almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punians.

Rome goes to Carthage

In the III century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the intensified Roman Republic. Relations began to deteriorate. For the first time this manifested itself at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. But in 264 BC. e. started First Punic War. It was conducted mainly in Sicily and at sea. The Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of Rome's fleet. Only by 260 BC. e. the Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila.

In 256 BC. e. the Romans moved the fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet, and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. Only in 251 BC. e. in the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a big victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory and there was a lull.

Hamilcar Barka

In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca became the commander-in-chief of Carthage, thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean towards the Punians, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to put up a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after the defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and paying an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years. After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, who were headed by Gannon.

Ineffective management led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly gave him the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain.

He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, his son-in-law was chosen as the commander-in-chief of the army. Hasdrubal. For 16 years, most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines delivered very large incomes, a strong army was created in battles. In general, Carthage became much stronger than it was even before the loss of Sicily.

Hannibal Barka

After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander-in-chief. All his children - Magon, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - Hamil kar brought up in the spirit of hatred for Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason for war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Sagunt - a Spanish city and an ally of Rome - the war began.

Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around through the Alps to the territory of Italy. There he won a number of victories - at Ticinum, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Cannes, Hannibal inflicted a crushing defeat on the Romans, which resulted in the transition to the side of Carthage of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city, Capua.

With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him significant reinforcements, the situation of Carthage became very complicated.

Campaigns of Hannibal

Rome soon responded with fighting in Africa. Having entered into an alliance with the Numidian king Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punians. Hannibal was called to his homeland. In 202 B.C. e. in the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace.

Under its terms, they were forced to give Rome Spain and all the islands, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. Moreover, they did not have the right to fight with someone without the permission of Rome.

After the end of the war, Gannon, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, who were hostile to Hannibal, the heads of the aristocratic parties, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia in the war, which was an ally of Carthage.

Fall of Carthage

Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to recover quickly and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade has long become an essential branch of the economy, the competition of Carthage hindered its development. His quick recovery was also of great concern. The king of the Numidians, Massinissa, constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; realizing that Rome always supported the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures.

All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and decided in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punians were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately filed claims in connection with the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded that all weapons be handed over, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea.

After asking for a month to think it over, the Punians prepared for war. This is how it started III Punic War. The city was fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, of the 500,000 population, 50,000 were taken prisoner and became slaves. The literature of Carthage was destroyed, with the exception of a treatise on agriculture written by Mago. A Roman province was created on the territory of Carthage, ruled by a governor from Utica.

What's left of Carthage

Carthage was very unfavorable to many. His position allowed him to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, which made it impossible for foreign ships to sail further west.

Compared with many famous cities of antiquity, Punic Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. The Romans methodically destroyed the city. And then they created in its place their own, Roman Carthage, based on the same place in 44 BC. In Roman Carthage, intensive construction was carried out, which destroyed the traces of the great city. But the place is not empty even now, Carthage exists.

Existed in those places 2500 years ago.

"Carthage was at one time the richest city in the world. Agriculture, which was the basis of its well-being, was considered an honorable occupation.

The turbulent history of Carthage - now a clean and prosperous suburb, located 20 kilometers from Tunis - began in 814 BC. Queen Dido or Elissa, pursued by her brother, the ruler of the Phoenician city of Tyre, Pygmalion, landed on the northern coast of Tunisia after long wanderings. Dido asked the local king to give her asylum and allow her to build a house. The king did not want to agree to anything. Then Dido asked to give her as much land as the skin of a bull could cover. The king was in a good mood and was delighted with the new entertainment. Dido ordered the largest bull to be slaughtered, and then she cut his skin into very narrow strips, and surrounded a large area with them. According to the legend of the founding of the city, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox-skin would cover, took possession of a large area by cutting the skin into narrow belts. That is why the citadel put on this place was called Birsa (which means "skin").

So, according to legend, Carthage was founded.
CHAPTER 1

HISTORY OF ANCIENT CARTHAGE

1.1 ANCIENT CARTHAGE.

Carthage (meaning "new city" in Phoenician) was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tire. The Romans called it Carthago, the Greeks called it Carchedon.

After the fall of Phoenician influence in the Western Mediterranean, Carthage resubordinates the former Phoenician colonies. By the III century BC. e. he becomes the largest state in the west of the Mediterranean, subjugating southern Spain, northern Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica.

The city was surrounded by a 34-kilometer strip of walls nine meters thick and fifteen meters high. Inside the walls there were several hundred war elephants in pens, forage warehouses; there were stables for four thousand horses and barracks for 20 thousand infantrymen. Our minds hardly comprehend what expenditure of energy and human lives it took the Romans to crush these fiercely defended cyclopean structures.

Situated on a lightly guarded peninsula with an unlimited supply of fish, ancient Carthage prospered, becoming one of the richest cities in the world at that time. However, the wealth of Carthage haunted the city's longtime rivals. And Rome waited in the wings - in 146 BC. after more than a century of fighting, Rome destroyed the city.

In IV BC. e. the city of Carthage expanded greatly and began to be populated by merchants, artisans and landowners. Near Birsa, a vast residential area of ​​Megara, built up with multi-storey buildings, arose. Carthage developed as a large slave-owning state, which owned many colonies. The merciless exploitation of enslaved peoples and the slave trade provided a huge influx of wealth. In the ancient Roman annals, the Carthaginians are called Puns and characterize them as cruel and treacherous enemies who do not know mercy for the vanquished. As a military-trade and slave-owning power, Carthage constantly needed a fleet and an army. Carthage had a first-class fleet and army, which kept the peoples subject to Carthage in unconditional obedience. The army was recruited from among foreign mercenaries. From each oh nationalities formed a special kind of troops. For example, the Libyans made up the infantry, the Numidians - the cavalry. The inhabitants of the Balearic Islands supplied detachments of slingers - stone throwers to the Carthaginian army. The multi-tribal, multi-lingual Carthaginian army was controlled by local leaders, commanded by Carthaginian commanders and officers. The Punic Carthaginians did not carry out ordinary military service. The Carthaginian army had permanent units armed with stone-throwing and ramming machines to take fortresses. Special units of the army had war elephants, which were used to break through enemy ranks and exterminate enemy manpower during the battle.

Even more important was the navy. In navigation, the Carthaginians used the age-old experience of the Phoenicians. They were the first to build large five-deck ships - penthers, which easily overtook and destroyed Roman and Greek triremes and galleys in battle. The flagships of the Carthaginians were seven-deck and were called heptera.

The National Museum of Carthage, located on the hill of Byrsa, where the fortress used to be, is a great place to start exploring these places. The museum presents an extensive collection of archaeological finds - ceramics, oil lamps, utensils, mosaics - reflecting the features of the life of the Carthaginians more than a millennium ago.

Enormous reservoirs have been preserved in the ruins of Carthage. A group of such tanks is located near the suburbs of Mars, and has more than 25 tanks. Another group is located near the suburb of Malga. There were at least 40 containers here. Not far from them are the ruins of a large aqueduct that supplied water to Carthage from a ridge in the mountains of the Tunisian Atlas. The aqueduct has a total length of 132 km. Water was supplied by gravity, passing through several large valleys, where the aqueduct had a height of more than 20 m. This aqueduct was founded by the Carthaginians, rebuilt in 136 AD. e. Romans (under Emperor Hadrian, 117-138). Under the emperor Septimius Severus (193-211) it was rebuilt again. The aqueduct was destroyed and rebuilt by vandals. The ruins of the aqueduct are still striking in their grandiose size. It was the longest aqueduct in ancient times. The second longest aqueduct is located near Rome.
At the very top of the Carthaginian Upland, near the village of Sidi Bou Said, at a considerable distance from Birsa, there are the ruins of early Christian religious buildings. This is the Basilica of Damos el Carita. It was a huge building: about 65 m long and at least 45 m wide. The basilica had nine naves. The central nave had a span of 13 m. To the south of this nave was the apse of the basilica. Four columns point to the iconostasis that once stood here.

There are only two monuments of the Punic era in Carthage - the ruins of the temples of Tanit and Baal-Hammon and the cemetery of the victims of the goddess Tanit (each family, including the royal family, sacrificed a baby).

Tinnit (Tanit) is a strange goddess. It is not known how her cult came about. Tinnit was identified with Astarte, goddess of fertility and love in Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine; in Hellenistic times - with the mother of the gods Juno, with Aphrodite Urania or Artemis.

She is a virgin and at the same time a wife; "eye and face" of the supreme deity, Baal-Hammon, goddess of the moon, sky, fertility, patroness of childbearing.

At the same time, Tinnit does not shine with female beauty and article. An ancient sculptor depicted her as a squat woman with a lion's head; later, the "great mother" was represented as a winged woman with a lunar disk in her hands. On various images, Tinnit is surrounded by monstrous creatures: winged bulls, elephants flying with their trunks up, fish with human heads, many-legged snakes.

Modern Tunisia, on the territory of which Carthage was once located, is a small prosperous Mediterranean state, which, not without reason, is called "the most European country in North Africa."
1.2 CITY AND STATE

Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the mainland, it had an advantageous geographical position that favored trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further west.

Compared with many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from the Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 G BC. the Romans methodically destroyed the city, and in the Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC, intensive construction was carried out. G The city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls with a length of approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was heavily fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. In the quarter called Megara, there were many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. Ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time (the ancient ships should have been kept on land if possible). Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.

Regions and cities.The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians proper - approximately correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the authority of the city. When the ancient authors speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they certainly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies here - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage managed (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean.

Carthaginian power was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was located more than 300 km east of Ei (modern Tripoli). Between it and the Atlantic Ocean, the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors.

The colonies and trading posts were for the most part located at a distance of about one day's sail from each other. Usually they were on islands near the coast, on capes, in the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country, from where it was easy to get to the sea. For example, Leptis, located near modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final seaside point of the great caravan route from the interior, from where merchants brought slaves and golden dust. This trade probably began in the early stages of Carthage's history.

The power consisted of Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilibey and other well-fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island (it happened that almost all of Sicily was in its hands, except Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage also established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were denied access to the island. At the beginning of the 5th c. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks entrenched themselves on the eastern coast.

Apparently, when creating their power scattered over different territories, Carthage did not set other goals than establishing control over them for the sake of obtaining the maximum possible profit.

CHAPTER
II

CARTHAGE CIVILIZATION

2.1Agriculture.

The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. Of the grain crops, wheat and barley were the most important. Some grain was probably delivered from Sicily and Sardinia. The wine produced for sale was of average quality. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or from the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine, even special laws against drunkenness were passed, for example, prohibiting the use of wine by soldiers. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here.. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage.

Unlike republican Rome, in Carthage small farmers did not form the backbone of society. Most of the African possessions of Carthage were divided among the wealthy Carthaginians, whose large estates were managed on a scientific basis. A certain Magon, who probably lived in the 3rd c. BC, wrote a manual on farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wishing to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered that this manual be translated into Latin. Excerpts from the work, cited in Roman sources, indicate that Magon used the Greek manuals on agriculture, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and dealt with all aspects of agricultural production. Probably, as tenants, or sharecroppers, local residents worked - Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably suggested specialization: the more hilly areas were set aside for orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.

In addition to the houses, temples and palaces of the nobility, there were many workshops in the city: they processed iron, copper, lead, bronze and precious metals, forged weapons, dressed leather, wove and dyed fabrics, made furniture, ceramic dishes, jewelry from precious stones, gold , ivory and glass.

Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and destined for marketing in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all the markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the bright purple paint commonly known as "Tyrian purple", is known in the later period, when the Romans ruled North Africa, but it can be considered that it existed before the fall of Carthage. The purple snail, a sea snail containing this dye, was best harvested in autumn and winter - seasons not suitable for navigation. In Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex, permanent settlements were founded.

In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction. Archaeologists have not found evidence that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed in the western market closed to outsiders, while many small workshops were marked. It is often very difficult to distinguish Carthaginian products from items imported from Phoenicia or Greece among the finds. Craftsmen were successful in reproducing simple products, and it seems that the Carthaginians were not too eager to make anything other than copies.

Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metal work. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the masters of Ancient Phoenicia, who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metalworkers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. There is evidence of their skill in working iron and bronze. The number of ornaments found during excavations is small, but it seems that this people was not inclined to place expensive items in tombs to please the souls of the dead.

The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns, filled with products that were intended for firing, were found. Every Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found everywhere in the areas that were part of the sphere of Carthage - in Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. Carthaginian pottery is found from time to time on the coast of France and Northern Italy - where the Greeks from Massalia (modern Marseille) occupied a dominant position in trade and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade.

Archaeological finds paint a picture of a stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, goblets, pot-bellied jugs of various purposes, called amphorae, water jugs and lamps. Studies show that their production existed from ancient times until the death of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products for the most part reproduced Phoenician designs, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It seems that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians especially appreciated Greek products, which was manifested in the imitation of Greek ceramics and sculpture and the presence of a large number of Greek products of this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.
2.2 TRADE POLICY

The Carthaginians were especially successful in trade. Carthage could well be called a trading state, since its policy was largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of his colonies and trading posts were no doubt founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In an agreement concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was provided that Roman ships should not sail to the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing anywhere else in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, they immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize the boundaries of Rome and respect its people, as well as its allies.

The Carthaginians made agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force in order to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their fiefdom, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the coasts of Spain and Italy adjacent to it. They also fought against piracy. The authorities kept in good repair the complex structures of the commercial harbor of Carthage, as well as its military harbor, which, apparently, was open to foreign ships, but few sailors entered there.

It is striking that such a trading state as Carthage did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century BC. BC, when silver coins were issued, which, if the surviving specimens are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coin of Athens and other states, and most transactions were made through direct barter.

Goods and trade routes. Specific data on the subjects of trade of Carthage are surprisingly scarce, although evidence of its trading interests is quite numerous. Typical among such evidence is the story of Herodotus about how trade took place on the western coast of Africa. The Carthaginians landed on the shore in a certain place and laid out the goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then local residents appeared and placed a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What these goods were is not mentioned in the story.

Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple pottery for sale or exchange to those western regions where they were monopolists, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and plain glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some - in the Punic colonies. According to a number of accounts, Punic traders offered wine, women and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves.

It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Findings of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships.

Some references in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians brought various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory from Africa was highly valued. During the empire, a huge number of wild animals were brought from Roman North Africa for the device of games. Figs and honey are also mentioned.

It is believed that Carthaginian ships sailed the Atlantic Ocean for tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have shipped some tin to other places where it was needed for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. Ropes for Punic warships were made from esparto grass, which grows in Spain and North Africa. An important article of trade, due to the high price, was purple dye from scarlet. In many areas, traders purchased wild animal skins and skins and found markets for their sale.

As in later times, caravans from the south must have arrived at the ports of Leptis and Aea, as well as Gigtis, which lay somewhat to the west. They carried ostrich feathers, popular in antiquity, and eggs, which served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with ferocious faces and used, as they say, as masks to scare away demons. Caravans also brought ivory and slaves. But the most important cargo was gold dust from the Gold Coast or from Guinea.

Some of the best goods the Carthaginians imported for their own use. Some of the pottery found in Carthage was brought from Greece or from Campagna in southern Italy, where it was made by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles from Rhodes amphoras found during the excavations of Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, high-quality Attic ceramics are not found here.

O culture of the Carthaginiansin the history of ancient Carthage, almost nothing is known. The only lengthy texts in their language that have come down to us are contained in the play of Plautus Punian, where one of the characters, Gannon, utters a monologue, apparently in the authentic Punic dialect, after which he immediately repeats a significant part of it in Latin. In addition, many replicas of the same Gannon are scattered around the play, also with a translation into Latin. Unfortunately, scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only from geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these fragments, the similarity of the Punic language with Hebrew is of great help.

The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be attributed to the sphere of art, these people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes they copied not the best samples. As far as literature is concerned, there is no record of their producing any other writings than purely practical ones, such as Mago's agricultural manual, and one or two smaller Greek compilation texts. We are not aware of the presence in Carthage of something that could be called "belles-lettres."

Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - the Semitic god, known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in Aeneid called Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanit. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifice, which was especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is faith in the effectiveness of cult practice for communicating with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.

2.4 RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER PEOPLES

The oldest rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Hadrumet. It is not clear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.

Alliance with the Etruscans.The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, merchants and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. The main area of ​​their settlement was located directly north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - up to the point where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having entered into an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians - the Greeks who occupied Corsica.

The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC the Romans drove them out of Rome and Latium. Soon after this, the Greeks of southern Italy, with the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. put an end to their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Cum in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a foothold in Sardinia.

Fight for Sicily.Even before the major defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had a chance to measure strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in western Sicily, founded at least no later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Theron in Acragas, clearly foreshadowed the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, similar to what happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared to conquer all of eastern Sicily. They acted in concert with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to a later tradition (no doubt erroneous), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in a land battle at Himera in Sicily occurred in 480 BC. in the same day. Confirming the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Theron and Gelon put up irresistible forces.

A long time passed before the Carthaginians again launched an offensive against Sicily. After Syracuse successfully repelled the Athenian invasion (415-413 BC), having utterly defeated them, they sought to subjugate other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to seek help from Carthage, who was not slow to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At that moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who based the power of Syracuse on cruel tyranny and fought against the Carthaginians with varying success for forty years. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. the Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing full control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity perpetrated by Dionysius were partly offset by the help that he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their struggle with Carthage. Persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who became the successor of his father. However, this again did not reach the goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of hostilities that did not allow talking about the advantage of either side, peace was concluded.

There is an opinion that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from the great campaign in India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other peoples, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps the untimely death of Alexander in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles.

In 311 BC The Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. In Syracuse, the new tyrant Agathocles ruled. The Carthaginians had already besieged him in Syracuse and seemed to have the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles with an army sailed from the harbor and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, creating a threat to Carthage itself. From that moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. the usual war continued with varying success.

In 278 BC the Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek commander Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the South Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself ("Pyrrhic victory"), he crossed to Sicily. There he pushed back the Carthaginians and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with his characteristic fatal inconstancy, he abandoned further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.

Wars with Rome. The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, Italian mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC some of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, the ruler of Syracuse, began to overcome them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians.

The war went on for 24 years (264–241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and at first achieved some success, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures at sea caused by storms, as well as a series of defeats on land (the Carthaginian army in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle off the Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of Sicily. The war brought enormous damage and losses to both sides, while Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC a dangerous uprising broke out, dissatisfied with the delay in the money of the Carthaginian mercenaries, which was suppressed only in 238 BC.

In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca traveled to Spain and began conquering the interior. To the Roman embassy, ​​who appeared with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay an indemnity to Rome as quickly as possible. The wealth of Spain - flora and fauna, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants - could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, a conflict broke out again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC Hannibal, the great Carthaginian commander, traveled overland from Spain through the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army, scoring several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the Battle of Cannae. Nevertheless, Rome did not sue for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of opposition in Italy, moved the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC).

Carthage lost Spain and finally lost the position of a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans were afraid of the revival of Carthage. It is said that Cato the Elder ended each of his speeches in the Senate with the words "Delenda est Carthago" - "Carthage must be destroyed." They say that it was the magnificent Carthaginian olives that led Senator Cato to the idea of ​​the need to destroy Carthage, a prosperous city despite the wars. He visited here as part of the Roman embassy in the middle of the 2nd century BC. e. and collected a handful of fruit in a leather pouch.

In Rome, Cato showed the senators luxurious olives, declaring with disarming frankness: "The land where they grow is located only three days' sea passage." It was on that day that the phrase was first uttered, thanks to which Cato went down in history. Cato understood both olives and the fate of the world: he was an agronomist and a writer...

"... Carthage must be destroyed!" - with these famous words, the consul Cato the Elder ended his historic speech in the Roman Senate. His words turned out to be prophetic - the army of Carthage was defeated. The mighty state of Hannibal, which once conquered all of North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and even Southern Spain, ceased to exist, and the once prosperous Mediterranean Carthage was turned into ruins. Even the ground on which the city stood was ordered to sprinkle with a thick layer of salt.

In 149 BC the exorbitant demands of Rome forced the weakened but still wealthy North African state to enter the third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery and sprinkled the soil with salt. However, five centuries later, Punic was still spoken in some rural parts of North Africa, and Punic blood probably flowed in the veins of many people who lived there. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.
CHAPTER
III

ROMAN CARTHAGE

3.1 CARTHAGE
HOW BIG
Y CITY
OY CENTER
.

Julius Caesar, who had a practical wrinkle, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it senseless to leave such an advantageous place unused in many respects. In 44 BC, 102 years after its death, the city began a new life. From the very beginning, it flourished as the administrative center and port of an area with rich agricultural production. This period in the history of Carthage lasted almost 750 years.

Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the residence of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the view of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial landed estates, which constituted a significant part of the province, was also located here.

Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its environs. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in Carthage in his youth, and later achieved such fame there thanks to his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Mark Cornelius Fronto, tutor of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Severus.

The ancient Punic religion was preserved in a Romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno of Heaven, and the image of Baal merged with Kron (Saturn). Nevertheless, it was North Africa that became the stronghold of the Christian faith, and Carthage gained fame in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century Cyprian was Bishop of Carthage, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin learning in the empire; St. Augustine in his confessions gives us some vivid sketches of the life of students who attended the rhetorical school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century.

However, Carthage remained only a major urban center and had no political significance.The history of Roman Carthage mentionsstories about public executions of Christians, about Tertullian's violent attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent worldly outfits, mentions of some outstanding personalities who ended up in Carthage at important moments in history, but it never rises above the level of a large provincial city. For some time it was the capital of the Vandals (429-533 AD), who, like once pirates, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. Then the Byzantines conquered this area, holding it until Carthage fell under the onslaught of the Arabs in 697.

In 439 AD e. Vandals led by King Genzeric defeated the Roman troops, and Carthage became the capital of their state. A hundred years later, he passed to the Byzantines and vegetated in provincial silence, until the Arabs in 698 again swept him off the face of the earth - this time irrevocably.