Classicism, sentimentalism and romanticism in Russian literature. Formation and development of realism

Lessons 2–3
CLASSICISM, SENTIMENTALISM AND ROMANTISM
IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE. FORMATION
AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF REALISM

Goals : to acquaint students with the main features of classicism, sentimentalism and romanticism as actively fighting literary movements; to show the formation of realism in Russian and world literature, as well as the origin and development of Russian and professional literary criticism.

Course of lessons

I. Checking homework.

2-3 questions (at the choice of students) from homework are analyzed.

II. Teacher's lecture (summary).

Students in notebooks write down the main features of classicism, sentimentalism and emerging romanticism as literary movements. Literary origins of Russian realism.

Last third of the 18th – early 19th centuries - an important period in the development of Russian fiction. Among the writers and the highest nobility, headed by Catherine II, and representatives of the middle and petty nobility, and the townspeople. The works of N. M. Karamzin and D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin and M. V. Lomonosov, V. A. Zhukovsky and K. F. Ryleev occupy “the minds and hearts of readers”*.

On the pages of newspapers and magazines, in literary salons, there is an irreconcilable struggle between supporters of different literary trends.

Classicism (from lat.classicus - exemplary ) is an artistic trend in literature and art of the 18th-early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civic themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules.

The founders and followers of classicism considered the highest example of artistic creativity (perfection, classics) to be the works of antiquity.

Classicism arose (during the era of absolutism), first in France in the 17th century, then spread to other European countries.

In the poem "Poetic Art" N. Boileau created a detailed aesthetic theory of classicism. He argued that literary works are created without inspiration, but "in a rational way, after strict deliberation." Everything in them should be precise, clear and harmonious.

Classicist writers considered the goal of literature to be the education of people in loyalty to the absolutist state, and the fulfillment of duties to the state and the monarch as the main task of a citizen.

According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, strictly adhering to the so-called "hierarchy of genres", tragedy, ode, epic belonged to the "high genres" and had to develop especially significant social problems. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, satire, fable, "designed to reflect modern reality".

Dramatic works in the literature of classicism obeyed the rules of the "three unities" - time, place and action.

1. FEATURES OF RUSSIAN CLASSICISM

Russian classicism was not a simple imitation of Western.

In it, more than in the West, there was criticism of the shortcomings of society. The presence of a satirical stream gave the works of the classicists a truthful character.

From the very beginning, Russian classicism was strongly influenced by the connection with modernity, Russian reality, which was illuminated in the works from the point of view of advanced ideas.

Classicist writers “created images of goodies who were unable to reconcile themselves with social injustice, developed the patriotic idea of ​​serving the motherland, promoted the high moral principles of civic duty and humane treatment of people**.

Sentimentalism (from fr.sentiment - feeling, sensitive ) - an artistic direction in literature and art that arose in Western Europe in the 20s of the 18th century. In Russia, sentimentalism spread in the 70s of the 18th century, and in the first third of the 19th century it occupied a leading position.

While the heroes of classicism were commanders, leaders, kings, nobles, sentimentalist writers showed a sincere interest in the personality, character of a person (ignorant and not rich), his inner world. The ability to feel was considered by sentimentalists as a decisive feature and high dignity of the human personality. The words of N. M. Karamzin from the story "Poor Liza" "and peasant women know how to love" pointed to the relatively democratic orientation of sentimentalism. Perceiving human life as fleeting, writers glorified eternal values ​​- love, friendship and nature.

Sentimentalists enriched Russian literature with such genres as travel, diary, essay, story, household novel, elegy, correspondence, and “tearful comedy”.

The events in the works took place in small towns or villages. Lots of descriptions of nature. But the landscape is not just a background, but wildlife, as if rediscovered by the author, felt by him, perceived by the heart. Progressive sentimentalist writers saw their vocation in comforting people in their suffering and sorrows, turning them to virtue, harmony and beauty.

The brightest representative of Russian sentimentalists is N. M. Karamzin.

From sentimentalism "threads spread" not only to romanticism, but also to psychological realism.

2. THE ORIGINALITY OF RUSSIAN SENTIMENTALISM

Russian sentimentalism is noble-conservative.

Noble writers in their works portrayed a man from the people, his inner world, feelings. For sentimentalists, the cult of feeling became a means of escaping from reality, from those sharp contradictions that existed between the landlords and the serfs, into the narrow world of personal interests, intimate experiences.

Russian sentimentalists developed the idea that all people, regardless of their social status, are capable of the highest feelings. So, according to N. M. Karamzin, “in any state a person can find roses of pleasure.” If the joys of life are also available to ordinary people, then “not through a change in the state and social system, but through the moral education of people lies the path to the happiness of the whole society.”

Karamzin idealizes the relationship between landowners and serfs. The peasants are satisfied with their lives and glorify their landowners.

Romanticism (from fr.romantique - something mysterious, strange, unreal ) is an artistic movement in literature and art that replaced sentimentalism in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and fiercely opposed classicism with its strict rules that hampered the freedom of creativity of writers.

Romanticism is a literary trend brought to life by important historical events and social changes. For Russian romantics, such events were the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising. The views of romantic writers on historical events, on society, on their positions in society were sharply dissimilar - from rebellious to reactionary, therefore, in romanticism, two main directions or currents should be distinguished - conservative and progressive.

Conservative romantics took plots for their works from the past, indulged in dreams of the afterlife, poeticized the life of the peasants, their humility, patience and superstition. They "led" readers away from social struggles into the world of imagination. V. G. Belinsky wrote about conservative romanticism that “this is a desire, aspiration, impulse, feelings, a sigh, a groan, a complaint about imperfect hopes that had no name, sadness for lost happiness .., this is a world .. inhabited by shadows and ghosts, charming and sweet, of course, but elusive nonetheless; it is a dull, slow-flowing, never-ending present that mourns the past and sees no future ahead; finally, it is love that feeds on sadness ... "

Progressive romantics sharply criticized their contemporary reality. The heroes of romantic poems, lyrical poems, ballads had a strong character, did not put up with social evil, called for the struggle for the freedom and happiness of people. (Poets-Decembrists, young Pushkin.)

The struggle for complete freedom of creativity united both progressive and conservative romantics. In romanticism, the basis of the conflict is the discrepancy between dream and reality. Poets and writers sought to express their dream. They created poetic images that corresponded to their ideas about the ideal.

The main principle of constructing images in romantic works was the personality of the poet. The romantic poet, according to V. A. Zhukovsky, looked at reality "through the prism of the heart." So, civil poetry was for him deeply personal poetry.

Romantics were interested in everything bright, unusual and unique. Romantic heroes are exceptional personalities, embraced by generosity and violent passion. The setting in which they were depicted is also exceptional and mysterious.

Romantic poets discovered for literature the wealth of oral folk art, as well as literary monuments of the past, which had not previously received a correct assessment.

The rich and complex spiritual world of the romantic hero required wider and more flexible artistic and speech means. “In the romantic style, the emotional coloring of the word, its secondary meanings, begin to play the main role, while the objective, primary meaning recedes into the background.” Various figurative and expressive means of artistic language are subject to the same stylistic principle. Romantics prefer emotional epithets, vivid comparisons, unusual metaphors.

Realism (from lat.realis - real ) is an artistic direction in the literature and art of the 19th century, which is characterized by the desire for a truthful depiction of reality.

Only from the second half of the XVIII century. we can talk about the formation of Russian realism. Literary criticism defined the realism of this period as enlightenment realism with its citizenship, interest in man, a tendency towards democratization, with tangible features of a satirical attitude to reality.

D. I. Fonvizin, N. I. Novikov, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov and other writers played an important role in the formation of Russian realism. In the satirical magazines of N. I. Novikov, in the comedies of D. I. Fonvizin, in A. N. Radishchev’s “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” in the fables of I. A. Krylov but those patterns that operated in life.

The main feature of realism is the writer's ability to give "typical characters in typical circumstances." Typical characters (images) are those in which the most important features characteristic of a particular historical period for a particular social group or phenomenon are most fully embodied.

A new type of realism emerged in the 19th centurycritical realism , depicting the relationship between man and the environment in a new way. Writers "rushed" to life, discovering in its ordinary, habitual course the laws of the existence of man and society. The subject of deep social analysis was the inner world of man.

Thus, realism (its various forms) has become a broad and powerful literary movement. The true "ancestor of Russian realistic literature, who gave perfect examples of realistic creativity," was Pushkin, the great folk poet. (For the first third of the 19th century, the organic coexistence of different styles in the work of one writer is especially characteristic. Pushkin was both a romantic and a realist, just like other outstanding Russian writers.) The great realists were L. Tolstoy and F. Dostoevsky, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin and A. Chekhov.

Homework.

Answerquestions:

How is romanticism different from classicism and sentimentalism? What are the moods of romantic characters? Tell us about the formation and literary origins of Russian realism. What is the nature of realism? Tell us about its different forms.

Classicism(from Latin "classicus" - exemplary) – one of the most important areas of art, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons and unities. The rules of classicism are designed to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, turning it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire for the idealization of reality, due to the rejection of the image of a complex and multifaceted reality. Classicism dates back to the end of the 16th century. It lasted until the beginning of the 19th century, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.

Romanticism - ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture from the end of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century. Born in Germany. Characterized by the affirmation of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong and rebellious passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.

Philosophy of Romanticism. The category of the sublime is central to romanticism and was formulated by Kant in his Critique of Judgment. Romanticism opposes the enlightenment idea of ​​progress and the tendency to discard everything “obsolete and obsolete” with an interest in folklore, myth, fairy tale, in the common man and in returning to one’s roots and nature. Romantic works are characterized by the rejection of rationality and rigid literary rules.

Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste, complete freedom of creativity.

What is "surrealism" as a cultural phenomenon? Surrealism and psychoanalysis. The main techniques and ideology of surrealism, the ideas of surrealists about creativity. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern socio-cultural situation.

Surrealism - direction in art, formed by the beginning of the 1920s in France. Distinctive features: the use of allusions and paradoxical combinations of forms. Bosch is considered the founder of surrealism.

allusion- a stylistic figure containing an indication, analogy or allusion to some literary, historical, mythological or political fact, enshrined in textual culture or in colloquial speech.

The main concept of surrealism is surreality - the combination of dream and reality. Surrealists offered a controversial combination of naturalistic images through collage and technology " ready-made».

The term "ready-made" in the context of fine arts was first used by the French artist Marcel Duchamp in 1913. to designate their works, which are household items removed from the environment of their normal functioning and exhibited without any changes at an art exhibition as works of art, i.e. moving an object from a non-artistic space to an artistic one. Duchamp's first "ready-made" - "Bicycle Wheel" (1913) "He took a household standard product, placed it in an unusual environment, so much so that its usual meaning disappeared in the new environment. With a new look and a new name, he created a new idea for the subject,” wrote Beatrice Wood.

For example, the poet Vera Pavlova rewrites a note from an encyclopedic dictionary in the form of a poem. This "borrowing" is called found poetry found poetry.

What is "automatic writing" and "unconscious creativity"? "Automatic writing" within the framework of aesthetic and psychiatric ideas. "Unconscious creativity" as a creative principle. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern socio-cultural situation.

The main category of surrealist aesthetics, the main technique, the method of surrealism is automatic writing, i.e. creativity without mind control, when the speed of writing outstrips the speed of the author's reflection. The subconscious for the surrealists is the only source of truth.

Automatic writing is a high-speed writing "according to dictation" of the unconscious, unconscious writing down everything that comes to mind, fixing hallucinations, dreams, daydreams - any images of the imagination.

The main condition for automatic writing is writing speed and no corrections. Breton believed that automatic writing is not only a reification, verbalization of thought, but "thought-speaking".

The theory of automatic writing is connected with the special status of the poet: the poet as a neutral-outside registering apparatus.

It should be noted that often surrealistic works arose as a result of collective creativity.

1) orientation towards mythological creativity;

2) a consequence of automatism;

3) one of the conditions of work is “the interests of the group are above the interests of the individual” and one had to part with one’s own interests;

Formulating the principles of automatic writing, the theorists of surrealism relied on the teachings of the French intuitive philosopher Henri Bergson and on the psychoanalysis of Freud and Jung. The basis of automatic writing is the method of free association, first used by Freud in psychoanalytic sessions. The principle of psychoanalysis developed by Freud was based on the method of free association: when a person, starting from any word or image, expresses everything, indiscriminately, the thoughts that come to his mind. A surrealistic work is also born in the same way: it arises as a result of an arbitrary, from the point of view of logic, combination of various words and images in the text.

What is characteristic of the "Silver Age" of Russian culture? Social and ideological context of the "Silver Age" of Russian culture. Changing the status of "creator" and "creativity" in Russia during the "Silver Age".

During the "Silver Age" people are looking for new grounds for their spiritual and religious life.

The "Silver Age" is the age of oppositions. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Solovyov, a philosopher who had a great influence on the formation of the ideas of the Silver Age, believed that the victory of culture over nature would lead to immortality, since "death is a clear victory of meaninglessness over meaning, chaos over space."

In addition, the problems of death and love were closely connected. “Love and death become the main and almost the only forms of human existence, the main means of understanding it,” Solovyov believed.

Many people sought to break out of everyday life, in search of a different reality. They chased after emotions, all experiences were considered good, regardless of their sequence and expediency. The lives of creative people were rich and filled with experiences. However, the consequence of this accumulation of experiences often turned out to be deep emptiness. Therefore, the fate of many people of the "Silver Age" is tragic. And yet, this difficult time of spiritual wandering gave rise to a beautiful and original culture.

In literature, the realistic trend at the turn of the 20th century was continued by L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created their best works, the theme of which was the ideological search of the intelligentsia and the “little” person with his everyday problems and worries.

Russian literature of the early 20th century produced remarkable poetry. One of the directions of poetry of this time was symbolism. For the symbolists (A. Blok, Z. Gippius), who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was his sign, and represented the connection between the two worlds. Representatives of this trend believed that the "symbols" and "mystical content" of works are the basis of the new art.

Later, a new trend appeared in poetry, which was called "acmeism". This direction was formed in the circle "Workshop of poets". It included N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam and others. They focused on the inherent value of reality. This direction of poetry is characterized by "beautiful clarity" of language, realism and accuracy of details, picturesque brightness of visual and expressive means.

In the 1910s, an avant-garde movement in poetry appeared, which was called "futurism". Futurists denied the social content of art, cultural traditions. They are characterized by anarchist rebellion. In their collective program collections (“Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, “Dead Moon”, etc.), they challenged the so-called “public taste and common sense”. Also, representatives of this trend (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky) liked to experiment with the word.

How does the "psychology of perception", "psychology of thinking", "psychology of decision-making" differ from the "psychology of creativity"? Basic principles and sections of classical, or "functional psychology". Attempts to use the "psychology of perception" and similar areas of psychology to analyze creativity and art.

Psychology of perception - a branch of psychology that studies the process of forming a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception, the entire object is represented as a unit of interaction, in the aggregate of its properties.

Psychology of thinking- a branch of psychology that studies thinking as one of the mental processes aimed at solving problem situations, tasks and consisting in a generalized and mediated cognition of reality. Thinking characterizes not the sensory (sensation, perception, representation), but the abstract-logical level of human cognitive activity. With the help of mental processes: analysis, synthesis, generalization, etc., mental operations (actions) and forms of thinking, sensory-perceptual data are processed. The result of such processing is the reflection of reality in concepts, judgments, theories, etc. One of the most important issues in the psychology of thinking is the description of the content of mental activity. In modern psychology, thinking is considered as the highest mental process. The content of thinking includes:

1) thought processes (analysis, synthesis, abstraction);

2) mental actions, operations (mathematical operations - addition, subtraction);

3) forms of thinking (concept, judgment, conclusion);

4) a system of knowledge and concepts that are interconnected and used by the subject in solving problems;

5) generalized personal characteristics that are updated in the course of thinking (motivation).

Making decisions is recognized by almost all psychologists as the central moment of management. It is by this criterion that the main roles in the labor process are determined: the leader and the subordinate. Decision-making is a complex thought process that involves understanding the problem, setting an adequate goal and choosing the means to achieve it.

The psychology of managerial decision-making is characterized by a number of psychological patterns:

1) for the individual decision maker:

ability to make a decision in difficult conditions (limited time, high risk);

limited rationality (when subjective preferences limit the train of thought);

Irwin's phenomenon (overestimation of the significance and probability of obtaining the desired result, and underestimation of the undesirable result);

Analysis paralysis (when efforts to find a solution are concentrated at a certain stage for a long time);

Decision blindness (shift from the purpose of the decision to the means of achieving it);

· The phenomenon of the favorite alternative (when a method is used that has already achieved positive results).

2) For group decision making:

“grouping” (when people in a group have an individual decision deformed, and there is an illusion of innocence for a poor-quality decision);

unconditional faith in the norms of behavior professed by the group;

stereotyped view of a group member (characterized by open pressure on those who think individually in the group).

Psychology of creativity(eng. psychology of creative activity) - a branch of psychology that studies the creation by a person of a new, original in various fields of activity, primarily in science, technology, art, as well as in everyday life. Also, the psychology of creativity deals with the formation, development and structure of human potential.

Main sections psychology:

§ General psychology;

§ Social Psychology;

§ Age-related psychology;

§ Pedagogical psychology;

§ Labor psychology;

§ Psycholinguistics;

§ Differential psychology;

§ Psychometry;

§ Psychophysiology;

§ Psychology of management.

functional psychology- a direction in psychology that considers the mental life and behavior of a person from the point of view of his active and purposeful adaptation to environmental conditions. (The fundamental ideas of functional psychology belong to the evolutionary doctrine developed by Ch. Darwin and G. Spencer).

Literary directions (theoretical material)

Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism are the main literary trends.

The main features of literary movements :

· unite writers of a certain historical era;

· represent a special type of hero;

· express a certain worldview;

· choose characteristic themes and plots;

· use characteristic artistic techniques;

· work in certain genres;

· are distinguished by the style of artistic speech;

· put forward certain vital and aesthetic ideals.

Classicism

A trend in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, based on samples of ancient (classical) art. Russian classicism is characterized by national-patriotic themes associated with the transformations of the Petrine era.

Distinctive features:

· the significance of themes and plots;

· violation of the truth of life: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image;

· contrived images, schematic characters;

· edification of the work, strict division of heroes into positive and negative;

· the use of a language little understood by the common people;

· appeal to lofty heroic moral ideals;

· nationwide, civic orientation;

· the establishment of a hierarchy of genres: "high" (odes and tragedies), "medium" (elegies, historical writings, friendly letters) and "low" (comedies, satires, fables, epigrams);

· subordination of the plot and composition to the rules of the "three unities": time, space (place) and action (all events take place in 24 hours, in one place and around one storyline).

Representatives of classicism

Western European literature:

· P. Corneille - the tragedy "Sid", "Horace", "Cinna";

· J. Racine - the tragedy "Phaedra", "Midridat";

· Voltaire - the tragedy "Brutus", "Tancred";

· Molière - comedies "Tartuffe", "The tradesman in the nobility";

· N. Boileau - a treatise in verse "Poetic Art";

· J. Lafontaine - "Fables".

Russian literature

· M. Lomonosov - the poem "Conversation with Anacreon", "Ode on the day of accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747";

· G. Derzhavin - ode to "Felitsa";

· A. Sumarokov - the tragedy "Khorev", "Sinav and Truvor";

· Y. Knyazhnin - the tragedy "Dido", "Rosslav";

· D. Fonvizin - comedies "Foreman", "Undergrowth".

Sentimentalism

Direction in literature and art of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. He declared that the dominant “human nature” was not reason, but feeling, and he sought the path to the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality in the release and improvement of “natural” feelings.

Distinctive features:

· disclosure of human psychology;

· feeling is proclaimed the highest value;

· interest in the common man, in the world of his feelings, in nature, in everyday life;

· idealization of reality, subjective image of the world;

· ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature;

· the work is often written in the first person (the narrator is the author), which gives it lyricism and poetry.

Representatives of sentimentalism

· S. Richardson - the novel "Clarissa Harlow";

· - the novel "Julia, or New Eloise";

· - the novel "The suffering of young Werther".

Russian literature

· V. Zhukovsky - early poems;

· N. Karamzin - the story "Poor Lisa" - the pinnacle of Russian sentimentalism, "Bornholm Island";

· I. Bogdanovich - the poem "Darling";

· A. Radishchev (not all researchers attribute his work to sentimentalism, it is close to this trend only in its psychologism; travel notes “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”).

Romanticism

A trend in art and literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, reflecting the artist's desire to oppose reality and dream.

Distinctive features:

· unusual, exotic in the depiction of events, landscape, people;

· rejection of the prosaic nature of real life; expression of the worldview, which is characterized by daydreaming, idealization of reality, the cult of freedom;

· striving for the ideal, perfection;

· strong, bright, sublime image of a romantic hero;

· the image of a romantic hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate);

· contrast in the mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual.

Representatives of romanticism

Western European literature

· J. Byron - poems "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", "Corsair";

· - drama "Egmont";

· I. Schiller - dramas "Robbers", "Cunning and Love";

· E. Hoffman - fantastic story "The Golden Pot"; fairy tales "Little Tsakhes", "Lord of Fleas";

· P. Merimee - short story "Carmen";

· V. Hugo - historical novel "Notre Dame Cathedral";

· W. Scott - historical novel "Ivanhoe".

Russian literature

CLASSICISM(from Latin - first-class, exemplary) - a literary and artistic direction that originated in the Renaissance and continued to develop until the first decades of the 19th century. Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its main signs were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau's treatise "Poetic Art" (1674). Classicism was seen as a direction oriented towards ancient art. In the definition of classicism, they singled out, first of all, the desire for clarity and accuracy of expression, alignment with ancient models and strict obedience to the rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of the “three unities” (“unity of time”, “unity of place”, “unity of action”) were obligatory, which became a symbol of the three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in dramaturgy. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this trend understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, immutable, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmonious composition, a set of certain themes, motifs, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although such prose genres as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, dramatic works and the theater itself are of particular importance in it, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.

The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of "good taste", developed by the so-called "good society". The taste of classicism prefers brevity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity to extravagant - decent. The main law of classicism is artistic plausibility, which depicts things and people as they should be in accordance with the moral norm, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which should turn them into universal universal types.

The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, the semantic fullness of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.

SENTIMENTALISM(from English - sensitive; fr. - feeling) - one of the main trends in European literature and art of the 18th century. Sentimentalism got its name after the publication of the novel "A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy" by the English writer L. Stern. It was in England that this trend received its most complete expression. The main focus of sentimentalist writers is on the life of the human heart; the outer world of nature in their works is closely connected with the inner world of the human soul, with intense interest in the emotional sphere and the experiences of an individual. The sublime beginning, fundamental in the works of theorists of classicism, in sentimentalism is replaced by the category of touching, sympathy for one's neighbor, an appeal to the natural behavior of a person, a craving for virtue. In Russia, all the main works of European sentimentalists were translated as early as the 18th century and enjoyed great readership and had a significant influence on Russian writers. Russian sentimentalism reached its peak in the works of N.M. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”, “Natalia, Boyar's Daughter”, “Letters from a Russian Traveler”, etc.), in the works of M.N. Muravieva, N.A. Lvova, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Dmitriev.

ROMANTICISM- one of the largest, expressive and aesthetically significant trends in European and American art of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century, which gained worldwide distribution and discovered many gifted artists - poets, prose writers and playwrights, painters and sculptors, actors, composers and musicians. A typical sign of romanticism is a sharp dissatisfaction with reality, a constant doubt that the life of society or the life of an individual can be built on the principles of goodness and justice. Another important feature of the romantic worldview should be called the dream of renewing the world and man in defiance of reason and real facts, the desire for a lofty, most often unattainable ideal. A clear awareness of the contradiction between the ideal and reality, the feeling of a gap between them and at the same time the thirst for their reunion is the defining beginning of romantic art.

Romantics have always been attracted by fantastic plots and images, folk tales, parables, fairy tales; they were interested in unknown distant countries, the life of tribes and peoples, the heroic turning points in historical epochs, the fertile and bright world of wildlife, in which they were in love. In their works, the romantics deliberately mixed high and low, tragic and comic, real and fantastic, modifying and updating old genres and creating new ones - a historical novel, a lyrical epic poem, a fairy tale story. They managed to bring literature closer to folklore, change the prevailing ideas about dramatic art, and pave new paths in lyrics. The artistic discoveries of romanticism largely prepared the emergence of realism.

In conditions other than Western European, Russian romanticism arose and developed, which became the main event in literary life in the 1820s. Its most important signs were the less distinctness of the main features and properties and a closer connection with other literary movements, primarily with classicism and sentimentalism. In the history and development of Russian romanticism, researchers usually distinguish three periods. The period of the emergence of the romantic trend in Russia falls on 1801-1815. The founders of Russian romanticism are V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov, who had a great influence on subsequent literature. The years of 1816-1825 became a time of intensified development of romanticism, a noticeable dissociation from classicism and sentimentalism. A striking phenomenon of this period was the prolific literary activity of the Decembrist writers, as well as the work of P.A. Vyazemsky, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova, E.A. Baratynsky, A.A. Delvig. A.S. becomes the central figure of Russian romanticism. Pushkin. In the third period, covering the years 1826-1840, romanticism is most widespread in Russian literature. The crowning achievement of this trend was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov, lyrics by F.I. Tyutchev, early works of N.V. Gogol. In the future, the impact of romantic aesthetics affects the development of Russian literature throughout the 19th century and in the 20th century. Romantic traditions persist to this day.

REALISM(from late Latin - material, real) - the leading literary trend of the XIX-XX centuries, one of the main artistic and creative principles of literature and art, focused on adequate reproduction of the surrounding reality, society as a whole and the human person in its various manifestations in relation to reality and society. It is noteworthy that realism and its theory have become a Russian prerogative. The problems of realistic art occupied a significant place in the literary and aesthetic reflections of V.G. Belinsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, A.I. Herzen, P.V. Annenkova, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.I. Pisareva, A.V. Druzhinina, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.V. Shelgunova, D.S. Merezhkovsky, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.M. Bakhtin, V.M. Zhirmunsky and others. In line with realism and the realistic tradition, despite the distinct manifestation of certain “non-realistic” tendencies, the work of most of the classics of Russian literature of two centuries developed. Striving for a full-fledged, from the point of view of life's truth, comprehension of reality, resorting (though not necessarily) to life-like forms, realism, of course, creates in the reader only the illusion of the depicted reality. Having emerged rather late in the history of culture as one of the leading trends, realism is undergoing constant changes and updates, while revealing a natural “survivability” in a variety of socio-historical conditions.

MODERNISM(from French - the latest) - an aesthetic concept that developed in the 1910s and rapidly developed in the 1920s-1930s. Modernism arose as a result of the revision of the philosophical and aesthetic foundations and creative principles of the artistic culture of the 19th century, which took place during the years 1870-1900. This is evidenced by the history of such schools and trends as impressionism, symbolism, futurism and some others. Despite the noticeable differences in programs and manifestos, all of them are united by the perception of their era as a time of irreversible change, accompanied by the collapse of previous spiritual values. Although there is no program document that would contain the main aesthetic aspirations of modernism, the development of this trend in the culture of the West and Russia reveals the stability of its features, which make it possible to speak of a certain artistic system. Various components of modernism are observed in poetry, and in dramaturgy, and in prose.

POSTMODERNISM(from English, French, German - after the newest) - a term that has been used in recent decades, but still has not received a clear and unambiguous interpretation, the conceptual essence of which boils down to the fact that it is multi-valued and multi-level, influenced by national-historical , social and other circumstances, a complex of aesthetic, philosophical, scientific and theoretical ideas, due to the specifics of the worldview, attitude and assessment of the cognitive capabilities of a person, his place and role in the world around him. The emergence of this trend in literature is usually attributed to approximately the end of World War II, however, as a social and aesthetic phenomenon, postmodernism was recognized in Western culture and reflected as a specific phenomenon only in the early 1980s. In its essence, postmodernism is opposed to realism. In any case, he tries to resist. In this regard, the concepts used by theorists of this direction are not accidental: "the world as chaos", "postmodern sensitivity", "the world as a text", "consciousness as a text", "intertextuality", "crisis of authorities", "author's mask", “parodic mode of narration”, fragmentary narration, meta-narrative, etc.

Vanguard(fr. avant-garde- vanguard) avant-garde- a generalizing name for trends in world art, primarily in European art, that arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The prominent representatives of avant-garde art in literature include:

Futurism - Alexei Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov, Vladimir Mayakovsky;

· Expressionism - Rainer Maria Rilke, early Leonid Andreev.

Dramaturgy

The pioneer of the avant-garde symbolist drama was the Belgian French-speaking playwright Maurice Maeterlinck. Following him, symbolist poetics and attitude are fixed in the dramas of G. Hauptmann, late G. Ibsen, L. N. Andreev, G. von Hoffmannsthal. In the 20th century, avant-garde drama is enriched with the techniques of the literature of the absurd. In the plays of the late A. Strindberg, D. I. Kharms, V. Gombrovich, S. I. Vitkevich, an absurd reality is depicted, the actions of the characters are often illogical. Absurdist motifs received their final expression in the works of French-speaking authors of the so-called. dramas of the absurd - E. Ionesco, S. Beckett, J. Genet, A. Adamov. Following them, absurdist motifs were developed in their dramas by F. Dürrenmatt, T. Stoppard, G. Pinter, E. Albee, M. Volokhov, V. Havel.

Classicism, sentimentalism and romanticism in Russian literature. Formation and development of realism

Goals: to acquaint students with the main features of classicism, sentimentalism and romanticism as actively fighting literary movements; to show the formation of realism in Russian and world literature, as well as the origin and development of Russian and professional literary criticism.

Course of lessons

I. Checking homework.

2-3 questions are analyzed (at the choice of students) from homework.

II. Teacher's lecture (summary).

Students in notebooks write down the main features of classicism, sentimentalism and emerging romanticism as literary movements. Literary origins of Russian realism.

The last third of the 18th - early 19th centuries. - an important period in the development of Russian fiction. Among the writers and the highest nobility, headed by Catherine II, and representatives of the middle and petty nobility, and the townspeople. The works of N. M. Karamzin and D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin and M. V. Lomonosov, V. A. Zhukovsky and K. F. Ryleev occupy “the minds and hearts of readers”* .

On the pages of newspapers and magazines, in literary salons, there is an irreconcilable struggle between supporters of different literary trends.

Classicism(from lat. classicus - exemplary) - an artistic direction in literature and art of the 18th-early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civic themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules.

The founders and followers of classicism considered the highest example of artistic creativity (perfection, classics) to be the works of antiquity.

Classicism arose (during the era of absolutism), first in France in the 17th century, then spread to other European countries.

In the poem "Poetic Art" N. Boileau created a detailed aesthetic theory of classicism. He argued that literary works are created without inspiration, but "in a rational way, after strict deliberation." Everything in them should be precise, clear and harmonious.

Classicist writers considered the goal of literature to be the education of people in loyalty to the absolutist state, and the fulfillment of duties to the state and the monarch as the main task of a citizen.

According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, strictly adhering to the so-called "hierarchy of genres", tragedy, ode, epic belonged to the "high genres" and had to develop especially significant social problems. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, satire, fable, "designed to reflect modern reality".

Dramatic works in the literature of classicism obeyed the rules of the "three unities" - time, place and action.

1. Features of Russian classicism

Russian classicism was not a simple imitation of Western.

In it, more than in the West, there was criticism of the shortcomings of society. The presence of a satirical stream gave the works of the classicists a truthful character.

From the very beginning, Russian classicism was strongly influenced by the connection with modernity, Russian reality, which was illuminated in the works from the point of view of advanced ideas.

Classical writers "created images of goodies who were unable to come to terms with social injustice, developed the patriotic idea of ​​serving the motherland, promoted the high moral principles of civic duty and humane treatment of people** .

Sentimentalism(from fr. sentiment - feeling, sensitive) - an artistic direction in literature and art that arose in Western Europe in the 20s of the 18th century. In Russia, sentimentalism spread in the 70s of the 18th century, and in the first third of the 19th century it occupied a leading position.

While the heroes of classicism were commanders, leaders, kings, nobles, sentimentalist writers showed a sincere interest in the personality, character of a person (ignorant and not rich), his inner world. The ability to feel was considered by sentimentalists as a decisive feature and high dignity of the human personality. The words of N. M. Karamzin from the story "Poor Liza" "and peasant women know how to love" pointed to the relatively democratic orientation of sentimentalism. Perceiving human life as fleeting, writers glorified eternal values ​​- love, friendship and nature.

Sentimentalists enriched Russian literature with such genres as travel, diary, essay, story, household novel, elegy, correspondence, and “tearful comedy”.

The events in the works took place in small towns or villages. Lots of descriptions of nature. But the landscape is not just a background, but wildlife, as if rediscovered by the author, felt by him, perceived by the heart. Progressive sentimentalist writers saw their vocation in comforting people in their suffering and sorrows, turning them to virtue, harmony and beauty.

The brightest representative of Russian sentimentalists - N. M. Karamzin.

From sentimentalism "threads spread" not only to romanticism, but also to psychological realism.

2. The originality of Russian sentimentalism

Russian sentimentalism is gentry-conservative.

Noble writers in their works portrayed a man from the people, his inner world, feelings. For sentimentalists, the cult of feeling became a means of escaping from reality, from those sharp contradictions that existed between the landlords and the serfs, into the narrow world of personal interests, intimate experiences.

Russian sentimentalists developed the idea that all people, regardless of their social status, are capable of the highest feelings. So, according to N. M. Karamzin, “in any state a person can find roses of pleasure.” If the joys of life are also available to ordinary people, then “not through a change in the state and social system, but through the moral education of people lies the path to the happiness of the whole society.”

Karamzin idealizes the relationship between landowners and serfs. The peasants are satisfied with their lives and glorify their landowners.

Romanticism(from fr. romantique - something mysterious, strange, unreal) is an artistic trend in literature and art that replaced sentimentalism in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and fiercely opposed classicism with its strict rules that hampered the freedom of creativity of writers.

Romanticism is a literary trend brought to life by important historical events and social changes. For Russian romantics, such events were the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising. The views of romantic writers on historical events, on society, on their positions in society were sharply dissimilar - from rebellious to reactionary, therefore, in romanticism, two main directions or currents should be distinguished - conservative and progressive.

Conservative romantics took plots for their works from the past, indulged in dreams of the afterlife, poeticized the life of the peasants, their humility, patience and superstition. They "led" readers away from social struggles into the world of imagination. V. G. Belinsky wrote about conservative romanticism that “this is desire, aspiration, impulse, feelings, sigh, groan, complaint about imperfect hopes that had no name, sadness for lost happiness .., this is a world .. inhabited by shadows and ghosts, charming and sweet, of course, but elusive nonetheless; it is a dull, slow-flowing, never-ending present that mourns the past and sees no future ahead of it; finally, it is love that feeds on sadness ... "

Progressive romantics sharply criticized their contemporary reality. The heroes of romantic poems, lyrical poems, ballads had a strong character, did not put up with social evil, called for the struggle for the freedom and happiness of people. (Poets-Decembrists, young Pushkin.)

The struggle for complete freedom of creativity united both progressive and conservative romantics. In romanticism, the basis of the conflict is the discrepancy between dream and reality. Poets and writers sought to express their dream. They created poetic images that corresponded to their ideas about the ideal.

The main principle of constructing images in romantic works was the personality of the poet. The romantic poet, according to V. A. Zhukovsky, looked at reality "through the prism of the heart." So, civil poetry was for him deeply personal poetry.

Romantics were interested in everything bright, unusual and unique. Romantic heroes are exceptional personalities, embraced by generosity and violent passion. The setting in which they were depicted is also exceptional and mysterious.

Romantic poets discovered for literature the wealth of oral folk art, as well as literary monuments of the past, which had not previously received a correct assessment.

The rich and complex spiritual world of the romantic hero required wider and more flexible artistic and speech means. “In the romantic style, the emotional coloring of the word, its secondary meanings, begin to play the main role, while the objective, primary meaning recedes into the background.” Various figurative and expressive means of artistic language are subject to the same stylistic principle. Romantics prefer emotional epithets, vivid comparisons, unusual metaphors.

Realism(from lat. realis - real) is an artistic direction in the literature and art of the 19th century, which is characterized by the desire for a truthful depiction of reality.

Only from the second half of the XVIII century. we can talk about the formation of Russian realism. Literary criticism defined the realism of this period as enlightenment realism with its citizenship, interest in man, a tendency towards democratization, with tangible features of a satirical attitude to reality.

In the formation of Russian realism, D. I. Fonvizin, N. I. Novikov, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov and other writers. In satirical magazines I. Novikova, in comedies by D. I. Fonvizin, in "Journey from Petersburg to Moscow" by A. N. Radishchev, in the fables of I. A. Krylov, the focus is "not just facts, people and things, but those patterns that acted in life."

The main feature of realism is the writer's ability to give "typical characters in typical circumstances." Typical characters (images) are those in which the most important features characteristic of a particular historical period for a particular social group or phenomenon are most fully embodied.

A new type of realism emerged in the 19th century critical realism, depicting the relationship between man and the environment in a new way. Writers "rushed" to life, discovering in its ordinary, habitual course the laws of the existence of man and society. The subject of deep social analysis was the inner world of man.

Thus, realism (its various forms) has become a broad and powerful literary movement. The true "ancestor of Russian realistic literature, who gave perfect examples of realistic creativity," was Pushkin, the great people's poet. (For the first third of the 19th century, the organic coexistence of different styles in the work of one writer is especially characteristic. Pushkin was both a romantic and a realist, just like other outstanding Russian writers.) The great realists wereL. Tolstoy and F. Dostoevsky, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin and A. Chekhov.

Homework.

Answer the questions :

How is romanticism different from classicism and sentimentalism? What are the moods of romantic characters? Tell us about the formation and literary origins of Russian realism. What is the nature of realism? Tell us about its different forms.