The European direction of classicism was based on the ideas of rationalism and the canons of ancient art. It implies strict rules for creating a work of art, which give it conciseness and logic. Attention is paid only to a clear elaboration of the main part, without spraying on the details. The priority goal of this direction is the fulfillment of the social and educational function of art.
The formation of classicism takes place in each united territory, but in different time periods. The need for this direction is felt in the historical period of transition from feudal fragmentation to territorial statehood under absolute monarchy. In Europe, the formation of classicism took place primarily in Italy, but one cannot but note the significant influence of the emerging French and English bourgeoisie.
Classicism in painting
(Giovanni Battista Tiepolo "The Feast of Cleopatra")
In creative searches, sculptors and artists turned to ancient art and transferred its features into their works. This generated a wave of public interest in art. Despite the fact that the views of classicism imply a natural depiction of everything that is presented in the picture, the masters of the Renaissance, like the ancient creators, idealized human figures. The people captured in the paintings are more like sculptures: they “freeze” in eloquent poses, male bodies are athletic, and female figures are exaggeratedly feminine, even in elderly heroes the skin is toned and elastic. This trend, borrowed from the ancient Greek sculptors, is explained by the fact that in ancient times a person was presented as an ideal creation of God without flaws and shortcomings.
(Claude Lorrain "Noon. Rest on the Flight into Egypt")
Ancient mythology also had a significant impact on the formation of style. At the initial stages, it was expressed literally, in the form of mythical plots. Over time, manifestations became more veiled: mythology was represented by ancient buildings, creatures or objects. The later period was marked by a symbolic interpretation of myths: artists conveyed their own thoughts, emotions and moods through individual elements.
(Fyodor Mikhailovich Matveev "View of Rome. Colosseum")
The function of classicism in the bosom of world artistic culture is moral public education, the formation of ethical norms and rules. The regulation of creative laws held a strict hierarchy of genres, each of which contained formal boundaries:
- Low(still life, landscape, portrait);
- High(historical, mythological, religious).
(Nicolas Poussin "The Arcadian Shepherds")
The painter Nicolas Poussin is considered to be the founder of the style. His works are built on sublime philosophical subjects. From a technical point of view, the structure of the canvases is harmonious and complemented by rhythmic coloring. Vivid examples of the master's works: "The Finding of Moses", "Rinaldo and Armida", "The Death of Germanicus" and "The Arcadian Shepherds".
(Ivan Petrovich Argunov "Portrait of an unknown woman in a dark blue dress")
In the Russian art of classicism, portrait images predominate. Admirers of this style are A. Agrunov, A. Antropov, D. Levitsky, O. Kiprensky, F. Rokotov.
Classicism in architecture
The fundamental features of the style are the clarity of lines, clear, uncomplicated forms, and the lack of an abundance of details. Classicism sought to rationally use every square meter of space. Over time, the style has been influenced by different cultures and worldviews of masters from all over Europe. In the architecture of classicism, the following areas are distinguished:
- Palladianism
The initial form of manifestation of classicism, the founder of which is the architect Andrea Palladio. In the absolute symmetry of the buildings, the spirit of the architecture of Ancient Greece and Rome is guessed;
- empire
The direction of high (late) classicism, whose birthplace is considered to be France during the reign of Napoleon I. The royal style combines theatricality and classical elements (columns, stucco, pilasters), arranged in accordance with clear rules and perspective;
- neo-Greek
"Return" of ancient Greek images with features of the Italian Renaissance in the 1820s. The founders of the direction are Henri Labrust and Leo von Klenze. The uniqueness lies in the detailed reproduction of the classics on the parliament buildings, museums, temples;
- regency style
In 1810-1830. developed a style that combines classical trends with French design. Particular attention is paid to the decoration of facades: geometrically correct patterns and ornaments of the walls are complemented by decorated window openings. The emphasis is on the decorative elements framing the front door.
(Stupinigi is a country residence of the monarchs of the House of Savoy, province of Turin, Italy)
The main features of classicism in architecture:
- Majestic simplicity;
- The minimum number of parts;
- Conciseness and rigor of both external and internal decoration of buildings;
- Soft color palette, which is dominated by milky, beige, light gray shades;
- High ceilings decorated with stucco;
- The interior included items exclusively carrying a functional purpose;
- Of the decor elements, royal columns, arches, exquisite stained-glass windows, openwork railings, lamps, carved fireplace grates, light curtains made of plain materials were used.
(Bolshoi Theatre, Moscow)
Classicism is recognized as one of the most common styles throughout the world. In Europe, the vector of development of this direction was influenced by the works of the masters Palladio and Scamozzi. And in France, the architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot was the author of the basic structural solutions for the style. Germany acquired several administrative buildings in the classical style thanks to the masters Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Andrey Zakharov, Andrey Voronikhin and Karl Rossi made an invaluable contribution to the development of this trend in Russia.
Conclusion
The era of classicism left behind many magnificent creations of artists and architects, which can be seen throughout Europe to this day. The most ambitious projects of the late 17th and early 19th centuries took place under the auspices of classicism: city parks, resorts and even new cities were rebuilt. By the 20s of the 19th century, the strict style was diluted with elements of luxurious baroque and renaissance.
Among the artistic styles of no small importance is classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and appeared in almost all types of European and Russian art. Often came into conflict with the Baroque, especially at the stage of formation in France.
The age of classicism in each country is different. First of all, it developed in France - back in the 17th century, a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism was already beginning in other states. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundations for its further development.
What is classicism as a direction?
The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means "exemplary". The main principle was manifested in the appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as a norm to which one should aspire. The authors of works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, conciseness, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator sought to find his place for everything, clear and strictly defined.
The main features of classicism
All types of art were characterized by the following features that help to understand what classicism is:
- a rational approach to the image and the exclusion of everything related to sensuality;
- the main purpose of a person is to serve the state;
- strict canons in everything;
- established hierarchy of genres, the mixing of which is unacceptable.
Specification of artistic features
An analysis of individual types of art helps to understand how the “classicism” style was embodied in each of them.
How classicism was realized in literature
In this art form, classicism was defined as a special direction in which the desire to re-educate with a word was clearly expressed. The authors of works of art believed in a happy future, where justice, freedom of all citizens, and equality would prevail. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature certainly required the observance of three unities: action (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit into a day), place (there was no movement in space). J. Moliere, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia) received more recognition in this style.
The development of classicism in Russia
The new artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, in contrast to Western European, relied more on national traditions. It was in this that his originality manifested itself.
Initially, it came to architecture, where it reached its greatest heights. This was due to the construction of a new capital and the growth of Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, suburban noble estates. Special attention deserves the creation of architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoye Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the spit of Vasilyevsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.
The peak of the architects' activity can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the project of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.
No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schluter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of garden and park art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything is striking in its proportionality and purity of execution.
Literary direction in Russia
The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. Its founders were V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov.
However, the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov made the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is. He developed a system of three calms, which determined the requirements for writing works of art, and created a sample of a solemn message - an ode, which was most popular in the literature of the second half of the 18th century.
The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy "Undergrowth". In addition to the obligatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the following points belong to the features of Russian comedy:
- a clear division of heroes into negative and positive ones and the presence of a reasoner expressing the position of the author;
- the presence of a love triangle;
- the punishment of vice and the triumph of good in the finale.
The works of the era of classicism as a whole have become the most important component in the development of world art.
Jacques Louis David "Portrait of Lavoisier and his wife Marie-Anne", 1788 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Classicism Lavoisier was a chemist known for his research on oxygen, gunpowder and the chemical composition of water. David conveys an almost domestic friendliness to the image of a scientist sitting at a table surrounded by working instruments. His wife is standing next to him. The manuscript lying before Lavoisier is probably his Treatise on Elementary Chemistry, ...
Ivan Fomich Khrutsky "Flowers and Fruits", 1839 Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Classicism Khrutsky's painting "Flowers and Fruits" cannot leave any spectator indifferent. Luxurious still life with objects that the artist especially loved. Faience jug filled with a rich combination of various colors. Nearby is a simple bast tuyesok. There is a huge variety of fruits on the table. Peaches and pears, pumpkin and lemon,…
Pierre Paul Prudhon "Justice and Divine Retribution Pursuing Crime", 1808 Louvre, Paris Classicism This painting occupies an important place in the creative heritage of P. P. Prudhon. The content of the picture, the meaning of the allegory embedded in it, the artist reveals in one of the letters dated 1805. He writes: “Under the roof of night, in a desert landscape, the greedy Crime, having strangled and robbed its victim, ...
John Singleton Copley, Girl with a Bird and a Dog, 1767 Toledo Museum of Art, USA Classicism
Ivan Petrovich Argunov "Portrait of an Unknown Woman in Russian Costume", 1784 Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Classicism The portrait of an unknown woman reflects the interest in the peasant theme that appeared at that time in Russian society. Argunov, who himself came from the serfs of Count Sheremetyev, strove to show in portraits the natural beauty and dignity of a person, regardless of his class affiliation. The image of a peasant woman in this work of the artist ...
Ivan Ivanovich Firsov "Young Painter", 1765-1766 Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Classicism Ivan Firsov's painting "Young Painter" is one of the first works of Russian genre painting. Archival documents testify that the Russian artist Ivan Firsov, decorator of the imperial theaters, lived and worked in Paris in the mid-1760s, where he improved his skills at the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. There…
Virgilius Eriksen "Portrait of Catherine II in front of a mirror", 1762 - 1764 State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg Classicism The name of Catherine the Great, who ruled the country for 34 years, is associated with the entire history of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. In addition, she was one of the most powerful and successful monarchs in Europe of her time. The ideal, hero and example of a statesman for Catherine was ...
Claude Lorrain "Noon (Rest on the Flight into Egypt)", 1661 Hermitage, St. Petersburg Classicism It is no coincidence that the artist chose a holy biblical subject for his sublimely beautiful landscape. And where else could a believing Catholic place the Holy Family for rest - the Virgin Mary, the baby Jesus, the betrothed Joseph and the Angel accompanying them? An idealistic picture of the story with a peacefully grazing herd, majestic trees, graceful ...
Classicism(fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.
Painting
Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome emerged as early as the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens" (1511).
The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the court of Versailles and was continued by court painters like Lebrun, who saw in classic painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although private clients favored variations of the Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept Classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the School of Fine Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for a direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.
The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winkelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, in the second half of the 18th century breathed new breath into classicism (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").
In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor (“Turkish baths”); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (such as, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.
Architecture
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.
The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.
The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaus-Arts).
38. Artistic culture of Europe during the Enlightenment.
Age of Enlightenment- one of the key eras in the history of European culture, associated with the development of scientific, philosophical and social thought. This intellectual movement was based on rationalism and freethinking. Starting in England, this movement spread to France, Germany, Russia and other European countries. Especially influential were the French Enlightenment, who became the "rulers of thoughts." The principles of the Enlightenment were the basis of the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The intellectual and philosophical movement of this era had a great influence on subsequent changes in the ethics and social life of Europe and America, the struggle for the national independence of the American colonies of European countries, the abolition of slavery, and the formation of human rights. In addition, it shook the authority of the aristocracy and the influence of the church on social, intellectual and cultural life.
Actually term education came to Russian, as well as to English ( The Enlightenment) and German ( Zeitalter der Aufklärung) from French ( siècle des lumières) and mainly refers to the philosophical current of the XVIII century. At the same time, it is not the name of a certain philosophical school, since the views of the philosophers of the Enlightenment often differed significantly from each other and contradicted each other. Therefore, enlightenment is considered not so much a complex of ideas as a certain direction of philosophical thought. The philosophy of the Enlightenment was based on criticism of the traditional institutions, customs and morals that existed at that time.
Enlightenment is a social, aesthetic, ideological and cultural movement in the countries of America and Europe, associated with changes in living conditions that have developed under the influence of the collapse of feudal and the formation of capitalist relations in the economy. Historical framework - 1689-1789.
The prerequisites and root causes of aesthetic evolution in society were changes in science, politics, ideology, culture, and art. Culture in the Age of Enlightenment fought for the triumph of the "kingdom of reason", primarily due to the development of science. Its basis was to be the principle of "natural equality", with the principles of political freedom and civil equality arising from it.
Enlighteners were staunch materialists and idealists who recognized the mind as the basis of knowledge and human behavior. The philosophical currents of social thought in the culture of the Enlightenment represented a kind of unity, which was expressed in goals and ideals - freedom, religious tolerance, prosperity and happiness, renunciation of violence, freethinking, as well as a critical look at any authorities.
Scientific knowledge, previously available only to a narrow circle of scientists, is spreading far beyond the confines of laboratories and universities. Science is gradually becoming a subject of discussion among cultural figures, who popularly expound the latest achievements of philosophy and science.
Famous people of the Enlightenment came from different estates and classes: from the aristocracy and nobles, ending with employees of commercial and industrial complexes. In each of the countries, the culture of the Enlightenment era bore the imprint of national identity.
After revolutions and civil wars in the 17th and 18th centuries, contradictions in society smoothed out, parliamentarism developed, which led to the strengthening of political struggle in the legal field. The Church did not oppose itself to the Enlightenment and to a certain extent even corresponded to its ideal of religious tolerance. All this contributed to the rapid development of culture. A balance was maintained between the traditional values, which the church was the guardian of, and the special innovative ones, which were carried by the culture of the Enlightenment.
The artistic culture of the 18th century is a period of breaking up the artistic system that has been erected for centuries: a skeptical and ironic attitude towards everything that was considered chosen and sublime earlier. For the first time, the possibilities of freedom of observation and creativity opened up before the artists. The culture of the Enlightenment used the stylistic forms of the classics, reflecting with their help a completely new content.
The art of Europe in the 18th century combined two opposite principles: classicism, meaning the subordination of a person to a system, and romanticism. In the culture of different peoples, classics and romanticism either formed a kind of synthesis, or existed in all sorts of mixtures and combinations.
A new beginning in the culture of the Enlightenment was also the emergence of currents that did not have their own stylistic form and did not feel the need to generate it. One of the largest currents was, first of all, sentimentalism, which fully reflected the enlightenment ideas about the kindness and purity of human nature, which were lost along with the “natural state” of society, during its gradual separation from nature. Sentimentalism, first of all, addressed the inner, intimate, personal world of human thoughts and feelings, and therefore did not require any special stylistic frills. Sentimentalism was close to romanticism. The “natural” person, sung by him, constantly experiences the tragedy of a collision with the forces of nature and society, with life itself, which prepares great shocks for him. Their presentiment permeates the entire culture of the Enlightenment.
The process of displacement of religion in art by secular ones is a characteristic feature of the culture of the Enlightenment. Secular architecture in the 18th century, for the first time in a long history, takes precedence over religious throughout Europe. Genre painting, which reflected the everyday observations of artists of the lives of real people in the real world, is widely spread throughout European countries, and sometimes even tends to take a dominant place. The place of the Ceremonial portrait, so popular in the past, is occupied by an intimate portrait, and in landscape painting a “mood landscape” appears, represented by such artists as Gainsborough, Guardi, Watteau.
A characteristic feature of the culture of the Enlightenment is the growing attention to the sketch, not only among the artists themselves, but even among critics and art historians. Individual perception, moods, reflected in the sketches, sometimes have an emotional and aesthetic effect than a fully finished work. Engraving and drawing are valued above paintings because they establish a more pronounced connection between the viewer and the artist. The tastes and preferences of the era changed the very requirements for the color of paintings. The artists of the 18th century intensify the decorative perception of color in their works, the paintings begin to decorate the place in which they are located.
The culture of the Enlightenment, embodied in the architecture and painting of the Rococo, was, above all, set up to create comfort for the person who would enjoy these works. Small rooms do not look crowded thanks to the illusions of “playing space”, which is achieved by architects and artists through the use of various artistic means: ornaments, mirrors, panels, special colors, etc. This style has become popular in poor homes, in which he brought the spirit of comfort and coziness without excessive pomposity and luxury.
Another distinctive feature of the culture of the Enlightenment was the display of human sensations and pleasures - spiritual and physical - using artistic means. Starting from the 18th century. both the public and the critics demand from the new painting, music and theater more "pleasant" or "sensual".
In endless disputes between them, modern theories of human rights were born, as an independent citizen and part of civil society, democracy in the rule of law, ethics of individualism and a market economy.
The time of economists, philosophers, sociologists and writers of the Enlightenment came to replace the old ideology, feudalism.
Culture of the Age of Enlightenment.
Con. 17 –beginning 18th century Received the name "Age of Enlightenment" or "Age of Reason"
This period begins in England in 1689. Then it is distributed in France and Germany. And this era ends with the Great French Revolution in 1789.
Signs of the Age of Enlightenment:
· The idea of equality of all people before the law, before other people, society.
The victory of reason. Enlighteners saw getting rid of all social troubles in the dissemination of knowledge. They considered their task to spread knowledge, to teach ordinary people.
· Historical optimism. Representatives of this era believed in the possibility of changing a person for the better, creating a just society.
In political, economic and cultural life, there was a process of abandoning feudal relations and the formation of capitalism.
The Age of Enlightenment was a period of rapid development of philosophy and spirit. to-ry Prominent English philosopher 2nd floor. 17th century was John Locke. In his writings, the English program was formulated. Enlightenment. He believed that a person has three basic rights: to life, to freedom, to property.
The French Enlightenment is represented by:
Ball Louis Montere. He sharply criticized absolutism and despotism and opposed them with the ideals of political freedom.
· Voltaire worked in different genres: tragedy, history. essays, philosopher. novels, political treatises and articles. He opposed the church and clericalism, ridiculed the morality of feudal society, absolutism.
· Jean-Jacques Rousseau - the teaching was reduced to the requirement to bring society out of a state of general corruption of morals. He saw a way out in moral education, material and political equality. He believed that morality depends on politics and social order.
Denis Diderot was a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment. He headed the publication of the 35-volume encyclopedia "Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts". It was a complete body of knowledge about the world around. It was published from 1751 to 1772. The German Enlightenment was formed under the influence of the philosopher Christian Wulff. He combined the cult of reason with a deep respect for the Christian religion. The peculiarity of the German enlightenment is that the initiative to disseminate new ideas came from King Frederick the Great.
Emmanuel Kant, a professor at the University of Königsberg, was a prominent representative of the German Enlightenment. He formed the principles of the moral and intellectual liberation of man. He substantiated the legal forms and methods of struggle for changing the state. and a social order that presupposed a path of gradual reforms excluding violence.
The era of enlightenment was a turning point in the spiritual development of Europe. Enlighteners created a new system of values, addressed to a person and not dependent on his social affiliation. This system became the basis for Western European civilization. Enlighteners paid great attention to art. Because they saw it as an important means of education.
Western European art of the 18th century is represented by the following trends: classicism, sentimentalism, realism.
At the turn of the 17-18 centuries. there are also cultural changes. cultural center of the 18th century. France becomes.
In the 18th century changing attitudes towards different types of arts. Painting gives way to music.
For the 18th century The activity of the following famous violin makers is accounted for: Shati, Stradivali, Guarneri.
For the 18th century Account for the activities of the following musicians: Italian. (Vivaldi), the heyday of the Vienna School (Haydn, Mozart), the German School (Beethoven, Bach).
The opera was reformed by the composer Gluck.
The leading genre of enlightenment literature was the satirical and domestic roiana, the philosophical story and the drama.
The writers of the Enlightenment tried to bring literature closer to life and, through literature, to transform social mores.
German literature is represented by Friedrich Schiller (historical dramas): "The Arlian Maiden", "William Tell", "Mary Stuart".
At this time, the development of the realistic direction began: Jonathan Swift ("Gulliver's Travels"), Daniel Defoe ("Robinson Crusoe").
Many representatives of the Enlightenment, led by Denis Diderot, spoke out against the refined art of the Rococo. They demanded art that would truly reflect life and would have a beneficial effect on society.
The main direction was classicism, which on the eve of Vel. The French Revolution manifested itself in the form of so-called revolutionary classicism. The head of this direction was the French. artist Jean Louis David. His most famous paintings are: on an antique plot (“The Oath of Horace”), in a realistic manner (“The Murder of Marat”).
At this time, the realistic direction in painting by Jean-Baptiste Chardin was developing. He paints still lifes, genre paintings in which he depicts domestic life.
A prominent Spanish artist was 18-19 century. Francisco Goya. He was a court painter, but his paintings were distinguished by sharp characterization and gratesque. The most famous are the etchings (prints) of Goya, which were called Caprices.
Etienne Maurice Falcone was an outstanding French sculptor. He directed the Sèvres porcelain manufactory. He created small plastics from biscuit (not glazed porcelain). He is the author of The Bronze Horseman.
Sentimentalism arose within the framework of the Enlightenment. His followers believed that it was not possible to overcome social disasters and transform society through enlightenment and re-education, and sentimentalists turn their attention to people's feelings. They evaluate a person by his ability to sincerely and deeply experience.
The heroes of the works were unremarkable people. The main genre in literature is the novel in letters. The novels of Richardson and Fielding are very popular.
Sentimentalist writers paid much attention to the landscape.
A prominent French artist of this trend was Jean Baptiste Grezat, and in England - Thomas Gainsborough. They paint female portraits, genre paintings.
European k-ra 19th century.
Historical events in the beginning. 19th century They were associated with the military campaigns of Napoleon 1. After the overthrow of Napoleon, a constitutional monarchy was created in France. In 1848, as a result of the revolution, the Bourgeois King Louis Philippe Bourbon was overthrown. In 1871, an uprising took place in Paris, as a result of which the Paris Commune was created. After the defeat of the commune, a republican form of government is established, which gradually takes on a modern look.
In the 2nd floor. 19th century Austria lost its position as a great power. However, in 1868, by agreement with Hungary, a single state of Austria-Hungary was formed.
CLASSICISM (from the Latin classicus - exemplary), style and artistic direction in literature, architecture and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, classicism is successively associated with the Renaissance; occupied, along with baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Enlightenment. The origin and spread of classicism is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences. The basis of the rationalist aesthetics of classicism is the desire for balance, clarity, logic of artistic expression (largely perceived from the aesthetics of the Renaissance); belief in the existence of universal and eternal, not subject to historical changes, the rules of artistic creativity, which are interpreted as skill, mastery, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.
Having perceived the idea of creativity, which goes back to Aristotle, as an imitation of nature, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: an orientation towards “beautiful nature”, transformed and ordered in accordance with the unshakable laws of art, thus, implied imitation antique samples and even competition with them. Developing the idea of art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of "beautiful", "expedient", etc., classicism, more than other artistic trends, contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.
The central concept of classicism - plausibility - did not imply an accurate reproduction of empirical reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for the universal norm as "due" to everything private, random, concrete corresponds to the ideology of the absolutist state expressed by classicism, in which everything personal and private is subject to the indisputable will of state power. The classicist depicted not a specific, single person, but an abstract person in a situation of a universal, non-historical moral conflict; hence the orientation of the classicists to ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. The ethical ideal of classicism presupposes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the common, of passions to duty, reason, resistance to the vicissitudes of life; on the other - restraint in the manifestation of feelings, compliance with the measure, appropriateness, the ability to please.
Classicism strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. "High" (for example, epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and "low" (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres were distinguished, which corresponded to a certain style, circle of themes and heroes; a clear delineation of the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the mundane was prescribed.
From the middle of the 18th century, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends - sentimentalism, pre-romanticism, romanticism. The traditions of classicism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were resurrected in neoclassicism.
The term "classicism", which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by the Italian critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics of the classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Stael, V. Hugo, and others) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics, imitating antiquity, were opposed to innovative romantic literature. In literary criticism and art history, the concept of "classicism" began to be actively used after the works of scientists of the cultural-historical school and G. Wölfflin.
Stylistic trends similar to the classicism of the 17th-18th centuries are seen by some scientists in other eras; in this case, the concept of "classicism" is interpreted in a broad sense, denoting a stylistic constant that is periodically updated at various stages of the history of art and literature (for example, "ancient classicism", "Renaissance classicism").
N. T. Pakhsaryan.
Literature. The origins of literary classicism are in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system of language styles and oriented towards antique samples. The highest flowering of classicism is associated with French literature of the 17th century. The founder of the poetics of classicism was F. Malherbe, who regulated the literary language on the basis of live colloquial speech; the reform he carried out was secured by the French Academy. In the most complete form, the principles of literary classicism were set forth in the treatise "Poetic Art" by N. Boileau (1674), who summarized the artistic practice of his contemporaries.
Classical writers treat literature as an important mission of translating into words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way of "teaching while entertaining." The literature of classicism is striving for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), it refuses stylistic sophistication, rhetorical embellishments. The classicists preferred laconicism to verbosity, simplicity and clarity to metaphorical complexity, decentness to extravagant. Following the established norms did not mean, however, that the classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of artistic intuition. Although the rules were presented to the classicists as a way to keep creative freedom within the boundaries of reason, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving the talent for deviation from the rules, if it was appropriate and artistically effective.
The characters of the characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which contributes to their transformation into universal universal types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. At the center of the works of the classicists is a heroic personality and, at the same time, a well-bred person who stoically strives to overcome his own passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes' "I think, therefore I am" plays the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle in the attitude of the characters of classicism.
At the heart of literary theory, classicism is a hierarchical system of genres; the analytical dilution in various works, even artistic worlds, of "high" and "low" heroes and thus is combined with the desire to ennoble "low" genres; for example, to rid satire of coarse burlesque, comedy of farcical features (Moliere's "high comedy").
The main place in the literature of classicism was occupied by drama based on the rule of three unities (see The theory of three unities). Tragedy became its leading genre, the highest achievements of which are the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; in the first, the tragedy acquires a heroic character, in the second, a lyrical one. Other "high" genres play a much smaller role in the literary process (the unsuccessful experience of J. Chaplin in the genre of the epic poem is later parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). At the same time, the "low" genres were developing significantly: the heroic-comic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), the fable (J. de La Fontaine), and the comedy. Genres of small didactic prose are cultivated - aphorisms (maxims), "characters" (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de La Bruyère); oratorical prose (J. B. Bossuet). Although the theory of classicism did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, M. M. Lafayette's psychological masterpiece The Princess of Cleves (1678) is considered an example of a classicist novel.
At the end of the 17th century, there was a decline in literary classicism, but the archaeological interest in antiquity in the 18th century, the excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, the creation by I. I. Winkelman of the ideal image of Greek antiquity as “noble simplicity and calm grandeur” contributed to its new rise in the Enlightenment. The main representative of the new classicism was Voltaire, in whose work rationalism, the cult of reason served to justify not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to be free from the claims of church and state. Enlightenment classicism, actively interacting with other literary trends of the era, relies not on "rules", but rather on the "enlightened taste" of the public. The appeal to antiquity becomes a way of expressing the heroism of the French Revolution of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.
In France in the 17th century, classicism developed into a powerful and consistent artistic system, and had a noticeable impact on baroque literature. In Germany, classicism, having arisen as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” poetic school worthy of other European literatures (M. Opitz), on the contrary, was drowned out by the baroque, whose style was more in line with the tragic era of the Thirty Years War; the belated attempt of I. K. Gottsched in the 1730s and 40s to direct German literature along the path of the classicist canons caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. An independent aesthetic phenomenon is the Weimar classicism of J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In the UK, early classicism is associated with the work of J. Dryden; its further development proceeded in line with the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). By the end of the 17th century, classicism in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the work of the poets of Arcadia - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Y. Martello, S. Maffei); Enlightenment classicism is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.
In Russia, classicism was established in the 1730s-1750s under the influence of Western European classicism and the ideas of the Enlightenment; however, it clearly traces the connection with the baroque. Distinctive features of Russian classicism are pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socially critical orientation, national-patriotic pathos, reliance on folk art. One of the first principles of classicism was transferred to Russian soil by A. D. Kantemir. In his satires, he followed I. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, he adapted them to domestic reality. Kantemir introduced new poetic genres into Russian literature: transcriptions of psalms, fables, a heroic poem (“Petrida”, not finished). The first example of a classic laudatory ode was created by V. K. Trediakovsky ("Ode Solemn on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk", 1734), who accompanied it with the theoretical "Reasoning about the ode in general" (both of which followed Boileau). The influence of baroque poetics marked the odes of M. V. Lomonosov. The most complete and consistent Russian classicism is represented by the work of A. P. Sumarokov. Having outlined the main provisions of the classicist doctrine in the Epistle on Poetry (1747), written in imitation of Boileau's treatise, Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies oriented towards the work of the French classicists of the 17th century and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but addressed mainly to the events of national history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables that brought him the glory of the "northern Lafontaine". He also developed the song genre, which was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic genres. Until the end of the 18th century, the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757 - “On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language”, retained its significance, which correlated the three styles of theory with specific genres, linking a heroic poem, an ode, solemn speech; with the middle - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low - comedy, song, epigram. An example of a heroic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus”, 1771). The first completed heroic epic was Rossiyada by M. M. Kheraskov (1779). At the end of the 18th century, the principles of classic dramaturgy manifested themselves in the works of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Kniazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends in literary development associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, but retained its influence for some time. Its traditions can be traced in the 1800s-20s in the work of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in literary criticism (A. F. Merzlyakov), in literary and aesthetic program and genre-stylistic practice of the Decembrist poets, in the early work of A. S. Pushkin.
A. P. Losenko. "Vladimir and Rogneda". 1770. Russian Museum (St. Petersburg).
N. T. Pakhsaryan; T. G. Yurchenko (classicism in Russia).
Architecture and fine arts. The tendencies of classicism in European art were already outlined in the 2nd half of the 16th century in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of A. Palladio, the theoretical treatises of G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the writings of G. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bologna school. However, in the 17th century, classicism, which developed in an acutely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only in French artistic culture developed into an integral stylistic system. Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries was also predominantly formed in France, which became a pan-European style (the latter is often referred to as neoclassicism in foreign art history). The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns, also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, a strict hierarchy of genres in the visual arts (the “high” genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as “ideal landscape” and ceremonial portrait; to “ low" - still life, everyday genre, etc.). The activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671) - contributed to the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism.
The architecture of classicism, in contrast to the baroque with its dramatic conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, is based on the principle of harmony and internal completeness, both in a separate building and in an ensemble. The characteristic features of this style are the desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, the certainty of plastic forms and spatial intervals that create a calm and solemn rhythm; a system of proportioning based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shaping). The constant appeal of the masters of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture meant not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the architectural order, proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of classicism are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real one.
An important place in the architecture of classicism belongs to the problems of urban planning. Projects of "ideal cities" are being developed, a new type of regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles) is being created. Classicism seeks to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying in the basis of its decisions the principle of proportionality to a person and, at the same time, a scale that gives the architectural image a heroic-elevated sound. And although the rhetorical splendor of palace decor comes into conflict with this dominant trend, the stable figurative structure of classicism preserves the unity of style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the process of historical development.
The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the works of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of buildings and construction techniques at first resemble the architecture of castles of the 16th century; a decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Levo - first of all, in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte, with a solemn enfilade of the palace itself, imposing murals by Ch. Lebrun and the most characteristic expression of new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. The eastern façade of the Louvre, realized (since the 1660s) according to the plan of C. Perrault, became the programmatic work of classicism architecture (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected). In the 1660s, L. Levo, A. Le Nôtre and Ch. Lebrun began to create an ensemble of Versailles, where the ideas of classicism are expressed with particular completeness. Since 1678, the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; according to his designs, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were added), the central terrace was converted into the Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other buildings. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic integrity: even the jets of fountains were combined into a static form, similar to a column, and trees and shrubs were trimmed in the form of geometric shapes. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the "Sun King" Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, imperiously transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the stylistic term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.
In the 2nd half of the 17th century, new planning techniques were developed that provided for the organic connection of urban development with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open areas that spatially merge with a street or embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the urban structure (Louis the Great Square, now Vendôme, and Victory Square ; the architectural ensemble of the Les Invalides, all - J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Saint-Denis gate designed by N. F. Blondel; all - in Paris).
The traditions of classicism in France of the 18th century were almost not interrupted, but in the 1st half of the century the rococo style prevailed. In the middle of the 18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape (landscape) environment became the ideal environment for the house. The rapid development of knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge impact on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of J. I. Winkelmann, J. W. Goethe, and F. Militsia made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In the French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion (“hotel”), a front public building, an open square connecting the main thoroughfares of the city (Louis XV Square, now Place de la Concorde, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; he also built the Petit Trianon Palace in the Versailles Park, combining the harmonic clarity of forms with the lyrical refinement of the drawing). J. J. Souflot carried out his project of the Sainte-Genevieve church in Paris, based on the experience of classical architecture.
In the era preceding the French Revolution of the 18th century, architecture manifested a striving for severe simplicity, a bold search for the monumental geometrism of a new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeu). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - the French Empire (1st third of the 19th century), in which magnificent representativeness is growing (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine , J. F. Chalgrin).
English Palladianism of the 17th and 18th centuries is in many respects related to the system of classicism, and often merges with it. Orientation to the classics (not only to the ideas of A. Palladio, but also to antiquity), strict and restrained expressiveness of plastically clear motives are present in the work of I. Jones. After the "Great Fire" of 1666, K. Wren built the largest building in London - St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as over 50 parish churches, a number of buildings in Oxford, marked by the influence of ancient solutions. Extensive urban plans were realized by the middle of the 18th century in the regular development of Bath (J. Wood the Elder and J. Wood the Younger), London and Edinburgh (the Adam brothers). The buildings of W. Chambers, W. Kent, J. Payne are associated with the flourishing of country park estates. R. Adam was also inspired by Roman antiquity, but his version of classicism takes on a softer and more lyrical appearance. Classicism in Great Britain was the most important component of the so-called Georgian style. At the beginning of the 19th century, features similar to the Empire style appeared in English architecture (J. Soane, J. Nash).
In the 17th - early 18th century, classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross-links with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early baroque, affected the short flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries (N. Tessin the Younger). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, classicism also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (J. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). The strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorf, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, and the historicism of L. von Klenze are characteristic of the German classicism architecture of the 18th - 1st half of the 19th century. In the work of K. F. Shinkel, the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.
By the middle of the 19th century, the leading role of classicism was coming to naught; it is replaced by historical styles (see also Neo-Greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.
Fine art of classicism is normative; its figurative structure is characterized by clear signs of social utopia. The iconography of classicism is dominated by ancient legends, heroic deeds, historical plots, i.e., interest in the fate of human communities, in the "anatomy of power." Not satisfied with a simple "portrait of nature", the artists of classicism strive to rise above the concrete, the individual - to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of artistic truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or the Little Dutch. The world of rational deeds and bright feelings in the art of classicism rose above the imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of a dream of the desired harmony of being. Orientation to the lofty ideal gave rise to the choice of "beautiful nature". Classicism avoids the casual, the deviant, the grotesque, the crude, the repulsive. The tectonic clarity of classical architecture corresponds to a clear delimitation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view, it is distinguished by the smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuary. In classical painting, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly reveal objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage.
The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century was the French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the loftiness of the philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of the rhythmic structure and color.
The "ideal landscape" (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguet), which embodied the dream of the classicists of the "golden age" of mankind, was highly developed in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. The most significant masters of French classicism in sculpture of the 17th - early 18th centuries were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconism of forms). In the second half of the 18th century, French sculptors again turned to socially significant themes and monumental solutions (J. B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E. M. Falcone, J. A. Houdon). Civic pathos and lyricism were combined in the mythological painting of J. M. Vienne, the decorative landscapes of J. Robert. The painting of the so-called revolutionary classicism in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, whose historical and portrait images are marked by courageous drama. In the late period of French classicism, painting, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or salon art.
Rome became the international center of classicism in the 18th - early 19th centuries, where the academic tradition dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, often for academicism (painters A. R. Mengs, J. A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. Kakova and B. Thorvaldsen). In the visual art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, the portraits of A. and V. Tishbein, the mythological cartoons of A. Ya. Karstens, the plastic art of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Raukh stand out; in arts and crafts - furniture by D. Roentgen. In Great Britain, the classicism of graphics and sculpture by J. Flaxman are close, in the arts and crafts - ceramics by J. Wedgwood and the masters of the factory in Derby.
A. R. Mengs. "Perseus and Andromeda". 1774-79. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).
The heyday of classicism in Russia dates back to the last third of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th century, although already the beginning of the 18th century was marked by a creative appeal to the urban planning experience of French classicism (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flourishing of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological fullness. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains the plastic enrichment and dynamics of forms characteristic of baroque and rococo.
The architects of the mature era of classicism (1770-90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classic types of the capital's palace-estate and comfortable residential building, which became models in the extensive construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, front building of cities. The art of the ensemble in suburban park estates is a major contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. The Russian variant of Palladianism arose in manor construction (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace developed (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism is the unprecedented scale of state urban planning: regular plans were developed for more than 400 cities, ensembles of the centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of "regulating" city plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. The turn of the 18th-19th century was marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planning principles, “classical Moscow” was formed, which was built up in the period of its restoration after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. The buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century belong to the Russian Empire style (sometimes called Alexander classicism).
In the visual arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). Sculpture is represented by “heroic” monumental-decorative plasticity, which forms a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, monuments full of civic pathos, tombstones imbued with elegiac enlightenment, easel plasticity (I.P. Prokofiev, F.G. Gordeev, M.I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, classicism was most clearly manifested in the works of the historical and mythological genre (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov, in scenography - in the work of P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied art of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc., stand out.
A. I. Kaplun; Yu. K. Zolotov (European fine arts).
Theatre. The formation of theatrical classicism began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which the theater established itself among the "high" arts. The French saw samples of theatrical art in the Italian "learned theater" of the Renaissance. Since the court society was the legislator of tastes and cultural values, the court ceremonial and festivities, ballets, and ceremonial receptions also influenced the stage style. The principles of theatrical classicism were developed on the Parisian stage: in the Mare theater headed by G. Mondori (1634), in the Palais-Cardinal built by Cardinal Richelieu (1641, from 1642 the Palais-Royal), whose arrangement met the high requirements of Italian stage technology ; in the 1640s, the Burgundy Hotel became the site of theatrical classicism. Simultaneous decoration gradually, by the middle of the 17th century, was replaced by a picturesque and uniform perspective decoration (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared, which rose and fell at the beginning and at the end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered by several figures of protagonist characters. An architectural backdrop, a single scene of action, a combination of acting and pictorial plans, a common three-dimensional mise-en-scene contributed to the creation of the illusion of plausibility. In stage classicism of the 17th century, there was the concept of the “fourth wall”. “He acts like this,” F. E. a'Aubignac wrote about the actor (“The Practice of the Theater”, 1657), “as if the audience does not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they really are kings, and not Mondori and Belrose, as if they were in the palace of Horace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy hotel in Paris, and as if they were seen and heard only by those who are present on the stage (i.e., in the depicted place).
In the high tragedy of classicism (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment and adventure plots of the plays by A. Hardy (the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe of V. Leconte in the 1st third of the 17th century) were replaced by static and in-depth attention to the spiritual the world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy required changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of the ethical and aesthetic ideal of the era, creating a close-up portrait of his contemporary with his acting; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern fashion, plastic obeyed the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of a speaker, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmele, J. Racine inscribed notes over the lines of the role), the art of eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical strength. The dramaturgy of classicism contributed to the emergence of a school of stage recitation, which combined the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main expressive means of the French actor. A. Vitez called the recitation of the 17th century "prosodic architecture". The performance was built in the logical interaction of monologues. With the help of the word, the technique of excitation of emotion and its control was worked out; the success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, possession of colors and intonations.
"Andromache" by J. Racine in the Burgundy hotel. Engraving by F. Chauveau. 1667.
The division of theatrical genres into "high" (tragedy in the Burgundy hotel) and "low" (comedy in the "Palais Royal" of the time of Molière), the emergence of roles fixed the hierarchical structure of the theater of classicism. Remaining within the boundaries of "ennobled" nature, the performance pattern and outlines of the image were determined by the individuality of the major actors: J. Floridor's manner of recitation was more natural than that of the excessively posing Belrose; M. Chanmelet was characterized by a sonorous and melodious "recitation", and Montfleury did not know equal in the affects of passion. The concept that developed later on the canon of theatrical classicism, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right, and hands repelling the object of contempt, etc.) , refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.
In the 18th century, despite the decisive retreat of the theater towards educational democracy, the actors of the Comedie Francaise A. Lecouvreur, M. Baron, A. L. Lequin, Dumesnil, Cleron, L. Preville developed the style of stage classicism in accordance with tastes and demands era. They departed from the classic norms of recitation, reformed the costume and made attempts to direct the play, creating an ensemble of actors. At the beginning of the 19th century, at the height of the struggle of the romantics with the tradition of the “court” theater, F.J. Talma, M.J. ”and sought-after style. The traditions of classicism continued to influence the theatrical culture of France at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and even later. The combination of styles of classicism and modernity is characteristic of the game of J. Mounet-Sully, S. Bernard, B.C. Coquelin. In the 20th century, the French director's theater became closer to the European one, the stage style lost its national specificity. Nevertheless, significant events in the French theater of the 20th century correlate with the traditions of classicism: the performances of J. Copeau, J. L. Barraud, L. Jouvet, J. Vilard, Vitez's experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart and etc.
Having lost the importance of the dominant style in France in the 18th century, classicism found successors in other European countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of classicism in the Weimar theater led by him. The actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and the actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, the English actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons propagandized classicism, but their efforts, despite personal creative achievements, turned out to be ineffective and, ultimately were rejected. Stage classicism became the object of a pan-European controversy, and thanks to the German, and after them the Russian theorists of the theater, it received the definition of "false classical theater".
In Russia, the classic style flourished at the beginning of the 19th century in the work of A. S. Yakovlev and E. S. Semyonova, later manifested itself in the achievements of the St. Petersburg theater school in the person of V. V. Samoilov (see Samoilovs), V. A. Karatygin (see Karatygin), then Yu. M. Yuriev.
E. I. Gorfunkel.
Music. The term "classicism" in relation to music does not imply an orientation towards ancient samples (only monuments of ancient Greek musical theory were known and studied), but a series of reforms designed to put an end to the remnants of the Baroque style in musical theater. Classicist and Baroque tendencies were inconsistently combined in the French musical tragedy of the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century (the creative collaboration of the librettist F. Kino and composer J. B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets by J. F. Rameau) and in Italian opera seria, which occupied a leading position among the musical and dramatic genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The heyday of the French musical tragedy came at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship of the period of the struggle for a nationwide state were replaced by the spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, an attraction to luxury and refined hedonism. The sharpness of the conflict of feeling and duty typical of classicism in the context of a mythological or knightly-legendary plot of a musical tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with tragedy in a drama theater). The norms of classicism are associated with the requirements of genre purity (lack of comedy and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also place and time), a “classical” 5-act composition (often with a prologue). The central position in musical drama is occupied by recitative - an element closest to rationalistic verbal-conceptual logic. In the intonational sphere, declamatory-pathetic formulas (interrogative, imperative, etc.) associated with natural human speech predominate, at the same time, rhetorical and symbolic figures characteristic of baroque opera are excluded. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral-idyllic themes, a general orientation towards spectacle and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) were more in line with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.
Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of a decorative element inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with the requirements of classicism put forward by some representatives of the Roman Academy "Arcadia", the northern Italian librettists of the early 18th century (F. Silvani, J. Frigimelica-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) were expelled from serious opera comic and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of supernatural or fantastic forces; the circle of plots was limited to historical and historical-legendary, moral and ethical issues were brought to the fore. At the center of the artistic concept of the early opera seria is an exalted heroic image of a monarch, less often a statesman, courtier, epic hero, demonstrating the positive qualities of an ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic enthusiasm. The 3-act structure, traditional for Italian opera, was preserved (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number of actors was reduced, intonational expressive means, overture and aria forms, and the structure of vocal parts were typified in music. The type of dramaturgy, entirely subordinated to musical tasks, was developed (from the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, whose name is associated with the pinnacle stage in the history of the opera seria. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. The conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens due to the protracted "delusion" of the main actors, and not due to a real conflict of their interests or principles. However, a special predilection for an idealized expression of feelings, for the noble impulses of the human soul, albeit far from strict rational justification, ensured the exceptional popularity of Metastasio's libretto for more than half a century.
The culmination in the development of musical classicism of the Age of Enlightenment (in the 1760s and 70s) was the creative collaboration of K.V. Gluck and librettist R. Calcabidgi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in an emphasis on ethical issues, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in the musical dramas of the Parisian period, in a direct appeal to the theme of duty and feeling). The norms of classicism also corresponded to genre purity, the desire for maximum concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic collision, a strict selection of expressive means in accordance with the tasks of a particular dramatic situation, the utmost limitation of a decorative element, a virtuoso beginning in singing. The enlightening nature of the interpretation of the images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in the classic heroes, with the naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.
In the 1780s and 1790s, revolutionary classicist tendencies, reflecting the ideals of the French Revolution of the 18th century, found expression in the French musical theater. Genetically connected with the previous stage and represented mainly by the generation of composers who followed the Gluckian opera reform (E. Megul, L. Cherubini), revolutionary classicism emphasized, first of all, the civic, tyrannical pathos that had previously been characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. In contrast to the works of the 1760s and 70s, in which the resolution of the tragic conflict was difficult to achieve and required the intervention of external forces (the tradition of "deus ex machina" - Latin "God from the machine"), for the works of the 1780s and 1790s, a characteristic denouement became through a heroic deed (denial of obedience, protest, often an act of retribution, the murder of a tyrant, etc.), which created a vivid and effective release of tension. This type of dramaturgy formed the basis of the genre of "rescue opera", which appeared in the 1790s at the intersection of the traditions of classicist opera and realistic philistine drama.
In Russia, in the musical theater, original manifestations of classicism are rare (the opera “Cefal and Prokris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, the music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N. Gruzintseva).
In relation to comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not related to theatrical action, the term "classicism" is used to a large extent conditionally. It is sometimes used in a broad sense to refer to the initial stage of the classical-romantic era, gallant and classical styles (see the article Vienna Classical School, Classics in Music), in particular to avoid judgment (for example, when translating the German term "Klassik" or in expression "Russian classicism" applied to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries).
In the 19th century, classicism in the musical theater gave way to romanticism, although certain features of classicist aesthetics were sporadically revived (by G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev, and others). In the 20th century, classicist artistic principles were revived again in neoclassicism.
P. V. Lutsker.
Lit.: General works. Zeitler R. Classizismus und Utopia. Stockh., 1954; Peyre H. Qu'est-ce que le classicisme? R., 1965; Bray R. La formation de la doctrine classique en France. R., 1966; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the XV-XVII centuries. M., 1966; Tapie V. L. Baroque et classicisme. 2 ed. R., 1972; Benac H. Le classicisme. R., 1974; Zolotov Yu. K. Moral foundations of action in French classicism of the 17th century. // Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Ser. literature and language. 1988. V. 47. No. 3; Zuber R., Cuénin M. Le classicisme. R., 1998. Literature. Vipper Yu. B. Formation of classicism in French poetry in the early 17th century. M., 1967; Oblomievsky D. D. French classicism. M., 1968; Serman I. Z. Russian classicism: Poetry. Drama. Satire. L., 1973; Morozov A. A. The fate of Russian classicism // Russian literature. 1974. No. 1; Jones T. W., Nicol B. Neo-classical dramatic criticism. 1560-1770. Camb., 1976; Moskvicheva G. V. Russian classicism. M., 1978; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists. M., 1980; Averintsev S. S. Ancient Greek Poetics and World Literature // Poetics of Ancient Greek Literature. M., 1981; Russian and Western European classicism. Prose. M., 1982; L'Antiquité gréco-romaine vue par le siècle des lumières / Éd. R. Chevalier. Tours, 1987; Classic im Vergleich. Normativität und Historizität europäischer Klassiken. Stuttg.; Weimar, 1993; Pumpyansky L.V. On the history of Russian classicism // Pumpyansky L.V. Classical tradition. M., 2000; Genetiot A. Le classicisme. R., 2005; Smirnov A. A. Literary theory of Russian classicism. M., 2007. Architecture and fine arts. Gnedich P. P. History of Arts. M., 1907. T. 3; he is. Art history. Western European Baroque and Classicism. M., 2005; Brunov N.I. Palaces of France in the 17th and 18th centuries. M., 1938; Blunt A. Francois Mansart and the origins of French classical architecture. L., 1941; idem. Art and architecture in France. 1500 to 1700. 5th ed. New Haven, 1999; Hautecoeur L. Histoire de l'architecture classique en France. R., 1943-1957. Vol. 1-7; Kaufmann E. Architecture in the age of Reason. Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Rowland V. The classical tradition in western art. Camb. (Mass.), 1963; Kovalenskaya N. N. Russian classicism. M., 1964; Vermeule S. S. European art and the classical past. Camb. (Mass.), 1964; Rotenberg E. I. Western European art of the 17th century. M., 1971; he is. Western European painting of the 17th century. Thematic principles. M., 1989; Nikolaev E.V. Classical Moscow. M., 1975; Greenhalgh M. The classical tradition in art. L., 1978; Fleming J. R. Adam and his circle, in Edinburgh and Rome. 2nd ed. L., 1978; Yakimovich A. K. Classicism of the Poussin era. Fundamentals and principles // Soviet art history'78. M., 1979. Issue. one; Zolotov Yu. K. Poussin and freethinkers // Ibid. M., 1979. Issue. 2; Summerson J. The classical language of architecture. L., 1980; Gnudi C. L'ideale classico: saggi sulla tradizione classica nella pittura del Cinquecento e del Seicento. Bologna, 1981; Howard S. Antiquity restored: essays on the afterlife of the antique. Vienna, 1990; The French Academy: classicism and its antagonists / Ed. J Hargrove. newark; L., 1990; Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990; Daniel S. M. European classicism. St. Petersburg, 2003; Karev A. Classicism in Russian painting. M., 2003; Bedretdinova L. Ekaterininsky classicism. M., 2008. Theatre. Celler L. Les décors, les costumes et la mise en scène au XVIIe siècle, 1615-1680. R., 1869. Gen., 1970; Mantius K. Moliere. Theater, public, actors of his time. M., 1922; Mongredien G. Les grands comediens du XVIIe siècle. R., 1927; Fuchs M. La vie théâtrale en province au XVIIe siècle. R., 1933; About the theatre. Sat. articles. L.; M., 1940; Kemodle G. R. From art to theatre. Chi., 1944; Blanchart R. Histoire de la mise en scène. R., 1948; Vilar J. On the theatrical tradition. M., 1956; History of the Western European Theatre: In 8 vols. M., 1956-1988; Velekhova N. In disputes about style. M., 1963; Boyadzhiev G. N. The Art of Classicism // Questions of Literature. 1965. No. 10; Leclerc G. Les grandes aventures du theater. R., 1968; Mints N. V. Theatrical collections of France. M., 1989; Gitelman L. I. Foreign acting art of the XIX century. St. Petersburg, 2002; History of foreign theater. SPb., 2005.
Music. Materials and documents on the history of music. 18th century / Under the editorship of M. V. Ivanov-Boretsky. M., 1934; Buken E. Music of the epoch of Rococo and Classicism. M., 1934; he is. Heroic style in opera. M., 1936; Livanova T.N. On the way from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment of the 18th century. // From the Renaissance to the XX century. M., 1963; she is. The problem of style in music of the 17th century. // Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. M., 1966; she is. Western European music of the 17th-18th centuries. in the arts. M., 1977; Liltolf M. Zur Rolle der Antique in der musikalischen Tradition der französischen Epoque Classique // Studien zur Tradition in der Musik. Munch., 1973; Keldysh Yu. V. The problem of styles in Russian music of the 17th-18th centuries. // Keldysh Yu. V. Essays and research on the history of Russian music. M., 1978; Lutsker P.V. Style problems in musical art at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. // Epochal milestones in the history of Western art. M., 1998; Lutsker P. V., Susidko I. P. Italian opera of the 18th century. M., 1998-2004. Ch. 1-2; Kirillina L. V. Gluck's reformist operas. M., 2006.
