Spear, sword and ancient Japanese heroes. Settlement of the Japanese islands

They say what your friends are, so are you. And what about the ancient legends in this case? "Tell me, what were your gods of old, and I'll tell you what you are now?" Can it be argued that there is a direct relationship between such a long past and the present? Probably not. But something of him still remains in us. Well, is this so, let's look at the example of the history of Japan and the role that the spear, sword and ... its most ancient heroes played in the development of the spiritual culture of this nation.

Let's start with the fact that the ancient Japanese books "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki", written down at the beginning of the 8th century, report that the first gods were invisible, and no one knew their names. Then the two gods Izanagi and Izanami appeared, brother and sister, the first of the gods whose names became known to people. The elder gods instructed them to create the earth and gave ... a magic spear. They stood on the heavenly floating bridge, plunged the spear into the ocean, stirred up its waters with this spear, and when they pulled it out of the water, drops fell off the tip, which fell and turned into Onogorojima - “Itself thickened island”. Then the brother and sister settled on this island, and the jasper spear was used as a pillar in their house. That is, without the spear, Japan would simply not exist!

Literally next, the first mention of the sword is also found. It belonged to the god Izanagi, with whom he killed his own son - the God of Fire, at the birth of which Izanami experienced severe pain. Such a “care” greatly upset the goddess, and she went to the underworld. Well, Izanagi repented that he had committed the first murder in the world, and went down to the underworld to return her. But the evil spirits and gods of the dungeon did not allow him to do this, although he fought with them with this sword. Returning, he performed numerous ablutions to cleanse himself of hellish filth, and gave birth to three more children, who later became the main Japanese gods and played a very important role in the history of the Japanese. So, it was his daughter, the goddess of the sun Amaterasu, who sent her grandson Ninigi no Mikoto (“Young man - the god of rice ears”) to earth, and gave him three magical items: a bronze mirror (with which the gods once lured her out of the cave), jasper pendants and the "Sword of Swirling Clouds" - a gift from her brother, the formidable god Susanoo.

Three Sacred Regalia of Japanese Emperors

But here's what's interesting: Susanoo obtained this sword not so much by force as by cunning. At that time, a certain giant snake lived on earth in the Izumo region, which had eight heads and eight tails (in Japan, eight is a lucky number!), And he was so big that his tails filled eight valleys at once. The eyes resembled the Sun and the Moon, and forests grew on the ridge. The snake ate people in whole villages, but he especially liked young girls, so Susanoo volunteered to kill him. Choosing a beautiful girl as bait, he armed himself with his father's sword and hid nearby. However, in addition to supplies for the monster, there is also a fair amount of sake. The serpent crawled up and, not paying attention to the girl, plunged all eight heads into sake cups (apparently, these cups were the right size for him!) and drank every drop. Now the drunken serpent was an easy prey for Susanoo, who promptly chopped it to pieces. When he reached the tail, he found there another magic sword, which he presented to his sister. And since black clouds swirled above the tail, where it was found, it was given the name: “Ame no Murakomo no tsurugi”, or “Sword of Swirling Clouds”.

Even the philosopher Socrates noticed an interesting feature of contemporary Greek mythology: its Olympian gods behave in it in a way that no normal ancient Greek could have imagined. They are gluttonous, indulge in debauchery with earthly women, and the gods-children overthrow the gods of their fathers instead of respecting them. The children of the gods behave accordingly, for example, the same Hercules, who is far from always being an object worthy of imitation in myths. Don't believe? But he also uses arrows poisoned by the poison of the Lernaean Hydra, that is, he uses weapons that valiant warriors have always condemned. What's this? Accident? Or was it done on purpose to show mere mortals how not to do it, and what is allowed to Jupiter, not allowed to the ox?! Interestingly, the gods in Japan behaved in exactly the same way.

The same god Susanoo, wanting to annoy his sister Amaterasu, firstly, demolished the boundaries in her fields, and filled up the irrigation canals. And, secondly, in her chambers intended for food, he defecated and scattered the feces. Moreover, the goddess, as a true Japanese woman, did not reproach him for this (although his behavior cannot be called anything other than ugly), but spoke as follows: “It looks like a bowel movement, but this is my brother - God, probably, having vomited while drunk, you did it. And what demolished the boundaries, filled up the canals, so it’s probably my brother God, you took pity on the earth and therefore did it, ”that is, she found a decent excuse for all his outrages.

We meet the same thing in the legends about the exploits of the legendary prince Yamato Takeru. With his courage, he could compete with the Knight of the Round Table Lancelot Ozerny or one of the ancient Russian epic heroes. But he didn’t have a truly chivalrous spirit, and many of his actions seem simply strange, to say the least!
So, he began his exploits by killing his older brother just because he was late for dinner. And not just killed, but strangled, tore off limbs, wrapped it all in mats and threw it away! This act so shocked his father, Emperor Keiko, that he sent his son to the island of Kyushu, where he would fight against the enemies of the emperor. The first ones he had to kill on the orders of his father were the brave Kumaso brothers. He crept up to the house of the enemy, and, finding three rows of guards there, changed into women's clothing given to him by his aunt, after which he joined the enemy leaders feasting there. When they got drunk, like the ill-fated snake, he pulled out a dagger hidden under his clothes and killed them both, that is, he acted not like a samurai, but like a real vile and despicable ninja. Then he defeated another leader in the province of Izumo, and again, not by force, but by cunning. At first, he became friends with him so that he began to consider him almost his brother. Then he made himself a wooden sword and began to wear it, thrusting it into the scabbard as if it were a real one. Well, he invited the gullible leader to swim in the river. They left their swords on the shore, and then, coming out of the water, Prince Yamato invited him to exchange swords as a sign of friendship. The leader agreed, and then accepted his insidious offer to cross swords in a friendly duel. Of course, he immediately discovered that his new sword was made of wood, but it was too late, because Prince Yamato immediately killed him.

It is clear that all these actions of Prince Yamato frankly do not correspond to the ideal image of a samurai warrior, but in the future he did not behave at all like a real samurai, that is, a “knight without fear and reproach”! Having received the order to set out again, he again visited his aunt, the high priestess of the great shrine in Ise, and received from her the sacred "Sword of Swirling Clouds", that is, the most powerful weapon of all that existed at that time. But, even possessing such a sword, Yamato won the victory in this campaign by no means with his help. By the way, the huge snake that Susanoo killed, it is not clear how he resurrected again, overtook him and demanded to return the “Sword of Swirling Clouds”. However, Yamato jumped over the snake, but did not fight him. Then he met the girl Iwato-hime (well, how without a girl ?!), whom he passionately fell in love with. But instead of marrying her and living happily ever after, for some reason he left her and went to the Sagamu region, the ruler of which decided to kill him. The hero was lured by cunning into a valley overgrown with dry tall grass, and then it was set on fire. It was then that the prince finally used the sword, mowed the grass around him, set it on fire and thereby escaped. Naturally, he killed everyone who wanted him dead, and burned their bodies. And his sword then began to be called "Kusanagi no tsurugi" ("Sword that Parts the Grass").

Then he again came to Iwato-hime. But knowing (from where, it is not clear!) that he could not stay with her, he left her again, giving her the “Sword of Swirling Clouds”. Iwato-hime took the sword and, with tears in her eyes, for some reason hung it on a mulberry tree. Here the hero was again attacked by the ubiquitous giant snake, over which he again jumped, but at the same time hit him with his foot. This raised his temperature, and he bathed in a cold stream. The fever subsided, but he could not recover, and anticipating his imminent death, he wanted to see Iwato-hime. And she immediately appeared before him, because all this time she secretly followed him in his wanderings. The prince perked up, but only he did not get better, and as a result he died, after which he became a white bird that flew south.

Prince Yamato ended his life in such a strange way, and this end of it, we note, contains all the features of epic tales about the exploits of the samurai, as well as the knights of the Round Table, which are constantly encountered: our hero is lonely, he is pursued by enemies, and in the end he dies young from an absurd chance. Moreover, the image of a lone warrior-hero samurai is alive in Japan today, and Prince Yamato is the first among her heroes. Moreover, his name is in the earliest histories of the country - the semi-mythological "Kojiki" ("Notes on the deeds of antiquity"), written in 712, and "Nihon shoki", 720 years. Surprisingly, Japanese history is simply replete with such “heroes” and losers. And it is not clear why the image of Yamato, from which, in fact, everything began, was created so contradictory and restless? Perhaps this was done on purpose, and in this case we are again dealing with the “principle of Jupiter and the ox”, and he was supposed to show the samurai what is in their history and such examples that obviously do not need to be followed ?! Or, on the contrary, the heroic in him (although what is it, this most “heroic”?) should have overshadowed everything negative in his image? As a result, the sword became the "soul of the samurai", but for some reason the spear did not become deified! Interestingly, the Christian Bible does not indicate with what weapon Cain killed Abel. He could be cursed or made a symbol, but its creators clearly did not want this. Therefore, “rose and killed” is given in it without details. Not so in Japan, only the heroes of its ancient history with spears and swords turned out to be somehow very strange.

Japan is an ancient state whose history begins with the Neolithic, which apparently existed here already in the 5th-4th millennium BC.

Japan is located on an archipelago that stretches from north to south along the eastern coast of the Asian continent. More than 3,000 islands include this ancient state. The lives of the Japanese were constantly accompanied by volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, mountain collapses and hurricanes. Maybe that's why the Japanese have such qualities as courage, patience, skill and self-control?

Since ancient times, the Japanese have been engaged in hunting, sea fishing and animal husbandry. However, the main occupation for centuries is still the cultivation of rice fields.

The most ancient Neolithic monuments of Japan are shell mounds, which contain the remains of edible shells and fish, harpoons, weights and fishhooks. Later heaps contain bones of freshwater fish, deer, wild pigs, and birds. However, there is also ceramics, which was made by hand. The population lived in settlements in large dugouts and buried corpses right there in shell heaps.

Both the Ainu and other southern tribes, and - later - tribes of Mongol-Malay origin, took part in the formation of the Japanese nationality.

From the middle of the 1st millennium BC, the so-called proto-Japanese tribes penetrated the Japanese islands through the Korea Strait from the south of the Korean Peninsula. Domestic animals appeared on the islands - a horse, a cow, a sheep. At the same time, the culture of irrigated rice arose.

In a later period, the population of the islands finally adopted elements of Chinese and Korean culture from Korea and China.

According to Shintoism - the Japanese belief system - the Japanese nation originates from the sun goddess Ama-Terasu. Her direct descendant was the legendary emperor of Japan, Jimmu, who ascended the throne of the Yamato state in 660 BC. The mikado emperor in the minds of the Japanese, due to his "divine" origin, is related to his people, he is the head of the nation-family.

In ancient times, the Japanese worshiped the deity of a particular temple, which was not related to other temples. Despite this, the structure of Shinto shrines is nevertheless the same. At the base of each temple is a honden (shrine) that houses a shintai (shrine, deity). Adjacent to the honden is a haiden, that is, a prayer hall. There are no images of gods in the temples, in some temples there are images of lions or other animals. For example, at the temples of Inari there are images of foxes, at the temples of Hiz - monkeys, at the temples of Kasuga - deer. These animals act as messengers of their respective deities.

The ancient folk beliefs of the Japanese are also of interest. For example, the ancient cult of the fox is known, which the Japanese have worshiped since ancient times. According to their beliefs, the deity in the form of a fox had the body and mind of a man. In Japan, temples were built, in which people supposedly possessing a fox nature gathered. The Japanese also worshiped the wolf, which was considered the spirit of the Okami mountains. People asked Okami to protect the crops and the workers themselves from various misfortunes. In some areas of Japan, the locals worshiped the turtle. The fishermen considered the turtle (kame) the deity (kami) of the sea, on which their luck depended. There was also a cult of snakes and molluscs.

There were beliefs that the tombo dragonfly would bring good luck and happiness to the Japanese. She was associated with courage and even with the national spirit. The Japanese idolized both the shark and the crab, an amulet made from the dried shell of which protected from evil spirits and diseases.

However, not only animals were revered in Japan, but also the worship of mountains, mountain springs, stones, trees, etc. was widespread. Especially strongly the Japanese idolized the weeping willow (yanagi), which was considered a tree that brings happiness and good luck. Willow was used to make chopsticks, which were used only on New Year's Eve.

Particularly noteworthy is the so-called tea ceremony (in Japanese "chianou"). For many centuries, it has played a significant role in the life of the Japanese. Tianou is a strictly prescribed ritual. A tea master takes part in it - the one who brews tea, pours it and those who are present at the same time and then drink it. The first is the priest who performs the tea action, the second are the participants in the action who join it. Everyone has their own style of behavior, which includes both the posture when sitting, and all movements, and facial expressions, and manner of speech. The beauty and refined ritual of the chianou follows the canons of Zen Buddhism. According to legend, it originates from China since the time of the first patriarch of Buddhism, Bodhidharma.

One day, sitting in meditation, Bodhidharma felt that his eyes were closing, and against his will he was falling asleep. He became angry with himself and ripped out his eyelids and threw them on the ground. Soon an unusual bush with succulent leaves grew in this place. Later, the disciples of Bodhidharma began to brew these leaves with hot water - the drink helped keep them cheerful.

In fact, the tea ceremony originated in China long before Buddhism appeared. According to numerous sources, it was introduced by Lao Tzu, who in the 5th century BC proposed a ritual with a cup of the “golden elixir”. This ritual was popular in China until the Mongol invasion. After some time, the Chinese began to simply brew the dried leaves of the tea bush.

Interesting facts about ancient Japan

The times when corded ceramics were used in Japan is called the era of corded ceramics (Jemon). From the pre-ceramic Paleolithic times, the Jomon differs in that ceramics and a bow for shooting appeared. The appearance of Japanese or other ceramics has not been fully explored to date.

The bow with arrows was replaced by the Paleolithic spear at a time when nothing was known about the samurai. It was the first automatic weapon that changed the method of hunting. Hunting small animals has become much easier and more efficient. Ceramic products appeared at the moment when people realized the chemical variability of substances. It was concluded that a hard container can be made from elastic and soft clay with long processing. It was ceramic dishes that taught people how to make stews and boiled food. In this regard, a lot of previously unknown products appeared in the diet, and in general, the food became better.

According to 1994 data, the oldest piece of ceramics is a “jug with a kvassole-like ornament”, which was found in Japan in the dungeon of the Senpukuji temple and marked with the eleventh millennium BC. It was from this moment that the Jomon era began and lasted ten millennia. During this time, ceramic products began to be made throughout Japan. Compared with other Neolithic pottery cultures of antiquity, this one became exclusive to Japan. Dzemon ceramics are characterized by limited demarcation, extension in time, similarity of styles. In other words, it can be divided into two regional groups that developed through evolution, and their ornamental motifs were similar. The Neolithic pottery of Eastern Japan and Western Japan differs most of all. Although there are regional differences, all types of pottery have similarities, which indicates a coherent archaeological culture. No one knows how many Jōmon era sites there were. According to 1994 data, there were one hundred thousand. This indicates a relatively high population density in Japan. Until the 90s, most of the sites were located in East Japan, but archaeologists have made it so that the number of sites in the West and East will become approximately the same.

An ethnologist from Japan, K. Shuji, believes that with the onset of the era described above, twenty thousand people lived in Japan, in the middle of this period 260,000, at the end - 76,000.

ancient japanese economy

During the Jomon period, the Japanese economy was based on fishing, hunting, and food gathering. There is an opinion that elementary slash-and-burn agriculture was known to the Neolithic settlement, in addition, wild boars were domesticated.

When hunting, the Japanese usually used an ordinary bow. The researchers managed to find the remains of this tool in the swamp covers of sites located in the swampy lowland. At the time of 1994, only thirty whole bows had been found by archaeologists. They are most often made of capitate-yew types of wood and covered with dark varnish. At the end of the arrows there was a tip made of a powerful stone called obsidian. The spear was rarely used. Most often, various parts of copies were found in Hokkaido, but this is an exception for Kanto. And in Western Japan, spears were almost never found. On the hunt they took with them not only weapons, but also dogs and wolf pits. Usually hunting was carried out on deer, wild boars, wild birds. Harpoons or fishing nets were used to catch fish, crabs, shrimp, and so on. Remains of nets, weights, hooks were found in ancient dumps. Most of the instruments are made from deer bones. They are usually found in camps located on the shores of the sea and rivers. These tools were used according to the seasons and were aimed at specific fish: bonites, pike perches, and so on. Harpoons and fishing rods were used alone, nets - collectively. Fishing was especially well developed in the middle of the Jōmon period.

Gathering was of great importance in the economy. Even at the beginning of time, the Jomon used various vegetation as food products. Most often, these were hard fruits, for example, nuts, chestnuts, acorns. Gathering was carried out in the autumn months, the fruits were collected in baskets woven from vines. Acorns were used in the manufacture of flour, which was ground on millstones and made into bread. Some products were stored in winter in pits one meter deep. The pits were located outside the settlement. Sites of the middle Sakanoshita period and the final Minami-Gatamaeike period testify to such pits. The population consumed not only solid foods, but also grapes, water chestnuts, dogwood, actinidia, and so on. Seeds from similar plants were found near the stocks of hard fruits at the Torihama site.

Most likely, the inhabitants were engaged in elementary agricultural production. This is evidenced by traces of agricultural land that were found in the settlement zone.

In addition, people mastered the skill of collecting urtica and Chinese nettle, which was used in the manufacture of fabrics.

Ancient Japanese dwellings

Throughout the Jōmon era, the population of the Japanese archipelago lived in dugouts, which were considered the classic shelter of the pre-pottery period. The dwelling went deep into the soil, had a floor and walls made of earth, the roof was held by a base of wooden beams. The roof consisted of deadwood, vegetation and animal skins. There were different dugouts in different regions. There were more of them in the eastern part of Japan, less in the western part.

At an early stage, the design of the dwelling was very primitive. It could be round or rectangular. In the middle of each dugout there was always a hearth, which was divided into: stone, jug or earthen. An earthen hearth was made as follows: a small funnel was dug out, into which brushwood was put and burned. For the manufacture of a pitcher hearth, the lower part of the pot was used, it was dug into the soil. The stone hearth was made from small pebbles and pebbles, they surrounded the area where the hearth was bred.

The dwellings of such regions as Tohoku and Hokuriku differed from others in that they were quite large. From the middle period, these buildings began to be made according to a complex system, which involved the use of more than one hearth in one dwelling. The dwelling of that period was not only considered a place of finding peace, but also a space interconnected with beliefs and perception of the world.

On average, the total area of ​​the dwelling ranged from twenty to thirty square meters. Most often, a family consisting of at least five people lived in such a territory. The number of family members is proved by the discovery at the Ubayama site - a burial of a family consisting of several males, several females and one child was found in the dwelling.

There are extensive premises located in North-Central and Northern Japan. To be more precise, a dugout consisting of four hearths was excavated at the Fudodo site.

The design is similar to an ellipse, having a length of seventeen meters and a radius of eight meters. At the Sugisawadai site, a dwelling of the same shape was excavated, but the length was 31 meters and the radius was 8.8 meters. It is not precisely established what the premises of such dimensions were intended for. If we think hypothetically, we can assume that these were pantries, public workshops, and so on.

ancient settlements

A settlement was formed from several dwellings. At the beginning of the Jomon era, one settlement included two or three houses. In the early period, the number of dugouts became more and more. This proves that people began to lead a settled life. Housing structures were built around the area at approximately the same distance. This territory was the center of the religious and collective life of the population. This type of settlement was called "round" or "horseshoe". Since the Middle Ages of the Jomon era, such settlements have become widespread throughout Japan.

The settlements were divided into: permanent and temporary, but in the first and in the second case, people lived in the same territory for quite a long time. This proves the connection between the ceramic cultural styles of the village and the layering of the settlements of the early era on the late one.

The settlements consisted not only of dwellings, but also of buildings on props. The basis of such buildings had the shape of a hexagon, rectangle, ellipse. They did not have walls and floors made of earth, the buildings were located on support pillars, and there was also no hearth. The room had a width of five to fifteen meters. What the buildings on props were intended for - no one knows.

Burials

The Japanese of the Jomon era most often gave the dead to the ground in mushlevy mounds, which were located near the dwellings and were at the same time not only a cemetery, but also a dump. In the first millennium before Christ, common cemeteries were created. For example, at the Yoshigo site, researchers found more than three hundred remains. This indicated that the population began to lead a settled life and the number of inhabitants of Japan grew.

Most human burials can be called a crouched masonry of corpses: the limbs of a deceased person were folded in such a way that he looked like an embryo, he was simply placed in a dug hole and covered with earth.

In the third millennium before the birth of Christ, special cases appeared when the corpses were laid out in an extended form. At the end of this period, the tradition of burning the dead was introduced: a triangle was made from the burned limbs of the dead, a skull and other bones were placed in the center. Usually the burials were single, but there were also common graves, for example, family ones. The largest tomb of the Jōmon era was two meters long. About fifteen remains were found in it. Such a burial ground was found in the mound of the Miyamotodai site.

Mushlev mounds contained not only pit burials. The researchers discovered a cemetery where the dead lay in a recess with a stone base or in huge stone coffins. Such burials were frequent finds at the end of the era in the northern part of Japan.

In Hokkaido, the dead were buried in extensive special cemeteries with lavish funeral decorations. In addition, in ancient Japan it was a tradition to bury children born dead, as well as up to the age of six, in ceramic vessels. There were cases when older people were buried in pots. After burning the bodies, the remains were washed with water and stored in such a container.

Japanese beliefs and rituals

Funeral decoration served as an information source about the religion of the Japanese of the Jomon era. If there was an interior, then people believed that there was life after death and a soul. Together with the deceased, objects that the deceased person used during his lifetime were most often placed in the grave. It could be rings, a chain and other jewelry. Usually it was necessary to find belts made of deer antler, which were covered with a beautiful intricate pattern, and bracelets made from voluminous shells of Rappani or glycimeris. An opening for the hand was made inside and polished to a brilliant state. Jewelry had both aesthetic and ritual functions. As a rule, bracelets were found in the graves of women, and a belt in the graves of men. The number of interior items and their luxury spoke of social, physiological and age division.

In later times, there was a tradition to pull out or file off teeth. Even during their lifetime, some incisors were removed for people - this said that they were moving into the adult group. The methods and sequence of tooth extraction differed depending on the place and time. In addition, there was a tradition to file the four upper incisors in the form of two or tridents.

There is another monument related to the religion of that period - these are female figurines of dogu made of ceramics. They are also called Jomon's Venuses.

These ancient figurines were discovered at the Hanawadai site and are believed to date back to the early Jōmon period. Figurines are divided, depending on the manner of manufacture, into the following types: cylindrical, flat, embossed with legs, with a face in the shape of a triangle, with ocular eyes. Almost all dogu depict, most likely, a pregnant woman with a bulging tummy. Usually figurines are found broken. There is an opinion that such figurines are a symbol of the feminine, family, the birth of offspring. Dogu was used in rituals related to the cult of fertility. In the same cult, such symbols as swords and knives made of stone, sekibo sticks were used, which represented power, masculinity, and influence. Figurines were made of stone and wood. Dogu were a kind of amulets. In addition, the ancient Japanese made masks from ceramics, but where they were used remains a mystery to this day.

Jōmon period- the period of Ainu history and Japanese history from 13,000 BC to 300 BC.

It takes its name from the term "jomon" (literally "rope trace"), which is the name given to the technique of decorating pottery and dogu figurines with cord ornaments, which became widespread during this period. A feature of the Jomon period is the beginning of the use of ceramic products by the inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago.

Ainu - the oldest population of the Japanese Islands, who created the Neolithic Jomon culture. The Ainu were mainly engaged in gathering, fishing and hunting, lived in small groups on vast tracts of land. From the middle of the Jomon era, the Japanese islands began to arrive first from Southeast Asia and South China, later from Central Asia, other ethnic groups, introducing agriculture, namely rice growing, cattle breeding. The migration of the Ainu to Sakhalin, the Lower Amur, Primorye and the Kuril Islands begins. It was the ethnic groups from Central Asia that gave rise to the Korean and Japanese ethnic groups.

In 660 B.C. (the beginning of the Japanese chronology), according to Japanese legend, the state of Yamato was formed.

Five mighty gods, according to ancient legend, owned the universe. The fate of the newly created earth was controlled by the seven divine administrations, Takamagahara. The youngest pair of these gods, Izanagi and Izanami, sent their daughter the sun goddess Amaterasu to earth and she became the ancestor of the five earthly gods or heroes. One of them, named Hikonagisatake, received a prediction that his offspring would forever rule the Japanese islands, and he establishes his dominion on the island of Kiusiu by conquering its native tribes. His son Jimmu Tennō rises to power in 660 and becomes the first Emperor of Japan, Jimmu.

When the state of Yamato is formed, the era of constant war between the Yamato and the Ainu begins.

Yayoi period- an era in the history of Japan approximately 400 BC-250 (300) AD.

The Yayoi period is marked by the advent of rice cultivation and agriculture. There were wooden storages on piles. Asian continental influences during this period brought major social and technological advances, including the establishment of communities, the manufacture of pottery, metal weapons, especially bronze bells, and ritual objects. The formation of a ruling stratum in the communities began, which led to military conflicts. During this period, the first slaves appeared.

The first cloth and more modern garments appear (during the Jomon period, the Japanese wore clothes made from the bark of trees and leaves).

Under the tenth emperor Sujin, in 85 BC, the first census was carried out.

Kofun period- era in Japanese history (250(300)-538)

It is named after the culture of kofun mounds. Kofun is a burial, the prototype of which was the kofuns of Ancient China. The burial mounds were of various shapes: semicircular, rectangular, square, the most common in the form of a “hole” of a key.

Kofun had several steps going from the base of the kofun to the top of the hill, the more steps, the higher the position of the deceased, some mounds were surrounded by a moat. spirits. The tomb of one of the emperors has 7 steps.

During the Kofun period, more than thirty small Japanese states existed on the islands. Gradually, the state of Yamato became dominant, it was ruled by the priestess Himiko or Pimiko, who had magical abilities. After her death, her thirteen-year-old daughter Taiyo (lit. "sun") became the head of the Yamato state.

Subsequent emperors undertook successful campaigns of conquest in different parts of the islands of Kyushu and Honshu against the wild tribes of Emisu and Kumaso. Thus, the power of the Yamato emperors extended to both islands.

Asuka period(538-710)

Gradually, Japanese contacts with China and the Korean Peninsula are expanding. This period in culture was characterized by the spread of realistic reflection of reality in sculpture, painting, and literature. An original Japanese style was developed, despite the strong influence of Chinese and Korean cultures.

The Asuka period is named after the location of the political center of the country at that time in the Asuka Valley (present-day Nara Prefecture).

The peculiarity of the period is the spread of Buddhism, the flourishing of Japanese culture, the creation of the first code of laws. Despite the confrontation between the great Mononobe and Soga families, the new religion of Buddhism had a large number of followers among members of the upper classes and eventually became the state religion.

The victory of the Soga clan strengthened their political leadership. During the period of the Soga dictatorship, the first Japanese constitution was written, the Chinese calendar was introduced, and the transport network was established. In 645, the Soga clan was destroyed and opposition came to power under the leadership of the future Emperor Tenji, the founder of the Fujiwara Nakatomi no Kamatari clan.

Taika reforms were carried out, the basis of which was legislation. A centralized administrative apparatus headed by the emperor was created, the government with ministries, which were controlled by officials from noble families, was responsible for the state of affairs in the country.

The country was divided into 60 provinces, all lands were declared the property of the state, i.e. the emperor and divided according to known laws among the people, peace and silence were restored everywhere.

A third of the male population between 21 and 60 years of age was subject to military service, with a later restriction that only men trained in horseback riding and archery were to enter the service. Along with the royal life guards, brigades of various strengths were formed, up to 1000 people each, with leaders and sub-leaders, whose rights and duties were precisely defined. Emperor Bumbu issued a school law, established a university and many provincial schools in Kyoto. The sciences and arts flourished under his administration.

In 708, Japanese coinage was started. In 710, the capital was moved from Fujiwara-kyo to Heijo-kyo in Nara.

Nara period(710-794)

The beginning of the Nara period is marked by the transfer of the capital to Heijo-kyo, the modern city of Nara. A feature of the Nara era is the creation of the first historical chronicles of Kojiki, Nihon shoki and the flourishing of Buddhism. During this period, the prototypes of the Japanese phonetic alphabets hiragana and katakana were also formed.

The capital Nara was the first Japanese city designed according to the Chinese standards of the time. During this period, there was a centralized state headed by a tenno-emperor, based on legislation. However, the existing chamber of a large state council limited his power.

The population was divided into groups: metropolitan and provincial officials (divided into 9 categories), free community members, artisans and criminals and their families, slaves. All lands were declared state property. The economy of the Nara period was subsistence. The money was used to pay salaries to officials and workers.

To increase revenues, the state stimulated the development of virgin lands, and in 743 a new decree was issued introducing the rule of "eternal private ownership of the developed virgin lands." Noble families and influential Buddhist monasteries immediately took advantage of this and created a powerful economic base on the uncultivated lands.

During the Nara period, the struggle for power began to intensify between the imperial house (the tenno themselves and their closest relatives), aristocratic families and Buddhist monasteries. Aristocrats and Buddhist monks competed for dominant positions at court. Buddhists even tried to seize power in the country, trying to make the monk Dokyo (700-772), the favorite of Empress Koken, the new emperor.

However, the aristocratic opposition, led by the Fujiwara family, prevented the coup and was able to remove all the monks from government positions. Considering Dokyo's intimate relationship with the Empress and the dangers they posed to the dynasty, the Fujiwara abolished for the future the right of women to hold the throne of Japanese monarchs.

Due to the increasing influence on the courtyard of Buddhist monasteries, it was decided to move the capital to Nagaoka. But after the assassination of Tanetsugu Fujiwara, who was responsible for the construction, in 794 the capital was moved to the city of Heian (modern Kyoto). The construction of the new capital practically ruined the imperial treasury. Left without financial support, the emperor weakened, and instead the real power was in the hands of the aristocratic Fujiwara family.

Heian period(794-1185) translated from Japanese means peace, tranquility.

The period begins with the transfer of the capital to the city of Heian (modern Kyoto). The period can be divided into early and late Heian. In early Heian there was a gradual disintegration of the allotment system introduced by the Taika reforms, and mass ruin of the peasants began. A class of the largest landowners appeared, turning their possessions into estates, shoen. For a significant part of them, the owners achieved tax immunity, which further undermined the resources of the central government. The strengthening of the economic role of the highest nobility was reflected in the growth of its political role.

The period when the power of the Fujiwara clan reached such proportions that emperors were appointed and abdicated only at their will marked the beginning of the late Heian. To limit the power of the Fujiwara clan in the 11th century, the insei system was created, when the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of the heir, and he himself went to the monastery, from where he ruled the state, fighting the Fujiwara family for the most important posts in government, estates, new lands.

The structure of state administration, borrowed from China, underwent significant changes, new bodies were created that were not provided for in the laws of the Nara period. The tax system was reorganized on the basis of land taxation of the farms of wealthy peasants. State lands began to be leased to landowners and wealthy peasants.

With the beginning of a period of relative external isolation of the country and the weakening of the Tang empire, the centralized recruitment of peasants for military service ceased and the process of the formation of a new social stratum, the samurai, began. The first samurai entered into a relationship of dependence on the capital's aristocrats, served as officials of provincial governments or in the protection of the imperial court. The main weapon of the samurai of the Heian period was a bow and arrow, while they fought on horseback.

Samurai were divided into ranks, at the head of the military houses were the offspring of the side branches of aristocratic families or descended from the emperors themselves. While the central government was weakening, these families recruited their own squads to collect taxes, maintain order in their possessions and protect the northern borders from invasions.

Although the clans of military aristocrats obeyed the orders of the imperial court, and the size of their land holdings depended on its location, they gradually turned into a formidable force, periodically fighting with each other. Larger samurai families tried to enlist the support of as many small-land feudal lords as possible in order to thereby increase their own power.

Gradually, the internal struggle turned into a rivalry between two samurai clans: Minamoto and Taira, who had a strong influence on the internal events of the country.

In 1156, the abdicated Emperor Sutoku rebelled against Emperor Yoshirakawa because of difficulties in succeeding to the throne. The side of the first was taken by Minamoto, led by Yoshimoto, the side of the second was taken by Taira, led by Kiyomori. After a fierce battle, Yoshimoto was defeated and his attack on Kyoto, undertaken three years later, only led to the final death of him and his entire family, with the exception of only his two sons with a few adherents (1159).

Taira managed to exploit their victory; they replaced all influential places in the state with their adherents. Taira Kiyomori ruled like a military ruler, having unlimited power. He was equally cruel to his enemies and ungrateful to his adherents, he soon became hated by his stinginess and greed and boundless arrogance. At the same time, the members of this once proud home were subjected to the relaxing influence of court life. While respect for Taira was falling more and more, the Minamoto, under the leadership of Yoritomo and Yoshinaka, gathered in the northern and eastern provinces, where the population was unconditionally devoted to them.

The five-year war between the military clans of the Minamoto and Taira ended with the victory of the Minamoto, marking the end of the Heian era. The residence of Minamoto Yoritomo, head of the victorious house and founder of the shogunate, was Kamakura city, which gave the name to the next period of Japanese history Kamakura period.

Japan

The culture of Japan has developed as a result of a historical process that began with the migration of the ancestors of the Japanese people to the islands of the Japanese archipelago from the mainland.

Modern Japanese culture has been strongly influenced by Asian countries (especially China and Korea), later by Europe and North America.

One of the features of Japanese culture is its long development during the period of complete isolation of the country (sakoku policy) from the rest of the world, which lasted 200 years until the middle of the XX century - the beginning of the Meiji period.

The culture and mentality of the Japanese were greatly influenced by the isolated territorial position of the country, geographical and climatic features, as well as special natural phenomena (frequent earthquakes and typhoons), which was expressed in the peculiar attitude of the Japanese to nature as a living creature. The ability to admire the momentary beauty of nature, as a feature of the national character of the Japanese, has found expression in many forms of art in Japan.

PREHISTORIC PERIOD(40 thousand years and up to 300 AD)

1) Kyu: sekki, he is the pre-ceramic period, he is the Iwajuku period, he is also proto-jomon (from 40,000 BC - about 13,000 BC)

2) Jomon(8 thousand BC - 1 thousand BC)

3) Yayoi(300 BC - 250-300 AD)

ANCIENT JAPAN- from 300 AD to 1185 (3-12 centuries).

Yamato(300-710 AD).

Kofun(300-592)

Asuka(593-710)

2) Nara(710 - 794 AD)

3) heian(794 - 1185 AD)

MEDIEVAL (FEUDAL JAPAN)- from 1185 to 1868

1) Kamakura(1185-1333)

2) Restoration of Kemmu(1333-1336)

3) Muromachi(1336-1573)

4) Azuchi Momoyama period (1573 - 1603)

5) edo(1600 - 1868)

MODERN JAPAN- the period from 1868 to the present.

1) Meiji(1868 - 1912)

2) Taisho(1912 - 1926)

3) Showa(1926 - 1989) In this era, the occupation period (1945-1952) and the period of Japan after the occupation (1952-1989) are distinguished.

4) Heisei(1989 to present).

Prehistoric period: In 1949, in Iwazuku, Gunma Prefecture, stone tools were recovered from a layer below that in which pottery was commonly found on the Kanto Plain. This discovery marked the beginning of the search for the remains of the Paleolithic culture in Japan.

The oldest monuments of art in Japan belong to the Neolithic period - Jomon (VIII millennium - mid-I millennium BC):

ceramic dishes with lush molded decor,

stylized idol figurines,

anthropomorphic masks.

A mythological system is being formed.

Jomon:

Tribal communities of the population of the Japanese islands were engaged in gathering, hunting, and fishing.

It is believed that during this period, Shintoism (from Japanese Shinto - “the way of the gods”) is formed - a religious-mythological and ritual-practical complex associated with the worship of the gods by the kami.

The origins of Shinto are the folk beliefs, myths and rituals of ancient Japan;

As a dogmatic teaching, Shinto developed from the 7th-8th centuries as a response to the teachings of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism.

The first samples of ceramics, figurines of people and animals dogu.

Mythology:

Most of the Japanese myths known today are familiar from the Kojiki (712), the Nihon Shoki (720) and some additional sources. These codes constituted the official Shinto mythology, partially adapting, and partially pushing the local shamanistic cults into the lower mythology.

"Kojiki", or "Records of the deeds of antiquity" - the oldest collection of myths and legends to date.

Japanese mythology is directly connected with the cult of the emperor: it is believed that the emperor is a direct descendant of the gods. Term tenno(天皇), emperor literally means "divine (or celestial) ruler".

The myth of the creation of the Earth:

The completion of the cosmogonic process falls on the share of the fifth pair of these gods, Izanaki and Izanami. By the time of their appearance, “the earth had not yet emerged from infancy” and was rushing along the waves of the sea, therefore the highest heavenly gods instruct these gods to turn the liquid earth into a firmament, which they do by stirring the water with a spear. Then, having entered into a marriage, they give birth to the islands that make up Japan, and then - the gods-spirits who should inhabit this country. The world gradually takes on its usual form: mountains and trees, plains and gorges, fogs in the gorges and dark crevices appear, and the kami born here become the “owners” of all objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

When Izanami gave birth to the fire god Kaguiuchi, he singed her womb and she died. Izanaki, grieving over her death, followed her to the realm of the dead Yomi no Kuni to bring her back. But, seeing what his wife had turned into - a corpse covered with worms and larvae, fled from her and blocked the entrance to the kingdom of the dead with a large boulder. On earth, Izanaki performed a purification, during which many gods were born. The last three great deities were born: from the drops of water with which Izanaki washed his left eye, the goddess of the sun appeared Amaterasu, from the water that washed his right eye, the goddess of the night and the moon Tsukuyomi, and, finally, from the water that washed the nose of Izanaki, the god of wind and water expanses Susanoo. Izanaki distributed his possessions between them: Amaterasu received the plain of the high sky, Tsukuyomi - the kingdom of the night, and Susanoo - the plain of the sea.

Amaterasu gave the government of the land to her great-grandson, the prince Ninigi.

Creation myth:

Okho-Yama had two daughters: the eldest - Yaha-Naga and the youngest - Ki-no-hana. Yaha-Naga's eldest daughter was nowhere near as good as her sister. Okho-Yama wanted to give the prince a wife of both daughters, both the eldest and the youngest. The mountain spirit wished that the offspring of Prince Ninigi would live forever like rocks and bloom like cherry blossoms. So Oho-Yama sent his daughters to Ninigi with sumptuous robes and precious gifts.

But the prince loved only the marvelously beautiful princess Ki-no-hana and did not look at Yaha-Naga. Then the latter exclaimed in wild anger: If you took me as your wife, then you and your children would live forever on earth, but since you loved my sister, your offspring will be fleeting and instant, like Sakura flowers!

But Prince Ninigi did not listen to her and married the beautiful princess Ki-no-hana.

Jōmon pottery is distinguished by a rope pattern ("jo" is a rope, "mon" is a pattern, and "doki" is pottery)

About 15,000 dogu figurines, 8 to 30 centimeters high, have already been discovered. They belong to the Neolithic era (IV-II centuries BC) of the "jomon" period. The meaning of "dogu" is a device, a tool. Among the dogu, there are both images of various animals, and very conditional interpretations of the human body. Spread out and schematized, almost completely covered with carved and stuccoed magical decor, they are similar to vessels in their ornamental design.

Yayei (300 BC - 250-300 AD)

1884 Pottery was found in the Yayoi area, differing in style from the Jōmon period.

Characteristics:

paddy rice cultivation,

use of potter's wheel and loom,

processing of metals (copper, bronze and iron) - dotaku.

construction of sheltered fortifications.

Dotaku bells (analogous to drums, associated with an agricultural cult)

To date, it is not known for certain whether this culture, which is commonly called the "Yayoi culture", was brought to Japan as a result of migrations from the Korean Peninsula and the territory of modern China, or was developed by the inhabitants of the Japanese islands, who imported some "know-how" from the continent. .

Agriculture strengthened the settled way of life and the social structure of society - agricultural community.

Country (kuni)  villages (mura)  house communities (courtyards - ko): 5-6 dugout dwellings (tateana), sometimes pile buildings (takayuki), used as a granary, subsequently converted to Shinto shrines.

Ancient Japan (300 - 1185)

1)Yamato(300 - 710 years).

Kofun(300 - 592)

Asuka(593 - 710)

2) Nara(710 - 794 years)

3) heian(794 - 1185 years)

Yamato

The era of the formation of a centralized state

Kofun:

The country was united under an emperor by 300 AD.

The appearance of mounds that served for the burial of rulers (jap. "kofun").

Expansion of the country from Kyushu to Kanto.

Enshrined in historical sources.

Small plastic - figurines of people and animals (Khaniva).

Asuka:

Buddhism was brought to Japan between 538 and 552. The emergence of writing.

Prince played a huge role in the spread of Buddhism Shotoku Taishi, regent during the reign of the empress Suiko. He is credited with creating in 604 " Code of seventeen articles", in which he preached Buddhism and Chinese ideals of statehood.

In 645 were held Taika reforms:

implemented Chinese schemes for the structure of the state apparatus and administration,

the lands were bought by the state and equally divided among the peasants,

introduced a new (according to the Chinese model) taxation system.

At the same time, Taoism, Confucianism and hieroglyphics came from China and Korea to Japan - kanji, a local religious system began to take shape - Shintoism.

In 622 Emperor Tenchi accepted "Code Tenchi"- the first legislative code known to us from the chronicles in Japan.

Period Asuka was marked by a strong the influence of Chinese and Korean cultural traditions on the development of Japanese culture.

However, at the same time, an original Japanese style developed. So the architectural ensembles of the temple horyu-ji, which was built by Prince Shotoku in 607, have no analogues in China and Korea.

Buddhist temple complexes differed in layout depending on whether they were built in the mountains or on the plain.

The temple ensembles built on the plain are characterized by a symmetrical arrangement of buildings.

In mountainous conditions, due to the very nature of the terrain, a symmetrical arrangement of buildings is usually simply impossible, and architects each time had to find a specific solution to the problem of the most convenient location of the structures of the temple complex.

The Japanese temple-monastery originally consisted of seven elements:

outer gate ( Samon),

main, or golden hall ( condo),

sermon hall kodo),

drum or bell tower ( koro or severely),

sutra repository ( kyozo),

treasury ( shosoin) ,

multi-tiered pagoda.

Covered galleries, as well as the gates leading to the territory of the temple, were often architecturally remarkable independent structures. The complex also included living quarters for monks, a dining room.

For all Shinto shrines approximately the same layout. An important element of Shinto religious architecture is the gate to the temple - torii. Torii are arches resembling the letter "P" with two crossbars, the upper of which is longer and slightly concave. Previously, they were built only of wood and were always painted red. They are followed by a pair of statues of "Korean dogs", which are supposed to drive away evil spirits.

A typical Shinto shrine complex consists of two or more buildings.

The main sanctuary for kami, is called honden. Closed to the public. Priests enter the honden only for rituals.

The prayer hall is called haiden, where is altar.

Located in the main room goshintai (literally - "kami body"). It is believed that in xingtai the soul is infused kami. body kami there may be a stone, a tree branch, a mirror, a sword, or a wooden tablet on which the name of a given god is written.

Ise Temple Complex - The earliest Shinto building in Japan: survived to this day due to the custom of rebuilding and renovating temples every 20 years (since the 7th century).

Nara era (710-794)

It began with the restoration of the capital of the state in the city of Heijo-kyo (modern city Nara),

ended with its transfer to the city of Heian-kyo (modern city Kyoto).

According to legend, after the proclamation of Heijo-kyo (the old name of Nara) as the capital of Japan, the god of the shrine kasuga taisha came to defend this city white deer.

Yamato  Japan

The first written monuments (using Chinese characters): Kojiki 712g and Nihon shoki 720g; a collection of 4.5 thousand poems about love and the sacred places of Asuka, Nara, etc.

The main temple ensembles of the city of Nara

Todaiji (743-752)

considered the largest wooden structure in the world. Buddhism is already the state religion.

In the main hall of Todaiji there is a Buddha statue of Vairochana, which is the largest Buddha statue in Japan (437 tons of bronze, 150 kg of gold, 7 tons of wax)

Toshodaiji (founded 752)

Its foundation is associated with the name of the Chinese Buddhist monk Chienchen (Jap. Ganjin). Toshodaiji can be translated as Temple of the Visiting Chinese.

Toshodaiji is known for having the largest number of buildings from the Nara era preserved within its boundaries.

Heian (794 - 1185)

The formation of the institute of samurai belongs to the Heian era ( bushi).

At the end of the 10th century, the Imperial Palace became the center of cultural prosperity. His chambers were decorated with works of art by the best masters.

The time when festivities were held, to which the best poets of that time were invited, musical and poetic tournaments were held, various games borrowed from China.

In painting, the national style gained great popularity yamato-e.

Old folk songs, performed according to the rules of gagaku, came into fashion.

There is a proper Japanese writing system.

Buddhist monk, writer, calligrapher Kukai(Kobo-daishi) created the syllabary hiragana based on Chinese cursive characters. Later, the sounds of the same alphabet began to be written with signs of a different system. So was born katakana(the system used to write loanwords has been in use since the 8th century.)

The first schools and a university were created for the metropolitan aristocracy. The training was conducted according to the Chinese model and included the mastery of the six Confucian arts. : ritual, music, literature, mathematics, archery and chariot driving. Some noble aristocratic families had their own schools, but university education remained the standard for them.

Heian literature

In 905, by order of Emperor Daigo, the canonical text "Kokinshū" ("Collection of Old and New Songs") was written. With its release, the leading poetic genre of the century (“Japanese song”), also known as tanka (“short song”, containing 31 syllables), took shape.

Brilliant court prose of this period was created by women, for it was fitting for a man to write exclusively in Chinese, and if he did, then only poetry. In the XI century. saw the light of the genre narrative novel. The first outstanding example of the genre was the novel by the court writer Murasaki Shikibu (978-1014) "The Tale of Prince Genji" (1010). It is also becoming popular genrelyrical diary(nikki), which tended to become a lyrical tale of his life. At the end of the tenth century one of the first famous women's diaries appears "Diary of a Flying Web".

In the 9th century, two new Buddhist schools appeared in Japan at once: Tendai and Shingon. Both teachings were united by the position of the presence of the Buddha Nature in each individual phenomenon and the universality of "enlightenment", that is, the disclosure by each of the "essence of the Buddha." The task is to discover the nature of the Buddha in oneself, which can be done within one lifetime.

Tendai (Lotus Sutra) originated from the Chinese school of the same name, Tiantai Zong.

In 805, the Japanese monk Saicho (Japanese: 最澄; also Dengyō-Daishi 伝教大師) practically re-introduced and spread the Tendai school. Later, the Tendai school underwent significant development and became significantly different from the original Chinese Tiantai school.

In 785 Saicho , disillusioned with the Buddhism of that time, shut himself up with several students in a small monastery on Mount Hiei (jap. 比叡山). Traveling to China in 804, he received the rank of teacher of the Tiantai school, and was initiated into some of the rituals of Tantric Buddhism. When Saicho returned from China with the new Tiantai texts, he built a temple on Mount Hiei temple Enryaku-ji (Jap. (延暦寺), which became the center of the Japanese Tendai school for many hundreds of years.

The essence of the teaching:

Buddha Shakyamuni, after gaining awakening, was in the "sea reflection" samadhi, where he saw the whole world as the absolute unity of the infinite Mind. The Buddha outlined his vision in the Avatamsaka Sutra, and then in the form of the Lotus Sutra. Before the final departure to nirvana, the Buddha also preached the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which in the Tiantai school is considered a confirmation of the highest truth of the Lotus Sutra.

The Avatamsaka Sutra, according to the Tiantai school, is accessible only to people with a developed intellect, while the Lotus Sutra accessible and understandable to both educated and ordinary people.

The two most important ideas of tian tai are the doctrine of "three thousand worlds in one act of consciousness" and the concept of "one mind".

Shingon-shu- one of the main Buddhist schools in Japan, belonging to the direction of the Vajrayana. The word shingon (Chinese zhenyan) means "true, right word" or mantra- prayer formula. The school originated in the Heian period (794-1185). The founder of the school is the monk Kukai.

In 804, Kukai traveled to China where he studied tantra and returned back, bringing with him a large number of texts and Buddhist images, on the basis of which he developed his own teaching and practice, primarily associated with the Buddha Vairochana (Mahavairochan Tathagata).

Temple complexes: Muro-ji, Daigo-ji

Amidism(Pure Land Buddhism) One of the paths leading living beings from the fetters of samsara to Nirvana is the practice of sincere, based on deep faith, pronouncing the name of Buddha Amitabha (Amitayus), which ensures the subsequent automatic birth in paradise - in the land of Buddha Amida. Since salvation through one's own efforts and virtues is impossible.

Painting of the ancient period:

The earliest surviving outstanding works date from the Nara period (645-794) - these are the murals of the Horyuji Temple. Executed with flexible lines, with a light tint, they have something in common with Indian and Chinese patterns.

During the Heian period (794-1185), mandalas, which are symbolic schemes of the universe, became widespread in Buddhist painting.

The first samples of secular painting, presented in horizontal scrolls, illustrating aristocratic stories and novels, belong to the same period.

During this period, the national Japanese style Yamato-e begins to develop.