In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia's national culture continues to develop.

The culture was greatly influenced by the nobility, and the dominance of foreigners also continued. Russian science and education continued to develop, although serfdom and autocracy greatly hindered this.

In the development of education in Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. Two trends are clearly visible:

· Significant expansion of the network of educational institutions;

· Strengthening the influence of the principle of estates on the formulation of education.

Literature the second half of the 18th century remained predominantly noble. Among the peasants, oral compositions of folk poetry were distributed, as well as various stories that were part of handwritten books. The life of the serfs was reflected in the "Lament of Serfs", which appeared among the serfs in 1767-1768. those. on the eve of the peasant war. The essay describes the lack of rights of the serf, the mockery of him by the master; complaints about the wrong court end with the threat of "evil gentlemen under the root to translate." A lot of satirical stories appear, parodying the royal court, soldier's service, red tape in government instances. Directions of literature 2nd floor. XVIII century:

classicism (A.P. Sumarokov)

realism (D.I. Fonvizin)

sentimentalism (N.M. Karamzin)

Sumarokov Alexander Petrovich wrote, in addition to many lyrical and satirical poems, 9 tragedies and 12 comedies. He is recognized as the creator of the Russian theater repertoire. Sumarokov, in his ideological and political views, belonged to the conservative camp. He considered the nobility to be the leading class in the state, opposed church superstition and the domostroy way of family life, and was a supporter of women's education. The heroes of his comedies are either virtuous, and he sympathizes with them, or repulsively ugly. This is how the hero of the tragedy "Dmitry the Pretender" is bred. Sumarokov's comedies, like tragedies, performed educational functions, they were aimed at correcting morals and eliminating human vices ("Guardian", "Likhoimets", "Cuckold by imagination", etc.).

Fonvizin Denis Ivanovich- the author of the comedies "The Brigadier" and the immortal "Undergrowth". The comedies are outwardly similar to the works of classicism: they have 5 acts, the unity of time and place is observed. The names of the actors correspond to the requirements of classicism: their characteristics are embedded in the surnames. However, the content of the comedies deviates from the canons of classicism: they depict not abstract characters endowed with either vices or virtues, but living people, artistically generalized characters generated by serfdom reality. The Undergrowth presents a gallery of actors brought up in conditions of serfdom. The problem of education, which was the leading one in the system of views of the enlighteners, also worried Fonvizin, who believed that the root of evil was in education.

Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich Adherents of sentimentalism show the feelings of an ordinary person, sometimes not distinguished by anything. In psychological novels and stories, sentimentalists depict intimate life, family life. In their works, the characters escape from social reality, seclude themselves in the bosom of nature. The idyllic picture of rural life is characteristic: the master shows paternal care for the peasants, and they repay him with respect and obedience. This obscured the social contradictions of the era and the slavish position of the serf. The largest representative of this trend was N.M. Karamzin, and his most significant work "Poor Lisa". The story is based on a sentimental fiction about the relationship between the poor serf girl Lisa and the young officer Erast. An idyllic relationship ends in tragedy: the seduced Lisa commits suicide.

Art. The 18th century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes and significant achievements in the field of art. Its genre structure, content, character, means of artistic expression have changed. Russian art went on a pan-European path of development:

· Foreign masters were invited to help create new art and were teachers of the Russian people.

receiving professional training by sending Russian masters to study in Western Europe (France, Holland, Italy, England, Germany)

At this stage, Russian art came into close contact with Western European stylistic trends.
In 1757, the Academy of Three Noble Arts was opened in St. Petersburg. Already in 1758, through the efforts of M.V. Lomonosov and I.I. Shuvalov (President of the Academy in 1757-1763), a group of Moscow and St. Petersburg young men who were inclined towards the arts arrived here. Foreign teachers also taught at the Academy: the sculptor N. Gillet, the painters S. Torelli, F. Fontebasso, and others. In 1764, the Academy of the Three Noble Arts was transformed into the Russian Imperial Academy of Arts. At this time, the Academy became both a legislator of artistic ideas and an educational institution. A new generation of artists grew up in its midst, who subsequently glorified Russia all over the world, these were the architects I. Starov, V. Bazhenov, the sculptors F. Shubin, F. Gordeev, the artists A. Losenko, D. Levitsky.

Russian painting developed throughout the entire 18th century in close contact with the art of Western European schools, joining the public domain - works of art of the Renaissance and Baroque. Painting is distinguished by considerable diversity and completeness. The Russian school masters the genres of painting, which were previously represented only by the works of old and modern Western European masters. The biggest achievements are connected with the art of portraiture.

F. S. Rokotov(1735-1808). Already at a fairly mature age, he was admitted to the Academy of Arts. His early works - portraits of G. G. Orlov (1762-1763), E. B. Yusupova (1756-1761) testify to his involvement in the Rococo culture. There are signs of this style in the coronation portrait of Catherine II (1763), which became a model for the image of a very demanding empress. In the period of the eighties of the eighteenth century, a shade of proud consciousness of one's own importance prevails in Rokotov's portraits (portrait of the general's wife V. E. Novosiltseva (1780), noble lady E. N. Orlova).

D. G. Levitsky(1735-1822). The priest's son Levitsky was born in Ukraine. It is distinguished by the ability to convey the external similarity of the model in combination with its psychological image. For about 20 years, Levitsky headed the portrait class of the Academy of Arts and not only participated in the education of an entire school of Russian portrait painters, but set the tone and level of the high reputation of portrait art in Russia. He was equally good at chamber portraits and full-length ceremonial portraits (Demidov (1773), Ursula Mnishek (1782)).

V. L. Borovikovsky(1757-1825). Borovikovsky is from Ukraine. Born into a Cossack family. He began as a church icon painter. It quickly becomes popular among the St. Petersburg nobility. The artist portrays entire family "clans" - Lopukhins, Tolstoy, Arsenyevs, Gagarins, Bezborodko. The predominant place is occupied by chamber portraits. The artist's canvases are very elegant. Heroes are usually inactive, most models are intoxicated with their own sensitivity. This is expressed by the portrait of M. I. Lopukhina (1797), Skobeeva (mid-1790s),. The artist pays great attention to small-format and miniature portraits that he succeeded perfectly.

Conclusion: throughout the XVIII century, the Russian art of painting has come a long way of becoming according to the laws of modern times. The needs of the era were reflected in the predominant development of secular painting - portrait, landscape, historical and everyday genres.

Sculpture. In the 18th century, a noticeable stylistic change in the development of Russian plastic arts was brought by the new aesthetics of classicism of the Enlightenment. An important role was played by the invited French sculptor N. Gillet, who for a long time headed the sculptural class of the Academy. N. Gillet's school, which laid the foundations of classical sculpture in Russia, was passed by all the leading Russian sculptors of the second half of the 18th century, who graduated from the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts: F. Gordeev, M. Kozlovsky, I. Prokofiev, F. Shchedrin, F. Shubin, I. Martos.

Ivan Martos(1752-1835). He creates quite classical works, which differ noticeably in the purity and clarity of their form from the works of other masters. Martos is a master of a wide range, addressing a variety of topics. He left a noticeable mark in the development of the theme of a classical tombstone and a city monument. (Monument to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow).

Ivan Prokofiev (1758-1828). Prokofiev has a sentimental jet, which gave a special softness and lyricism to his images. The best thing in his heritage is the reliefs created for the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, in which he achieves exceptional perfection of form in the expression of majestic silence, in harmony with the classical structure of the interior.

Fedot Shubin(1740-1805). The brilliant flowering of his talent begins at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. He became an unsurpassed master of sculptural portraiture, made many commissioned portraits, busts (A. M. Golitsyn, Z. P. Chernyshev). By the end of the 18th century, new forms of figurative expression were outlined in the form of sentimentalist, and then romantic moods (P.V. Zavadovsky and A.A. Bezborodko (1798)). At the same time, in the later works of the artist, another trend is also noticeable - the concretization of the portrait image is intensifying, and the lines of rigor and simplicity are growing in the style.

Architecture. In a country that was belatedly entering the all-European path of development, the development of Western European styles inevitably proceeds at an accelerated pace. The essence of the transitional time was expressed by the state of multi-style, when Russian art, figuratively speaking, "tried on" itself to different European styles, not yet making a final choice, combining the features of baroque, classicism and rococo.

St. Petersburg has become the epicenter of progressive trends and urban planning. The future capital was built from scratch, which greatly facilitated the introduction of regular planning and development techniques.

Rastrelli Francesco Bartolomeo (1700-1771), the son of an Italian sculptor who served at the court of the French king Louis XIV, but acquired architectural and construction experience in Russia; being a gifted artist, he managed to prove himself as a skilled architect and took the highest position in the architectural world of Russia as a “chief architect”. His work reached its apogee in 1740-1750. His most famous creations are the Smolny Monastery ensemble in St. G. Stroganov in St. Petersburg, but to the highest degree his talent manifested itself in the creation of such masterpieces as the Winter Palace (1754-1762) in the capital, the Grand Palace in Tsarskoe Selo and Peterhof (Petrodvorets). All of them characterize the Baroque style of the mid-18th century.

Antonio Rinaldi(1710-1794). In his early buildings, he was still influenced by the "aging and outgoing" baroque, but Rinaldi is a representative of early classicism. His creations include: the Chinese Palace (1762-1768), the Marble Palace in St. Petersburg (1768-1785), the Palace in Gatchina (1766-1781). Rinaldi also built several Orthodox churches that combined elements of the Baroque - five-domed domes and a high multi-tiered bell tower.

Kokorinov A. F.. (1726-1822). It is customary to attribute the building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg, built on the Nevsky Embankment of Vasilyevsky Island (1764-1788), to his famous works, where the style of classicism manifested itself with the greatest clarity. The extraordinarily beautiful facade and multifunctional offices and halls of this building corresponded to the ever-increasing prestige of Russian art.

Conclusion: The 18th century was a time conducive to the development of Russian culture, defining its two main lines: professional, focused on the all-European path, and local, continuing to develop the traditions of folk art.

Theatre. Fedor Grigoryevich Volkov (1729-1763), who is called the "father of the Russian theater". Volkov was born into a poor merchant family in the city of Kostroma. Then he settled in Yaroslavl, where he developed his remarkable activity. In 1750 Volkov founded a public theater in Yaroslavl. The fame of this theater reached the capital, the artists were summoned to St. Petersburg. Artists experienced many ordeals, until, finally, the government issued a decree on the establishment in 1756 in St. Petersburg of the "Russian theater for the presentation of tragedies and comedies." The head of the theater was first the writer Sumarokov, and then Volkov. Volkov's influence on the subsequent development of the theater in Russia was enormous. Volkov occupies an honorable place in the history of Russian culture.

"The Age of Reason and Enlightenment" - this is how the great thinkers of the 18th century, heralds of new revolutionary ideas, spoke about their time. The 18th century entered the history of world culture as an epoch of great ideological and socio-historical shifts, the sharpest struggle against feudal-monarchical foundations and religious dogmatism. The spread of the materialistic worldview and the affirmation of the spirit of love of freedom were vividly reflected in philosophy, science, literature, and in the educational activities of the greatest philosophers, scientists, and writers of that time - Diderot and Holbach, Voltaire and Rousseau, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller, Lomonosov and Radishchev.

Russian culture is also entering a new period, having experienced a significant turning point at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. After a long time of forced cultural isolation, caused by the three-century Mongol conquest, as well as the influence of the Orthodox Church, which tried to protect Rus' from everything "heretical", "Western" (including education, customs, forms of cultural life), Russian art is embarking on the path of pan-European development and is gradually freed from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. This was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of the new, rationalistic worldview over the harsh, ascetic, dogmas of religious morality. "Secular" art acquires the right to public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role in the system of civic education, in shaping the new foundations of the country's social life. At the same time, Russian culture of the 18th century did not reject its past.

Joining the rich cultural heritage of Europe, Russian figures at the same time relied on the indigenous domestic traditions accumulated over a long previous period of artistic and historical development, on the experience of ancient Russian art. It was precisely because of this deep continuity that Russia was able during the 18th century not only to take an active part in the general process of the movement of world culture, but also to create its own national schools, firmly established in literature and poetry, in architecture and painting, in theater and music.

By the end of the century, Russian art achieves tremendous success.

General assessment of Russian culture of the 18th century

The significance of the shifts that have taken place in Russian culture is evidenced by the fact that for the first time in the 18th century, secular, non-church music leaves the realm of oral tradition and acquires the significance of high professional art.

The intensive growth of Russian culture in the 18th century was to a large extent due to major transformations in all areas of the life of Russian society, carried out in the era of Peter I.

Peter's reforms radically changed the whole structure of the cultural and social life of Russia. The old "domostroy" customs of the medieval ecclesiastical scholastic worldview are crumbling.

The political and cultural achievements of the Petrine era helped to strengthen the people's sense of national pride, consciousness of the greatness and power of the Russian state.

An invaluable contribution to the development of Russian culture of the 18th century was made by Russian musicians - composers, performers, opera artists, who mostly came from the people's environment. They were faced with tasks of great difficulty, within a few decades they had to master the wealth of Western European music accumulated over the centuries.

In the general path of the historical development of Russian art of the 18th century, there are three main periods:

The first quarter of the century, associated with the reforms of Peter;

The era of the 30-60s, marked by the further growth of national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art, and at the same time the strengthening of class oppression;

The last third of the century (beginning from the mid-1960s) was marked by great social changes, the aggravation of social contradictions, a noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment.

Education

On the brink of the 19th century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. These figures show the rise in literacy in Russia and, at the same time, its lagging behind in comparison with Western Europe: in England at the end of the 18th century. there were more than 250 thousand students in Sunday schools alone, and in France the number of elementary schools in 1794 reached 8 thousand. In Russia, on average, only two people studied out of a thousand.

The social composition of students in general education schools was extremely diverse. The children of artisans, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. predominated in public schools. The age composition of students was also not the same - both kids and 22-year-old men studied in the same classes.

Common textbooks in schools were the alphabet, the book by F. Prokopovich "The First Teaching to the Young", "Arithmetic" by L. F. Magnitsky and "Grammar" by M. Smotrytsky, the Book of Hours and the Psalter. There were no compulsory curricula, the duration of study varied from three to five years. Those who completed the course of study were able to read, write, knew the basic information from arithmetic and geometry.

A significant role in the development of education in Russia was played by the so-called soldiers' schools - general education schools for soldiers' children, successors and continuers of the digital schools of the time of Peter the Great. This is the earliest, most democratic elementary school of that time, teaching not only reading, writing, arithmetic, but also geometry, fortification, and artillery. It is no coincidence that in the second half of the XVIII century. a retired soldier, along with a sexton, becomes a literacy teacher both in the countryside and in the city - let us recall the retired sergeant Tsyfirkin, honest and disinterested, who tried in vain to teach Mitrofanushka “tsyfirka wisdom”. Soldiers' children made up the bulk of the students of Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. The national military schools, opened in the second half of the 18th century, also belonged to the soldier type. in the North Caucasus (Kizlyar, Mozdok and Ekaterinograd).

The second type of schools in Russia in the 18th century are closed noble educational institutions: private boarding schools, gentry corps, institutes for noble maidens, etc., more than 60 educational institutions in total, where about 4.5 thousand noble children studied. Although the gentry corps (Land, Naval, Artillery, Engineering) trained mainly officers for the army and navy, they provided a broad general education for that time. The first Russian actors, the Volkov brothers, and the playwright Sumarokov studied there; students participated in performances of the court theater. Class educational institutions were also noble boarding houses - private and state: the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Noble Boarding School at Moscow University, etc. Well-educated noblemen who adopted the ideology of their class came out of them. These educational institutions enjoyed the greatest financial support from the government: 100 thousand rubles were allocated for one Smolny Institute. per year, while all public schools were given 10 thousand rubles. to the province, and this money went not only to public education, but also to the needs of "public charity" - hospitals, almshouses, etc.

The third type of educational institutions includes theological seminaries and schools. There were 66 of them, 20,393 people studied in them (meaning only Orthodox schools). These were also estate schools intended for the children of the clergy; commoners in them, as a rule, were not accepted. The main task of these schools was to train priests devoted to the church and the king, but students of seminaries also received a general education and often became literate guides in their parishes. A small number (about two dozen) of special schools (mining, medical, navigational, land surveying, commercial, etc.), as well as the Academy of Arts, founded in 1757, represented the fourth type of educational institutions. Although only about 1.5 thousand people studied in them, they played an important role in the training of specialists, in which Russia then especially needed.

Finally, the training of specialists was also carried out through universities - Academic, established in 1725 at the Academy of Sciences and existing until 1765, Moscow, founded in 1755 on the initiative of Lomonosov, and Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, but actually acted as a university from the 80s of the XVIII century. Students of the philosophical, legal and medical faculties of Moscow University, in addition to science in their specialty, also studied Latin, foreign languages ​​and Russian literature.

Moscow University was a major cultural center. He published the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti", had his own printing house; various literary and scientific societies worked under him. D. I. Fonvizin, later A. S. Griboedov, P. Ya. Chaadaev, the future Decembrists N. I. Turgenev, I. D. Yakushkin, A. G. Kakhovskiy came out of the university.

It is necessary to soberly assess the results of the development of education in Russia in the 18th century. Noble Russia had an Academy of Sciences, a university, gymnasiums and other educational institutions, while the country's peasant and craftsmen remained largely illiterate. The school reform of 1786, so widely advertised by the government of Catherine II, was popular only in name, but in reality it was purely class in nature. We must not forget that the ideas of the Enlightenment were "the motto of tsarism in Europe." However, the genius of the people was able to manifest itself not thanks to the policy of "enlightened absolutism", but in spite of it. This is especially evident in the example of M. V. Lomonosov.

Introduction……………………………………………………………...2.

Chapter 1. Educational institutions…………………………………………4.

Chapter 2. Literature………………………………………………….6.

Chapter 3. Architecture……………………………………………….13.

Chapter 4. Sculpture………………………………………………...17.

Chapter 5. Painting………………………………………………….19.

Chapter 6. Theater and Music……………………………………………….24.

Conclusion………………………………………..………………...26.

Literature…………………………………………………………..27.

Introduction

Throughout the history of the development of philosophical thought, culture in one aspect or another has been the subject of study by various thinkers, writers, and historians. The word "culture" itself comes from the Latin word "colere", which means to cultivate, or cultivate the soil. In the Middle Ages, the word came to refer to a progressive method of cultivating cereals, thus the term "agriculture" or the art of farming arose. But in the XVIII century. it began to be used in relation to people, therefore, if a person was distinguished by the elegance of manners and erudition, he was considered “cultured”. Then this term was applied mainly to aristocrats in order to separate them from the "uncivilized" common people. The German word "Kultur" also meant a high level of civilization.

The topicality of the problem I have chosen lies in the fact that in today's life the word "culture" is still associated with the opera house, excellent literature, good education. But so far, culture has not become the norm for us.

In relation to modern times, it can be said that the totality of material and spiritual values, as well as the ways of their creation, the ability to use them for the progress of mankind, to transfer from generation to generation, constitute culture. The initial form and primary source of the development of culture is human labor, methods of its implementation and results.

The objectives of my essay are very simple. First, to show how in the XVIII century. our country has changed, what progress it has made in development in just one century, and what role the West plays in this. Secondly, to show the transition from religious to secular culture. Culture covers not only the past and present, but also extends into the future. The development of culture is an organic component of the history of society. Constantly developing, culture always manifests itself in specific historical forms.

18th century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes in the socio-economic sphere and significant achievements in the field of art. In architecture, in sculpture, in painting and in graphics, Russian art entered the pan-European path of development. 18th century in the field of culture and life of Russia - a century of deep social contrasts, the rise of education and science.

Russian culture of the second half of the XVIII century. reflects the features of a rising nation. The social role of fiction is growing, which is gradually losing its former anonymous and handwritten character. Leading writers are active fighters for the ideas of enlightenment; the first literary journals appeared.

The absolutist state needed a secular culture. Under Peter I, Western trends actively penetrate into culture and life. This leads to a fruitful synthesis. The main artistic trend in the era of Peter was classicism, which continued to characterize the cultural process until the middle of the 18th century. Its ideological basis was the struggle for a powerful national statehood under the auspices of autocratic power, the assertion of the power of absolute monarchy in artistic images.

Classicism was not the only current of noble culture in the Age of Enlightenment. It was replaced by sentimentalism. He brought with him attention to the feelings and interests of the common man, predominantly from the “middle” class.

Along with sentimentalism (and more often in combination with it), the realistic tendencies of Russian culture, conventionally called "enlightenment realism", are increasingly being identified. They protested against the feudal ideology with the greatest activity and consistency.

The objectives of the abstract are to study the rapid development of culture in the XVIII century. and Western influence.

Chapter 1. Educational institutions.

In the new culture, there was a trend towards democracy. Educational reforms played a major role in this. A system of secular schools is being created. On the brink of the 19th century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. The social composition of students by that time in general education schools was extremely diverse. Children of artisans, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. predominated in public schools. The age composition of the students was also not the same - both kids and 22-year-old men studied in the same classes.

The common textbooks in schools were the alphabet, the book by F. Prokopovich “The First Teaching to the Young”, “Arithmetic” by L. F. Magnitsky and “Grammar” by M. Smotrytsky, a book of hours and a psalter. There were no compulsory curricula, the duration of study varied from three to five years. Those who completed the course of study were able to read, write, knew the basic information from arithmetic and geometry.

A significant role in the development of education in Russia was played by the so-called soldiers' schools - general education schools for soldiers' children, successors and continuers of the digital schools of the time of Peter the Great. This is the earliest, most democratic elementary school of that time, teaching not only reading, writing, arithmetic, but also geometry, fortification, and artillery. Soldiers' children made up the bulk of the students of Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. The type of soldiers also included national military schools opened in the second half of the 18th century. in the North Caucasus (Kizlyar, Mozdok and Ekaterinograd).

The second type of schools in Russia in the 18th century. - these are closed noble educational institutions: private pensions, gentry corps, institutes for noble maidens, etc., more than 60 educational institutions in total, where about 4.5 thousand noble children studied. Although in the gentry corps (Land, Naval, Artillery, Engineering) they trained mainly officers for the army and navy. The first Russian actors, the Volkov brothers, and the playwright Sumarokov studied there; students participated in performances of the court theater. Class educational institutions were also noble boarding schools - private and state: the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Noble Boarding School at Moscow University, etc. They produced well-educated nobles who adopted the ideology of their class. These educational institutions enjoyed the greatest financial support from the government: 100 thousand rubles were allocated for one Smolny Institute. per year, while all public schools were given 10 thousand rubles. to the province, and this money went not only to public education, but also to the needs of “public charity” - hospitals, almshouses, etc.

The third type of educational institutions includes theological seminaries and schools. There were 66 of them, 20,393 people studied in them (meaning only Orthodox schools). These were also estate schools intended for the children of the clergy; commoners in them, as a rule, were not accepted. The main task of these schools was to train priests devoted to the church and the king, but students of seminaries also received a general education and often became literate guides in their parishes.

A small number (about two dozen) of special schools (mining, medical, navigational, land surveying, commercial, etc.), as well as the Academy of Arts, founded in 1757, represented the fourth type of educational institutions. Although only about 1.5 thousand people studied in them, they played an important role in the training of specialists, in which Russia then especially needed.

Finally, the training of specialists was also carried out through universities - Academic, established in 1725 at the Academy of Sciences and existing until 1765. Moscow, founded in 1755 on the initiative of Lomonosov. Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, but actually acted as a university since the 80s of the XVIII century. Students of the philosophical, legal and medical faculties of Moscow University, in addition to science in their specialty, also studied Latin, foreign languages ​​and Russian literature.

Moscow University was a major cultural center. He published the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti", had his own printing house; various literary and scientific societies worked under him. D. I. Fonvizin, later A. S. Griboedov, P. Ya. Chaadaev, the future Decembrists N. I. Turgenev, I. D. Yakushkin, A. G. Kakhovskiy came out of the university.

Outstanding discoveries in the field of physics, chemistry, astronomy were made by Lomonosov. E. R. Dashkova, head of the Academy of Sciences, did a lot to organize research. I. P. Kulibin created a semaphore telegraph, a screw elevator, a 300-meter single-arch bridge, I. I. Polzunov - the world's first steam engine. M. M. Shcherbatov wrote "Russian History ..." in 7 volumes.

Chapter 2. Literature.

For the 18th century characteristic is the emergence of new themes and images brought to life by changed historical conditions. Rebellious poetic creativity invariably accompanies the people throughout its history, being an artistic response to the major events of reality. In different eras, folk art took different forms.

The central place in the oral folk art of the XVIII century. occupy songs and legends about Pugachev. These songs were created during the battles of the rebels with the Tsarist troops. The people see in Pugachev a people's tsar, a peasant protector and avenger. In folk legends, Pugachev is a hero, a hero-commander who is closely connected with the people and opposes the nobility; he became the leader of the rebels.

In addition to songs about Pugachev, in the XVIII century. previously created songs about Razin, about “good fellows, free people” were popular.

In the XVIII century. traditional genres of folk art continued to be widespread - epics, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, everyday songs, etc. It can not be considered an accident that in the XVIII century. proverbs were written down, reflecting the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe will: “will to the master, but bondage to the serf”, “will does not want bondage”, “in the field-will”.

In handwritten democratic literature of the 18th century. works of folk art penetrated, which could not be printed due to censorship slingshots. Such is the “Lament of Serfs”, which reveals with expressive comparisons the “ferocity” of the bar and the servitude of the serfs. The difficult life of the starving courtyards was reflected in the peasant Tale of the Pakhrin village of Kamkin. Now a complaint, now bitter laughter through tears is heard in handwritten parodies of official documents. In The Deaf Passport, the author bitterly speaks of the impossibility of a fugitive peasant finding work; poverty pushes him onto the path of robbery and robbery. The hard soldier's service is vividly described in hand-written stories of soldier origin - in a parody petition to God and in the "Sorrowful Tale". Folk satire also penetrates popular prints - such is the picture “The bull did not want to be a bull”, where the people's dreams of social justice are expressed in an allegorical form.

The main motives of the oral folk drama are a sharp denunciation of the villainous tsar (the drama “Tsar Maximilian”), a servant’s mockery of a ruined nobleman (“The Imaginary Master”), calls for reprisal against the nobles (“The Boat”). This genre of oral folk art reflected the class contradictions of that time in an intelligible playful way.

Literature in the first half of the 18th century was the heyday of the story ("history"). Widely known was the "History of the Russian sailor Vasily Koriotsky", which reflected the ideology and real life of that time. This story was supposed to convince the reader that respect, honor and wealth are achieved due to the personal qualities of a person, and not the nobility of his family.

The period under review occupies an important place in the process of the formation of a new literary language, which was largely facilitated by the introduction of the civil alphabet. However, literature is characterized by great linguistic diversity, as Church Slavonic continued to be used.

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   Abstract >> Culture and art

   Landscape, historical and everyday genres. First 18 century from a rather primitive image of the human ... / T.V. Ilyin. - M., 2000. Krasnobaev, B.I. History essays Russian culture XVIII century

Peter's reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Enlightenment has advanced a lot, which had a great influence on the further development of culture.

On January 1, 1700, a new chronology was introduced - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural history museum in Russia, the Kunstkamera, was established.

Under Peter 1, education became a state policy, since educated people were needed to implement reforms. Under Peter 1, general and special schools were opened, conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences.

In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow - the first secular state educational institution, a number of professional schools were created - Artillery, Engineering, Medical. In the first quarter of the 18th century digital schools, parochial schools, and theological seminaries began to open. The organization of secondary and higher education is closely connected with the creation of the Academy of Sciences (1724). It included the Academy, the University and the gymnasium. Mikhail Lomonosov became the first Russian academician. In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was established, which became a major cultural center. In the printing house organized under him, the newspaper "Moscow News" was published.

Vocational art schools appeared. In St. Petersburg - the Dance School, in Moscow - the Ballet School and the Academy of Arts.

Typography. The book publishing business has grown significantly. In 1708, a font reform was carried out, civil and civil printing was introduced, which contributed to the increase in secular and civil books and magazines. Libraries were organized, bookstores were opened.

A major Russian thinker of the 18th century. was Feofan Prokopovich, a contemporary and associate of Peter. In his works (“The Word of the Power and Honor of the Tsar”, “The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs”, etc.), he develops the Russian version of the concept of enlightened absolutism. The works of V.N. Tatishchev - the first major Russian historian who wrote "Russian History from the Most Ancient Times". In it, he traces the history of Russia from Rurik to Peter I. N. Radishchev, a writer and philosopher, occupies a special place in the spiritual life of Russia.

Literature. Extensive book publishing activities greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of the civil language contributed to the strengthening of the secular language. At this time, poetic works were very popular - odes, fables, epigrams of the Russian poet and educator Antioch Cantemir (1708-1744).

The poet VK Trediakovsky (1703-1768) became a reformer of the Russian language and versification.

A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), poet, author of the first comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg, became the founder of Russian dramaturgy. He wrote in different genres: lyrical songs, odes, epigrams, satires, fables. The works of these writers reflected the ideas of Russian classicism.

Last quarter of the 18th century became the heyday of the great poet G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816). The main genre of his works was ode.

Russian manners and customs were expressed in his social comedies "Brigadier" and "Undergrowth" by D.I. Fonvizin. His comedies marked the beginning of the accusatory-realistic trend in literature.

The founder of Russian sentimentalism was N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), the author of the stories "Poor Liza", "The Village" and others. Karamzin's main work is "The History of the Russian State".

Architecture. In the Petrine era, innovations were introduced in architecture and construction, due to the requirements of the government to express the strength, power and greatness of the Russian Empire in architectural structures.

With the political and economic development of the country presented to the civil construction. The most notable buildings of that time in Moscow were the Bolshoi Kamenny Bridge, the Arsenal in the Kremlin, etc. In 1749, Ukhtomsky organized the first Architectural School in Moscow in Moscow, where V.P. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakov studied under his leadership.

The Petrine era is characterized by the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg (since 1703), for which foreign architects Trezzini and Rastrelli were invited. The new capital was conceived as a regular city, with long radial avenues, with urban ensembles of quarters and streets, squares. Trezzini acted as the author of residential buildings of three categories: for "eminent" citizens - stone, for "wealthy" and "ordinary" people - hut. Trezzini's public buildings were distinguished by their simplicity of style - the building of the Twelve Collegia (now the University). The most significant building was the Peter and Paul Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Among the public buildings stood out Gostiny Dvor, Exchange, Admiralty. Simultaneously with Petersburg, country palaces with famous park ensembles were built - Peterhof and others.

A huge contribution to the style of Russian baroque was the activity of the father and son of Rastrelli. Father (an Italian sculptor) participated in the decoration of Peterhof. The son (already a Russian architect) was the author of the Smolny Monastery and the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, and others. 19th century The representatives of classicism in Russia were the architects V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov and I.E. Starov.

Bazhenov and Kazakov worked in Moscow and St. Petersburg - the palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyno, the Senate in the Moscow Kremlin, the Nobility Assembly with the magnificent Column Hall, the Mikhailovsky Castle. Starov - the author of the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra of the Tauride Palace - a monument to victory in the Russian-Turkish war. The main value of classicism is the ensemble, the organization of the ensemble: strict symmetry, straight lines, straight rows of columns. A vivid example is the Palace Square of the architect K.I. Rossi. The surviving buildings of the 18th century. and today they are not only an adornment of Russian cities, but also masterpieces of world significance.

Art. This is the heyday of portraiture. The most famous artists of the time of Peter the Great - Andrei Matveev (1701-1739) and Ivan Nikitin (1690-1742) - the founders of Russian secular painting. By the end of the 1920s, there was a turning point towards the court direction of painting. The best portrait painters of the 18th century - A.P. Antropov, F.S. Rokotov, D.T. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky. The classical direction in sculpture was represented by Fedor Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky.

At the end of the 18th century one of the richest art collections in the world, the Hermitage, is being formed. It is based on a private collection of paintings by Catherine II.

In the 18th century continued development of the theater. New theaters were opened, performances based on plays by Russian authors - Sumarokov, Fonvizin were staged.

Ballet in Russia originated as separate dance numbers in the intermissions of dramatic and opera performances. In 1741, by decree of Peter's daughter Elizabeth, a Russian ballet troupe was established.

The fortress theater also continued to develop. The history of the theater includes the names of serf actors Praskovya Zhemchugova, Mikhail Shchepkin and others. In the 18th century, the theater gained immense popularity and became the property of the masses.

Music. In the 18th century secular musical art begins to spread. The Philharmonic Society is created, in which ancient and classical music is performed, a composer school is formed, Russian composers appear - authors of opera and chamber music. Opera becomes the leading musical genre. The leading opera composer of that time was D.S. Bortnyansky - the author of about 200 works. At the end of the century, a genre of chamber lyrical song appeared - a Russian romance based on verses by Russian poets.

The results of the historical and cultural development of the 18th century. are very significant. The development of Russian national traditions in all types of art continued. At the same time, the strengthening of ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture. All directions of all areas of culture have been developed - education, printing, literature, architecture, fine arts. There were new literary magazines, fiction, public theater, secular music. There is a formation of Russian classicism. The development of culture in the 18th century prepared the brilliant flourishing of Russian culture of the 19th century, which became an integral part of world culture.

Synopsis on the history of Russia

The development of Russia in the first half of the 18th century was greatly influenced by reforms of Peter I in the field of education, science, as well as the Europeanization of life introduced by him and the openness of Russian society to the assimilation of European culture. Deep practicality, which characterized all the activities of Peter I, distinguished his policy in the field of education and science.

Training of specialists conducted both abroad and at home. In the province, primary education was carried out in three types of schools: 46 diocesan, preparing clergy; 42 digital - for the training of local petty officials; garrison schools - for the education of soldiers' children. In addition, in Moscow (1703-1715) there was a special general education school - the "gymnasium" of pastor E. Gluck, in which they taught mainly foreign languages.

military specialists trained Navigation, Artillery, Engineering, Naval and Medical Schools.

In addition to translating foreign languages, they created own textbooks. Smotrytsky's grammar and Magnitsky's "Arithmetic" were most widely used. F.P. Polikarpov, G.G. Skornyakov-Pisarev, F. Prokopovich and others made a great contribution to the creation of new textbooks and teaching aids. Simultaneously with the reform in the field of education in the first quarter of the 18th century, the publishing business developed rapidly. In 1708, Peter I introduced a new civil font instead of Church Slavonic. To print secular educational, scientific and specialized literature, as well as legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities, which published over 600 titles of books and other publications (including many translations) during the years of Peter's reign.

The development of printing led to the beginning organized bookselling, and in 1714 a state library was opened in St. Petersburg, which laid the foundation for the Library of the Academy of Sciences. From December 1702, the first periodical in Russia began to appear - the newspaper Vedomosti. Geographical and geological surveys have acquired a wide scope. The activities of Russian inventors (M. Serdyukov, Ya. Batishchev, I. Belyaev, E. Nikonov, A. Nartov and others) were noted for great success.

At the initiative of Peter I, a foundation was laid in Russia collecting scientific collections and organized national museology. In 1719, the Kunstkamera was opened for public viewing, a collection of "rarities", which served as the basis for the collections of future museums - the Hermitage, Artillery, Naval and others.

The result of the achievements of the time of Peter the Great in the field of science and education was the creation (by decree of January 28, 1724) in St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, opened after the death of Peter I in 1725. The Academy of Sciences was created not only as a national scientific center, but also as a base for the training of scientific personnel. Under her, a university and a gymnasium were opened.

The most important socio-economic and political changes in the life of Russia in the Petrine era were reflected in literature and journalism. In 1717 in St. Petersburg, "Reasoning ..." about the causes of the war with Sweden was published, which is the first diplomatic treatise in Russian history on the country's foreign policy priorities. Economic journalism was represented by the works of the outstanding nugget scientist I.T. Pososhkov, and above all by his most famous work, The Book of Poverty and Wealth.

A brilliant writer, orator and public figure of the era of Peter the Great was the ideologist of church reform Feofan Prokopovich. He developed the "Spiritual Regulations" and an important political treatise "The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs." Another prominent church figure was Stefan Yavorsky. His literary activity is marked by major religious treatises "The Sign of the Coming of the Antichrist" and "The Stone of Faith", directed against Protestantism.

By the time of Peter I are attempts to create public theaters in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where plays on historical themes and comedies were staged. In the field of fine arts in the first quarter of the 18th century, secular painting, especially portraiture, was actively developed. Outstanding portrait painters of that time were I.N. Nikitin, A.M. Matveev, and among the masters of engraving - I. Adolsky.

A new phenomenon in Russian culture was the spread sculptural compositions, which was especially pronounced in the creation of palace and park ensembles - for example, the design of the Grand Cascade of the Peterhof Palace (architect J.B. Leblon).

In the Petrine era, urban planning is undergoing a transition to regular urban development, the creation of large architectural ensembles - mostly civil, not cult significance. The most striking example of this is the construction of St. Petersburg. The complex of buildings and structures of the Peter and Paul Fortress, the Summer Palace of Peter I (architect D. Trezzini), the building of the Twelve Collegia, the Admiralty and others became remarkable architectural monuments.

Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, life and customs were of a pronounced political nature, often introduced by violent methods. At the forefront of these reforms were the interests of the state, which was built according to a rigid plan of the monarch's will. The purely external attributes of the Petrine era, manifested in the decretive introduction of European customs and mores, in isolation from the age-old traditions of Russian culture, should have emphasized the fundamental difference between the Russian Empire created in a quarter of a century and a great state of the European type.

The cultural life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century is permeated ideas of the Enlightenment- the French ideology of the "kingdom of reason", which attached great importance to the spread of education and science.

In Russia, the greatest figure in the Enlightenment was the writer and journalist N.I. Novikov (1744-1818), who was also engaged in publishing activities. His satirical magazines Truten and Zhivopisets (1769-1773) castigated the vices caused by autocratic despotism and serfdom: his idea "peasants are the same people as nobles" was a discovery for Russia in the 18th century.

AT development of education two trends were traced: firstly, the expansion of the network of educational institutions (the appearance in 1786 of the "Charter of Public Schools" led to an increase in public schools from 8 to 288, and the number of students - from 518 to 22,220 people); secondly, the consolidation of the principle of class education (an increase in the number of noble educational institutions). The number of cadet corps increases to 5, a new type of educational institution arises - a noble boarding school.

An important role in the spread of education was played by I.I. Betsky, a supporter of raising children in isolation from their parents (in order to avoid bad influence). Thanks to the activities of Betsky, an Orphanage for illegitimately born and foundlings appeared in Moscow, a commercial school for the merchants, in St. Petersburg - the Smolny Institute for noble maidens with a petty-bourgeois department for non-noble women. Christian missionaries opened schools for the peoples of the Volga region and Siberia.

The main center of scientific activity remained the Academy of Sciences; in 1755 Moscow University was added to it, in 1773 the Mining School in St. Petersburg, in 1783 - the Russian Academy, which studied the Russian language and grammar. An outstanding role in the development of domestic science was played by M.V. Lomonosov, a naturalist of world significance, a poet-educator, an artist, and a historian. Lomonosov discovered the law of conservation of matter, put forward the doctrine of color, investigated electricity and gravity, discovered the atmosphere on Venus, described the structure of the Earth, etc.

The rise of technical thought is associated with the name of I.I. Polzunov, the inventor of the universal steam engine, who worked at the Ural plant and the mechanic-inventor I.P. Kulibin, who surprised St. across the Neva with a length of 298 meters.

AT 18th century literature the Russian Middle Ages are living out their days and a new poetry, dramaturgy and prose oriented towards the Western genre system is emerging. Hence the variety of literary genres: satire, political journalism, philosophical poetry, novels and theological treatises.

The main trend in the literature is classicism in the form of odes, tragedies, words of praise. This was most clearly manifested in the work of A.P. Sumarokov, who wrote comedies and tragedies that perform educational functions.

NM Karamzin - writer, historian, author of "History of the Russian State", the founder of Russian sentimentalism. In his works "Letters of a Russian Traveler", "Poor Liza" Karamzin depicts Russian peasants in a sensual and sentimental spirit, in the form of shepherds and shepherds, and the landowner as a caring father of his peasants. G.R. Derzhavin was the greatest poet of the late 18th century. He was worried about the beauties of the surrounding world, and the philosophical problems of human existence, and socio-political problems.

D.I.Fonvizin - Russian writer, creator of social comedy. He was one of the first to expose the myth of the "philosopher on the throne", to denounce the stupidity and ignorance of the Russian nobility. In the comedies "Foreman" and "Undergrowth" he reproduced a vivid picture of the life of the landowners, focusing on the most unattractive aspects of their life.

The name of A.N. Radishchev is associated with the formation of a revolutionary ideology aimed at the destruction of the autocratic-feudal system by force. His most famous work is the book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", written in 1784-1789 in the form of travel notes. The images of the peasants are presented with sympathy in the Journey, the landowners, who treat the peasants as working cattle, are endowed with repulsive features. He contrasts autocracy with republican popular government, puts forward the idea of ​​"the complete abolition of slavery" by a popular uprising and "giving the peasants land." Catherine called Radishchev "a rebel worse than Pugachev", saw in him a distributor of "French infection". On her orders, Radishchev was arrested and sentenced to death, which was replaced by a 10-year exile in Ilim.