How not to perish if the two rivers on which your life depends are stormy and unpredictable, and of all earthly riches there is only clay in abundance? The peoples of the Ancient Mesopotamia did not die, moreover, they managed to create one of the most developed civilizations of their time.

background

Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) is another name for Mesopotamia (from other Greek Mesopotamia - "two rivers"). So the ancient geographers called the territory located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In the III millennium BC. Sumerian city-states, such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, and others, formed on this territory. The emergence of an agricultural civilization became possible thanks to the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates, after which fertile silt settled along the banks.

Developments

III millennium BC- the emergence of the first city-states in Mesopotamia (5 thousand years ago). The largest cities are Ur and Uruk. Their houses were built of clay.

About III millennium BC.- the emergence of cuneiform (more about cuneiform). Cuneiform arose in Mesopotamia, initially as an ideographic-rebus, and later as a verbal-syllabic script. They wrote on clay tablets with a pointed stick.

Gods of Sumerian-Akkadian mythology:

• Shamash - sun god
• Ea - god of water
• Sin is the god of the moon,
• Ishtar is the goddess of love and fertility.

A ziggurat is a pyramid-shaped temple.

Myths and legends:

• The myth of the flood (about how Utnapishti built a ship and was able to escape during the global flood).
• The story of Gilgamesh.

Members

To the northeast of Egypt, between two large rivers - the Euphrates and the Tigris - is the Mesopotamia, or Mesopotamia, also known as Mesopotamia (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Ancient Mesopotamia

Soils in the Southern Mesopotamia are surprisingly fertile. Just like the Nile in Egypt, the rivers gave life and prosperity to this warm country. But the floods of the rivers were stormy: sometimes the streams of water fell on the villages and pastures, demolishing dwellings and pens for livestock. It was necessary to build embankments along the banks so that the flood would not wash away the crops in the fields. Canals were dug to irrigate fields and gardens.

The state arose here at about the same time as in the Nile Valley - more than 5,000 years ago.

Many settlements of farmers, growing up, turned into centers of small city-states, the population of which was no more than 30-40 thousand people. The largest were Ur and Uruk, located in the south of Mesopotamia. Scientists have found ancient burials, the objects found in them testify to the high development of the craft.

There were neither mountains nor forests in the Southern Mesopotamia, the only building material was clay. The houses were built from clay bricks, dried due to lack of fuel in the sun. To protect buildings from destruction, the walls were made very thick, for example, the city wall was so wide that a wagon could drive along it.

Towering in the center of the city ziggurat- a high stepped tower, at the top of which there was a temple of the god - the patron of the city (Fig. 2). In one city it was, for example, the sun god Shamash, in another it was the moon god Sin. Everyone revered the water god Ea, people turned to the goddess of fertility Ishtar with requests for rich grain harvests and the birth of children. Only the priests were allowed to climb to the top of the tower - to the sanctuary. The priests observed the movement of the heavenly gods - the Sun and the Moon. They made a calendar, predicted the fate of people by the stars. The learned priests were also involved in mathematics. The number 60 they considered sacred. Under the influence of the inhabitants of the Ancient Mesopotamia, we divide an hour into 60 minutes, and a circle into 360 degrees.

Rice. 2. Ziggurat in Ur ()

During excavations of ancient cities in Mesopotamia, archaeologists found clay tablets covered with wedge-shaped icons. Badges were squeezed out on wet clay with a pointed stick. To give hardness, the tablets were fired in a kiln. Cuneiform badges are a special letter of Mesopotamia - cuneiform. Icons denoted words, syllables, combinations of letters. Scientists have counted several hundred characters used in cuneiform writing (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cuneiform ()

Learning to read and write in Ancient Mesopotamia was no less difficult than in Egypt. Schools, or "Houses of tablets", which appeared in the III millennium BC. e., only children from wealthy families could attend, since education was paid. For many years it was necessary to attend the school of scribes in order to master the complex system of writing.

Bibliography

1. Vigasin A. A., Goder G. I., Sventsitskaya I. S. History of the Ancient World. Grade 5 - M .: Education, 2006.
2. Nemirovsky A. I. A book for reading on the history of the Ancient World. - M .: Education, 1991.

Additional precommended links to Internet resources

1. STOP SYSTEM() project.
2. Culturologist.ru ().

Homework

1. Where is Ancient Mesopotamia located?
2. What is common in the natural conditions of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt?
3. Describe the cities of Ancient Mesopotamia.
4. Why are there ten times more characters in cuneiform than in the modern alphabet?

Lvova E.P., Sarabyanov D.V. Fine Arts of France. XX century (Document)

Abstract - Features of contemporary art (Abstract)

Akimova L.I., Dmitrieva N.A. Ancient Art (Document)

Kadyrov, Korovina and others. Culturology (Document)

Leskova I.A. World Art. Lesson notes (Document)

Poryaz A. World culture: Renaissance. The Age of Discovery (Document)

Barykin Yu.V., Nazarchuk T.B. Cultural Studies (Document)

Abstract - The development of the culture of Kazakhstan in the 2nd half of the 19th century (Abstract)

n1.docx

2.4. Spiritual culture of Mesopotamia. In Sumer at the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. mankind for the first time left the stage of primitiveness and entered the era of antiquity, here begins the true history of mankind. The transition from barbarism to civilization means the emergence of a fundamentally new type of culture and the birth of a new type of consciousness. The spirit of Mesopotamian culture reflected the crushing power of nature. Man was not inclined to overestimate his strength, observing such powerful natural phenomena as a thunderstorm or an annual flood. The Tigris and Euphrates flooded, destroying dams and flooding crops. Heavy rains turned the solid surface of the earth into a sea of ​​mud and deprived a person of freedom of movement. The nature of Mesopotamia crushed and trampled on the will of man, constantly made him feel how powerless and insignificant he was.

Interaction with natural forces gave rise to tragic moods, which found its direct expression in people's ideas about the world in which they lived. Man saw in it order, cosmos, not chaos. But this order did not ensure its security, as it was established through the interaction of many powerful forces, periodically entering into mutual conflicts. With such a view of the world, there was no division into animate or inanimate, living and dead. In such a universe, any objects and phenomena had their own will and character.

In a culture that considered the entire universe as a state, obedience had to act as the first virtue, because the state is built on obedience, on the unconditional acceptance of power. Therefore, in Mesopotamia, the "good life" was also the "obedient life." The individual stood at the center of expanding circles of power that limited his freedom of action. The circle closest to him was formed by power in his own family: father, mother, older brothers and sisters, outside the family there were other circles of power: the state, society, gods.

A well-established system of obedience was the rule of life in ancient Mesopotamia, because man was created from clay, mixed with the blood of the gods and created in order to work instead of the gods and for the good of the gods. Accordingly, a diligent and obedient servant of the gods could count on signs of favor and rewards from his master. The path of obedience, service and reverence was the road to earthly success, to the highest values ​​of life: to health and longevity, to an honorable position in the community, to wealth.

Another major problem of the Mesopotamian spiritual culture was the problem of death, which seemed to be evil and the main punishment for man. Indeed, death is evil, but it cannot negate the value of human life. Human life is inherently beautiful, and this is manifested in all aspects of everyday existence, in the joy of victory, in love for a woman, etc. Death, on the other hand, marks the end of an individual's life path. Moreover, it seems to stimulate a person to live wisely and meaningfully in order to leave a memory of himself. One should die fighting evil, even fighting death. The reward for this will be the grateful memory of descendants. This is the immortality of man, the meaning of his life.

People do not have the opportunity to avoid death, but this does not give rise to a pessimistic attitude towards life. A person in all situations must remain a person. His whole life should be saturated with the struggle for the establishment of justice on earth, while death is the culmination of life, the completion of the successes and victories that have fallen to his lot. In general, a person's life is predestined from birth, there is no place for accidents in it, the possibility of somehow influencing the course of events is excluded in advance. It was in Mesopotamian mythology that the concept of rigid determinism of human life was created, which assumed the Last Judgment, the golden age and heavenly life - ideas that later became part of the religious beliefs of the peoples of Western Asia and biblical mythological literature.

Thus, the spiritual culture of the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations appears at the same time as an alloy of an undivided and at the same time differentiated reality based on a specific mythology that grew directly from the primitive consciousness, retaining many of its original qualities. This mythology was anthropomorphized only to a small extent, since it was not addressed to personal empathy. She performed the function of affirming and exalting the divine-universal principle, embodied in the personality of the all-powerful despot. Such a mythology does not know completeness, it is always oriented towards supplementing, adapting it to a certain religious, state or everyday reality. All this taken together makes the spiritual culture of the Mesopotamian peoples generally uniform, despite ethnic diversity, as well as resilient and plastic, capable of growing and becoming more complex, as well as creating the greatest cultural values.

The spiritual culture of Mesopotamia strove to reflect all aspects of human activity. At the same time, knowledge was considered the most valuable, which made it possible to avoid misfortunes or get rid of their consequences. Therefore, in the spiritual culture, a special place was occupied by the prediction of the future - fortune-telling. This system was developed very widely, including divination by the movement of stars, the Moon, the Sun, atmospheric phenomena, animal behavior, plants, etc. Divination could predict events both in the country and in the life of an individual. Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian priests and magicians had extensive knowledge of the human psyche, had experience in the field of suggestion and hypnosis.

In general, the formation of the spiritual culture of the peoples of Mesopotamia was inextricably linked with the development of their religious consciousness, which went from the worship of the forces of nature and the cult of ancestors to the veneration of the single supreme god An. In the process of development of the culture of the Mesopotamian civilizations, religious ideas took shape in a complex system in which the idea of ​​deification of the king and royal power dominated.

The main duty of people in relation to the gods was the offering of sacrifices. The sacrificial ritual was complex: incense was burned, and the libation of sacrificial water, oil, wine, prayers were raised for the well-being of the donor, animals were slaughtered on the sacrificial tables. The priests who were in charge of these rites knew what dishes and drinks were pleasing to the gods, what could be considered “clean” and what was “unclean”.

During the performance of ritual and ritual ceremonies, the priests had to cast spells, know the relationship of the gods, remember the legends about the origin of the universe, their people, be able to portray the gods, play musical instruments. In addition, they had to predict the weather, tell people the will of the gods, be able to heal ailments, perform various agricultural rituals, and do much more. Thus, the priest was at the same time a priest, a poet, a singer, an artist, a healer, an agronomist, a performer, etc. Knowledge of various artistic languages ​​was necessary for him to perform his duties professionally, since there were no special artists, musicians, dancers in the temples, it was the priests and priestesses who sang sacred texts, acted out ritual scenes, and also danced.

Mesopotamia became the birthplace of many religious ideas and dogmas, most
of which were assimilated and creatively reworked by neighboring peoples -
mi, including the Greeks and the ancient Jews. This can be verified by
measure of biblical tales, in accordance
with which there are quite certain
nye ideas about paradise. Holy books
gi, religious painting and literature
draw a beautiful garden, where walking-
|| Adam and Eve are hiding in the branches of a tree

the tempting serpent lurked, persuading Eve to eat the fruit of the forbidden tree. It turns out that the Sumerian ideas about the Garden of Eden, where there is no death, largely correspond to the biblical ones. The description of its location also testifies to the borrowing of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bdivine paradise by Christianity; the Bible directly states that the rivers of paradise are located in the Euphrates region, that is, in Mesopotamia.

A comparison of the biblical description of the creation of the world in the Book of Genesis with the Babylonian poem "Enuma Elish" ("When above") reveals many similarities in them. Cosmogony, the creation of man from clay, and the rest of the creator after this coincide in many details.
2.5. The Art of the Mesopotamian Civilizations. The works of the Mesopotamian culture mainly served cult purposes and the solution of various practical problems. Products of artistic creativity were used to facilitate labor processes, regulate social relations and perform religious and magical rites. The process of social stratification developing in that era gave rise to a special category of works of art intended for public ceremonies that carry a certain symbolic load. The deification of the images of the leaders was carried out in laudatory songs - hymns and monumental tombstones. Objects that perform the functions of attributes of power (wands, scepters, weapons, etc.) became objects of artistic creativity.

Perhaps the very first step in separating artistic consciousness into an independent sphere was the construction of a special “house of God” - a temple. The path of development of temple architecture - from an altar or a sacred stone in the open air to a building with a statue or some other image of a deity, raised up on a hill or on an artificial platform, turned out to be relatively short, but the formed type of "God's house" did not change later for millennia .

Temples were built in cities and dedicated to the respective god. At the temple of the main local deity, there was usually a ziggurat - a high tower surrounded by protruding terraces and giving the impression of several towers, decreasing in volume ledge by ledge. There could be from four to seven such ledges-terraces. Ziggurats were built on hills of bricks and faced with glazed tiles, with the lower ledges painted in darker colors than the upper ones. The terraces were, as a rule, landscaped.

The deity was supposed to protect the city, which was considered his property, so he was supposed to live at a higher altitude than mortal people. To do this, a golden dome was built in the upper part of the ziggurat, which served as a sanctuary, that is, "the dwelling of God." In the sanctuary, the god rested at night. Inside this dome there was nothing but a bed and a gilded table. But the priests also used this sanctuary for more specific needs: they conducted astrological observations from there.

The symbolic coloring of the temple, in which the colors were distributed from darker to lighter and brighter colors, connected the earthly and heavenly spheres with this transition, united the elements. Thus, the natural colors and shapes in the ziggurat turned into a coherent artistic system. And the unity of the earthly and heavenly worlds, expressed in geometric perfection and inviolability of the forms of stepped pyramids, directed upwards, was embodied in a symbol of a solemn and gradual ascent to the top of the world.

A classic example of such architecture is the ziggurat in Uruk, one of the most important centers of Mesopotamian religious and artistic culture. It was dedicated to the moon god Nanna and was a three-tiered tower with a temple on the upper terrace. Only the lower platform of very impressive dimensions has survived to this day - 65 x 43 m and a height of about 20 m. Initially, the ziggurat of three truncated pyramids stacked on top of each other reached a height of 60 m.

No less majestic was the palace architecture. The cities of the Mesopotamian civilizations looked like fortresses with powerful walls and defensive towers surrounded by a moat. A palace towered over the city, usually built on an artificial platform made of mud bricks. Numerous palace premises satisfied a variety of needs. The palace in the city of Kish is one of the most ancient in Western Asia. It reproduced in terms of the type of a secular residential building with a number of deaf, windowless living quarters grouped around a courtyard, but differed in size, number of rooms, and richness of decoration. The high outer front staircase, on top of which the ruler appeared like a deity, went out into an open courtyard intended for meetings.

Almost no architectural monuments of the Mesopotamian culture have survived to our time. This is due to the absence of building stone on the territory of Mesopotamia. The main material was unfired brick, which is very short-lived. Nevertheless, individual surviving buildings allowed art historians to establish that it was the Mesopotamian architects who were the creators of those architectural forms that formed the basis of the building art of Greece and Rome.

Another achievement of the art of the Mesopotamian civilizations was the development of various ways of transmitting information in the form of pictographic (pictorial) and cuneiform writing.

Cuneiform writing gradually evolved from pictorial writing. It got its name because of the similarity of the shape of its signs with horizontal, vertical and angular wedges, the combinations of which first depicted words, then - syllable signs consisting of two or three sounds. Cuneiform was not an alphabet, that is, a sound letter, but contained ideograms that denoted either whole words, or vowels, or syllables. The difficulty lies in their ambiguity. Reading such texts was extremely difficult, and only an experienced scribe, after many years of study, could read and write without errors. Most often, scribes used special determinants (determinants), which were supposed to exclude reading errors, since the same sign had many different meanings and ways of reading.

The Sumerians were the creators of cuneiform writing, later it was borrowed by the Babylonians, and then, thanks to the development of trade, it spread from Babylon throughout Asia Minor. By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Cuneiform became the international writing system and played a large role in the development of Mesopotamian literature.

Thanks to cuneiform writing, many monuments of Mesopotamian literature have been preserved - they were written on clay tablets, and almost all of them were readable. Basically, these are hymns to the gods, religious myths and legends, in particular, about the emergence of civilization and agriculture. In its deepest origins, Sumero-Babylonian literature goes back to oral folk art, which included folk songs, the ancient "animal" epic and fables. A special place in Mesopotamian literature was occupied by the epic, the origin of which dates back to the Sumerian era. The plots of the Sumerian epic poems are closely connected with myths that describe the golden age of hoary antiquity, the appearance of the gods, the creation of the world and man.

The most outstanding work of Babylonian literature is the "Poem of Gilgamesh", in which the eternal question about the meaning of life and the inevitability of death of a person, even a glorified hero, is raised with great artistic power. The content of this poem dates back to deep Sumerian antiquity, since the name of Gilgamesh, the semi-legendary king of Uruk, is preserved in the lists of the most ancient pairs of Sumer.

The “Poem of Gilgamesh” occupies a special place in Mesopotamian literature, both due to its artistic merit, and because of the originality of the thoughts expressed in it: about the eternal desire of man to know the “law of the earth”, the secret of life and death. Deep pessimism is permeated with that part of the poem, where the future life is depicted as an abode of suffering and sorrow. Even the famous Gilgamesh, despite his divine origin, cannot earn the highest mercy from the gods and achieve immortality.

Mesopotamian literature was also represented by poems, lyrics, myths, hymns and legends, epic tales and other genres. A special genre was represented by the so-called laments - works about the death of cities as a result of raids by neighboring tribes. In the literary work of the peoples of Ancient Mesopotamia, the problems of life and death, love and hatred, friendship and enmity, wealth and poverty were posed, which are characteristic of the literary work of all subsequent cultures and peoples.

The art of Mesopotamia, originally associated with the ritual, having gone through several stages, acquired in the 2nd millennium BC. e. appearance in which modern man already guesses familiar features. The variety of genres, poetic language, emotional motivation of the actions of the characters, the original form of works of art testify to the fact that their creators were real artists.

Assyrian art and the history of its formation can serve as a typical model for understanding Mesopotamian culture. Assyrian art of the 1st millennium BC. e. glorified the power and victories of the conquerors. The images of formidable and arrogant winged bulls with arrogant human faces and sparkling eyes are characteristic. The famous reliefs of the Assyrian palaces have always glorified the king - powerful, formidable and merciless, which were the Assyrian rulers. It is no coincidence, therefore, that Assyrian art features unparalleled depictions of royal cruelty: impalement, tearing out the captives' tongues, etc. The cruelty of the customs of Assyrian society was apparently combined with its low religiosity. In the cities of Assyria, not religious buildings, but palaces and secular buildings prevailed, just as in the reliefs and paintings of Assyrian palaces, not religious, but secular subjects.

On the Assyrian reliefs, the king does not hunt in general, but in the mountains or in the steppe, feasts not “abstractly”, but in a palace or in a garden. The sequence of events is also conveyed on late-time reliefs: individual episodes form a single narrative, sometimes quite long, and the course of time is determined by the arrangement of the scenes.

The creation of such bas-reliefs was only possible for a whole army of professional artists who worked according to a strictly specified setting. The unified rules for depicting the figure of the king, its location, dimensions are strictly concise and entirely subordinate to the idea - to show the power and strength of the king-hero and his great deeds. At the same time, many specific details in different drawings and reliefs turned out to be exactly the same. Even images of animals tend to be "composed" of standard parts. The freedom of the artist's creativity consisted only in presenting as many characters as possible, showing several plans, combining the beginning of the action and its result, etc.

The degree of study of the ancient Eastern civilizations allows, as noted above, to form only the most general idea of ​​the main milestones in the development of their artistic culture. The approximateness of the recreated picture is felt even stronger if we take into account that the choice of fine art as the dominant form is determined by the monuments at our disposal, of which the majority are works of this particular type of art.

Comparing and comparing the available cultural monuments and features of the era under consideration, it is possible to determine the rules and norms that the ancient masters were guided by in their work. The first conclusion that most obviously suggests itself in this analysis is that the artistic meaning of objects was inseparable from their utilitarian purpose and from their magical (or religious) function. Since it was the purpose of the object that determined its magical and artistic features, there is reason to single out such a feature of Mesopotamian art as utilitarianism. It is quite obvious that this feature at different stages of Mesopotamian culture manifested itself to varying degrees, but it was always inherent in it.

In addition, the study of the monuments of Mesopotamian art allows us to conclude that the informative element prevailed in his artistic consciousness. Informativeness in monuments of art means the inherent ability to preserve and communicate (transmit) information specially incorporated into specific works by their creators.

Informativeness is most fully and vividly expressed in those monuments of fine art that contained various forms of pictorial (pictographic) writing. It should be emphasized that in the future, with the emergence of other types of writing (hieroglyphic, syllabic, alphabetic), monuments of artistic culture retain this property in the form of inscriptions that accompanied sculptures, reliefs, paintings, or their own short explanations, etc.

Mesopotamian culture had a huge impact on the development of other peoples. Within its framework, for several millennia, the artistic activity of the most ancient civilizations was carried out, and the progressive movement of artistic thinking took place. The Hellenic

antiquity, it draws strength from Western and Eastern medieval cultures. Indeed, for the first time in history, it was in Mesopotamia that a strong artistic continuity was established, the first artistic styles were formed.
Literature:

Beletsky M. The Forgotten World of the Sumerians. - M., 1980

Vasiliev L. S. History of the East: In 2 volumes - M., 1994

Zabolotskaya Yu. History of the Middle East in antiquity. - M., 1989

Klochkov I. S. Spiritual culture of Babylonia: man, fate, time. - M., 1983

Culture of the peoples of the East. Old Babylonian culture. - M., 1988

Lyubimov L. The Art of the Ancient World. - M., 1996

World Artistic Culture: Proc. allowance / Ed. B. A. Erengross. - M., 2005

Sokolova M.V. World culture and art. - M., 2004

Oppenheim A. L. Ancient Mesopotamia. - M., 1990

The origins of the culture of ancient Egypt

Culture of the Old Kingdom

Culture of the Middle Kingdom

Culture of the New Kingdom

Religion and Art of Ancient Egypt

Topic 3.

The culture of the ancient civilizations of Egypt
In the history of mankind, the civilization of Ancient Egypt arose one of the first and existed for about three millennia - approximately from the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. until 332 BC e., when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. The conquest of Egypt by the Greeks forever deprived it of its independence, but the Egyptian culture continued to exist for a long time and retain its values ​​and achievements. For three centuries, the heirs and descendants of the commander Ptolemy ruled here. In 30 BC. e. Egypt became a province of Rome. Around 200, Christianity came to the territory of Egypt, which became the official religion until the Arab conquest in 640.
3.1. The origins of the culture of ancient Egypt. The culture of Ancient Egypt is a typical example of ancient Eastern culture. The Egyptian state arose in northeast Africa, in the Nile Valley. The name "Egypt" was given to the state by the Greeks who came to the country to get acquainted with its cultural achievements. The name comes from the ancient Greek "Aigiptyus", which is the name of the Egyptian capital of Memphis, distorted by the Greeks - Het-ka-Ptah (the fortress of the god Ptah). The Egyptians themselves called their country Ta-Kemet (Black Earth) by the color of its fertile soil, as opposed to the red earth of the desert (Ta-Mera).

The ancestors of the ancient Egyptians were nomadic hunting tribes who lived in the Nile Valley and belonged to the Hamitic group of peoples. They were distinguished by slender body proportions and dark brown skin. As with all Eastern cultures, the population of ancient Egypt was not homogeneous. From the south, Nubians entered Egypt, whom the Greeks called Ethiopians, who had more pronounced Negroid features. And from the West, Berbers and Libyans with blue eyes and fair skin penetrated into Egypt. In Egypt, these peoples assimilated and became the basis of the entire population.

Gradually, two states formed on the territory of Egypt - Upper Egypt in the south in the narrow Nile Valley and Lower Egypt in the north in the Nile Delta. Upper Egypt was a stronger and more powerful union, striving to capture the northern regions. Around 3000 BC e. King of Upper Egypt Less subjugated Lower Egypt and founded the first dynasty of the united state. From that moment on, Ancient Egypt exists as a single one, and the reign of the first two dynasties is called the Early Kingdom. The king of united Egypt began to be called "pharaoh" ("big house"), which indicated his main function - the unification of lands. Pharaoh Menee founded the city of Memphis, which was originally a fortress on the border of Upper and Lower Egypt, and later became the capital of a single state.

The history and culture of Ancient Egypt were largely predetermined by its geographical location. The real world of the Egyptians was limited by the narrow valley of the great river Nile, surrounded on the west and east by desert sands. It was the nature of the country and its only huge river, on the spills of which the life and well-being of the people depended, that were the most important factor that determined the attitude and worldview of the Egyptians, their attitude to life and death, their religious views.

The fact is that as a result of continuous tropical downpours and melting snow, the sources of the Nile overflowed, and it flooded every year in July. Almost the entire river valley was under water. Four months later, by November, the Nile waters subsided, leaving behind a thick layer of silt on the fields. Dry land after the flood of the Nile became wet and fertile. After that came the second four-month period (November - February) - the time of sowing. The agricultural cycle ended with the third four-month period (March - July) - harvest time. At this time, unbearable heat prevailed, turning the earth into a cracked desert. Then the cycle was repeated, starting with the next spill.

Thus, the existence of Egypt
that directly depended on the spills of Ni-
la and not by chance the "father of history" Hero
dot called Egypt "the gift of the Nile". Basic
wu of the country's economy was irri-

irrigation (irrigated) agriculture. Irrigation systems required centralized management, and this role was taken over by the state, headed by the pharaoh.

In the history of Ancient Egypt, there are several main periods: pre-dynastic (4 thousand BC), the Old Kingdom

(2900-2270 BC), Middle Kingdom (2100-1700 BC), New Kingdom (1555-1090 BC) and Late Kingdom (XI century - 332 BC). In turn, these main stages are divided into periods of interregnums, characterized by the collapse of a single state and invasions of foreign tribes.
3.2. Culture of the Old Kingdom. As already noted, the periods of reign of the pharaohs of the I and II dynasties are usually called the Early Kingdom in the history of Egyptian culture. The second period (III-U1 dynasty) was called the Old Kingdom. It is characterized by the formation of a new centralized state, the formation of the state apparatus, the allocation of administrative districts. At the same time, the unlimited power of the pharaoh is affirmed, it is deified, which finds its expression in the construction of pyramid-tombs.

The era of the Old Kingdom was perceived by the Egyptians themselves as the time of the reign of powerful and wise kings. The centralization of power in ancient Egypt gave rise to a specific form of social consciousness - the cult of the pharaoh, based on the idea of ​​the pharaoh as the ancestor of all Egyptians. At the same time, the pharaoh was seen as the heir to God, the creator and ruler of the world. Therefore, he had power over the entire cosmos. The well-being of the country was due to the presence of the pharaoh. Thanks to him, regularity and order prevailed everywhere. Pharaoh himself kept the balance of the world, which was constantly threatened by chaos.

The decisive role in the formation of the Egyptian culture of this stage was played by the religious and mythological ideas of the ancient Egyptians: the funeral cult and the deification of the power of the pharaoh, which were an integral part of the religion.

gia, deifying the forces of nature and earthly power. Therefore, religion and mythology are the key to understanding the entire culture of Ancient Egypt.

The religious views of the Egyptians were mainly formed precisely in the era of the Old Kingdom on the basis of impressions from the real natural world. Animals were endowed with supernatural, magical qualities, immortality was attributed to them. So, for example, the god Horus was likened to a falcon, Anubis - a jackal, Thoth was depicted as an ibis, Khnum - a ram, Sebek - a crocodile, etc. At the same time, the Egyptians worshiped not the animal itself, but the divine spirit, which took the form of the corresponding animal.

In addition, since cattle breeding occupied a leading place in the economic life of the Egyptians, the deification of the bull, cow, and ram began from ancient times. The bull named Apis was revered as the god of fertility. It had to be black with light markings. Such bulls were kept in special rooms and embalmed after death. Under the guise of a cow, or a woman with cow horns, Hathor, the goddess of the sky and the patroness of nature, was revered. She was also considered the goddess of fertility and trees (date palm, sycamore), watered the souls of the dead in the afterlife with life-giving moisture.

However, as the Egyptian civilization developed, the gods began to take on an anthropomorphic (humanoid) appearance. The remains of their early images survived only in the form of bird and animal heads and appeared in the elements of the headdresses of the Egyptians.

The most important feature of the attitude of the inhabitants of Egypt was the rejection of death, which they considered unnatural both for man and for all nature. This attitude was based on the belief in the regular renewal of nature and life. After all, nature is renewed annually, and the Nile, spilling over, enriches the surrounding lands with its silt, supporting life and prosperity. But when it goes back to its banks, a drought sets in, which is not death, since the next year the Nile will flood again. It was from these beliefs that the creed was born, according to which death did not mean the end of a person’s existence, resurrection awaits him. For this, the immortal soul of the deceased needs to reconnect with his body. Therefore, the living must take care that the body of the deceased is preserved, and embalming is the means of preserving the body. Thus, concern for the preservation of the body of the deceased led to the emergence of the art of making mummies.

The idea of ​​the need to preserve the body for a future life eventually formed the cult of the dead, which determined many phenomena and features of Egyptian culture. The cult of the dead was for the Egyptians not an abstract religious obligation, but a practical necessity. Believing that death is not the cessation of life, but only the transition of a person to another world, where his earthly existence continues in a peculiar way, the Egyptians sought to provide this existence with everything necessary. First of all, it was necessary to take care of the construction of the tomb for the body, in which the life force "ka" would return to the eternal body of the deceased.

"Ka" was a double of a person, possessing the same physical qualities and shortcomings as the body with which "ka" was born and grew up. However, unlike the physical body, "ka" was an invisible double, the spiritual power of a person, his guardian angel. After the death of a person, the existence of his "ka" depended on the safety of his body. But the mummy, although more durable than the body, was also perishable. To provide an eternal receptacle for the 'ka', precise portrait statues were made of hard stone.

The dwelling "ka" of the deceased person was supposed to be a tomb, where he lived near his body - a mummy and a portrait statue. Since the afterlife "ka" was conceived as a direct continuation of the earthly one, after the death of the dead, it was necessary to provide everything that they possessed during life. The reliefs carved on the walls of the burial chambers reproduced the scenes of the daily life of the deceased, replacing for his “ka” what surrounded him in everyday life on earth. These images were perceived as a continuation of real earthly life. Equipped with explanatory inscriptions and texts along with household items, they were supposed to enable the deceased to continue to lead his usual way of life and use his property in the afterlife.

And although death was recognized as equally unnatural for all Egyptians, reliable tombs and inaccessible crypts, equipped with "everything necessary" for the deceased, were created only for the rich and those in power. Pyramids were built only for the pharaohs, because after death they connected with the gods, becoming "great gods".

Initially, burials were made in tombs, consisting of an underground part, where a sarcophagus with a mummy stood, and a massive above-ground building - a mastaba - in the form of a house, the walls of which were tilted inward, and ended with a flat roof on top. Household and religious items, vessels with grain, items made of gold, silver, ivory, etc. were left in the mastaba. These figurines were supposed to come to life and fulfill all the physical needs of the deceased in the afterlife.

In order for the “ka” to return to its body after death, a portrait image of the deceased was placed in the tomb. An obligatory condition was the image of the figure as a whole, standing with the left leg extended forward - the pose of movement towards eternity. The male figures were painted brick red, the female figures yellow. The hair on the head was always black and the clothes white.

In the statues of "ka" special importance was attached to the eyes. The Egyptians considered the eyes to be the mirror of the soul, so they fixed their attention on them, strongly tinting them with paste, to which crushed malachite was added. The eyes of the statues were made from different materials: pieces of alabaster imitating squirrels were inserted into a bronze shell corresponding to the shape of the eye, and rock crystal for the pupil. A small piece of polished wood was placed under the crystal, thanks to which that brilliant point was obtained, which gave liveliness to the pupil and the whole eye.
One of the main tasks in the construction of the tombs of the pharaohs is to give the impression of overwhelming power. This effect of the building was obtained when the builders were able to increase the above-ground part of the building in diagonal height. This is how the famous Egyptian pyramids arose. The first of these was the pyramid of the pharaoh of the III dynasty Djoser in Saqqara. The pharaohs of the 4th dynasty chose a place near Saqqara in modern Giza for the construction of their burials. Three of the most famous pyramids of the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre and Menkaur (Greek Cheops, Khafre and Mykerin) were built and still preserved there.

Great importance was attached to the interior decoration of the tombs. The walls were covered with colored reliefs, glorifying the pharaoh as the son of a god and the winner of all the enemies of Egypt, as well as numerous magical texts, the purpose of which was to ensure the eternal happy life of the pharaoh. These reliefs were real art galleries. It was believed that with the help of prayers for the dead, the images were supposed to come to life and thereby create a habitual habitat for the deceased.

At the same time, the boundless hostile deserts approaching the Nile from both sides had a significant impact on the attitude of the Egyptians. The desire to overcome nature, not to feel like a speck of dust in the game of natural forces led to the emergence of magic, which became a form of illusory protection of a person from the pressure of the mysterious forces of nature. For the Egyptians, the role of such magical protection was played by a complex system of ideas about the gods, identified with animals that lived in dense thickets of papyrus that grew along the banks of the Nile.

By the end of the period of the Old Kingdom, various artistic crafts were formed in the culture of the Egyptians. In the tombs and pyramids, a large number of elegant vessels made of various types of stone, artistic furniture made of various types of wood, richly decorated with bone, gold, and silver, have been preserved. Each decoration was given a special meaning. So, for example, the legs of the chair were made in the form of bull legs or winged lions, which were supposed to protect the seated person. Numerous figurines were made representing people engaged in daily activities, as well as images of Egyptian gods in the form of animals and birds.

By the XXIII century. BC e. separatist sentiments intensified sharply in ancient Egypt, as a result of which the country broke up into several independent states. This state of fragmentation continued for about two hundred years. During this time, the irrigation system fell into disrepair and fertile

the land began to swamp. The capital of the united state, Memphis, also fell into decay. Against this background, other cities stood out - Herakleopolis and Thebes. The need for a new unification of Egyptian lands was felt more and more acutely, which was carried out after a number of military clashes. Thebes won the fight, and this victory opened a new period in the development of Egyptian culture, called the Middle Kingdom.

Mesopotamia (otherwise Mesopotamia or Mesopotamia) is the oldest center of Neolithic cultures, and then the first center of civilization. In this territory, starting from the 4th millennium BC. city-states successively succeeded each other (Sumer, Uruk, Akkad), centralized states (Sumer-Akkadian, Babylonia, Assyria, the Persian state of the Achaemenids), but the continuity of culture was preserved in this territory. The creators of this most important center of civilization and ancient urban culture were the Sumerians, their achievements were assimilated and developed further by the Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians. Throughout the entire period, culture was characterized by internal unity, the continuity of traditions, the inseparable connection of its organic components.

The most important achievements of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, which enriched world culture, were: developed agriculture and handicrafts; Sumerian hieroglyphic writing, which quickly transformed into a simplified cuneiform, which subsequently led to the emergence of the alphabet; a calendar system closely related to astronomical observations; elementary mathematics, in particular, the decimal and sexagesimal counting system (mathematics and astronomy were at the level of the early European Renaissance); a religious system with many gods and temples in their honor; highly developed visual arts, especially stone reliefs and bas-reliefs, as well as arts and crafts; archival culture; for the first time in history, geographical maps and guides appeared; astrology was at the highest level; architecture gave arches, domes, step pyramids.

The core of culture was writing. Tens of thousands of clay tablets with records have been preserved from Mesopotamia. Among them, of particular interest are the "Laws of King Hammurabi" (XVIII century BC), which included 282 articles that regulated various aspects of the life of Babylon: the first code of laws in history, as well as works of literature. The most notable monument of Sumerian literature is the cycle of epic tales about Gilgamesh or "On the One Who Has Seen Everything", the oldest texts, which are 3.5 thousand years old. Of great interest is the Conversation of the Master and the Slave, in which the crisis of religious and mythological authoritarian thinking is traced, the author discusses the meaning of life and comes to the idea of ​​the meaninglessness of existence (close to the book of Ecclesiastes from the Old Testament). About the innocent sufferer, about the claims to the gods, their injustice is mentioned in the "Babylonian theodicy" (an analogue of the book of Job from the "Old Testament").

There are many legends about Babylonia and Assyria in the Christian tradition, and although the attitude towards them is often hostile, but in memory Babylon remained the first "world kingdom", the successor of which was the subsequent great empires.

Egypt was settled by farmers who came from Asia Minor. On this territory, a centralized state was formed early, which is associated with a geographical position in the Nile Valley. There are several periods in the history of Egypt: the pre-dynastic period, the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom, the Late Kingdom, occupying the whole time from the 4th millennium BC. until the 30s BC, when Egypt was captured by Rome.

In Egypt, the need for strict regulation of agricultural production already at the earliest stage of the existence of the state led to the fact that the communal structure was almost completely dissolved in a centralized state, temple form of farming. The community with all its traditions of collective land use disappeared early and without a trace. The state absorbed it back in the period of the Old Kingdom. Detachments of workers moved from place to place as needed without ceremony (similar to barracks communism). In Egypt, commodity production and the market were poorly developed. In Egypt, the priests-officials were the central figure of administration, hence the opposition of the interests of the temple to the central government and the sacralization of the priestly class. The country's geographic isolation hindered and slowed down development compared to Mesopotamia. At the same time, it led to the creation of a largely unique civilization.

Egypt's contribution to world culture is enormous. Several writing systems have been created; in mathematics - they used the decimal system, multiplication and division were known, they knew the number "p", they calculated areas and volumes well; in astronomy, star charts were created, they knew the lunisolar calendar, they knew the cycle of 1460 years of Sirius, they knew about the phases of Mars and Venus, sunspots and prominences; in medicine, a good knowledge of anatomy can be noted, complex operations were carried out (skull trepanation, eye operations, amputations), phytotherapy and physical exercises were widely used; chronicles were created in historical science; there were codes of knowledge of an encyclopedic nature: dictionaries; there were geographical maps, the Egyptians knew the way around Africa.

A high level was achieved by art and architecture, which were associated with a cult and were used as an effective ideological tool. The main idea is a demonstration of the power of the gods, pharaohs. Art is characterized by monumentality, dispassion, grandeur (temples, pyramids, palaces, statues). In the art of the later period, there was more realism and psychology.

The religion of the Egyptians was peculiar. It is characterized by the following features: 1) the desire to combine the incompatible: zoomorphic and anthropomorphic features; 2) elements of matriarchy: an abundance of female gods in the highest pantheon; 3) a combination of polytheism and solar monotheism (Akhenaton's reforms); 4) religious tolerance.

A special role was assigned to the veneration of the reigning pharaoh, who was considered the incarnation of a deity in human form, a god-man.

The cult is very complex, the funeral cult played a special role. The Egyptians believed that, under certain conditions, immortality can be achieved if the existence of the three substances that make up a person is ensured. Life in the other world is described in the Egyptian Book of the Dead. The mortuary cult required huge material costs and assumed the presence of a numerous priesthood.

Ancient Egyptian literature is represented by various genres: fairy tales, didactic teachings, biographies of nobles, religious texts. The pinnacles of literature are: "The Tale of Sinuhet", "Song of the Harper", "Conversation of the Disappointed with His Soul".

Thus, the main features of ancient Egyptian culture are: 1) traditionalism; 2) dualism (a combination of features of primitiveness and high civilization); 3) juvenile (the Egyptians sought to preserve youth, struggled with time, they tend to reject death); 4) striving for rational knowledge of the world; 5) hierarchy of culture; 6) moral and normative dogmatization of culture (basic moral values: legality, order, harmony, the primacy of good, the personification of which was the goddess Maat, over all virtues); 7) canonicity of art; 8) unification. The symbol of Egyptian culture is the sphinx: half-man-half-lion, like the awakening of man in the beast.

The original, with an abundance of achievements, ancient Egyptian culture entered the treasury of world civilization.

The culture of ancient India is one of the most distinctive in history. Already in ancient times, India was known as the country of the sages. Indians and Europeans come from a single Proto-Indo-European community.

In the history of ancient India, several periods can be distinguished: the pre-Aryan and post-Aryan stages are especially interesting. The early pre-Aryan period is represented by the so-called Indus civilization (Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro), which existed from the 25th to the 18th centuries BC. This civilization was discovered only in the 20s of the XX century and is still poorly understood, although one can speak of its greatness: there were cities with a population of up to 100 thousand people with a water supply and sewerage system, developed agriculture and crafts, writing and arts. Civilization perished for reasons that are not entirely clear.

From the XIII century BC. the conquest of northern India by the nomadic tribes of the Aryans, who came from the Eurasian steppes, begins. There are also traces of the Aryans in the territory of the Southern Urals. After a period of domination of tribal relations, a new civilization arises (Vedic, Buddhist and Classical periods).

Aryan conquests, unwillingness to mix ethnically with the local population led to the emergence and strengthening of the system of varnas, and then castes, as the basis of social organization. In India, the caste-varno-caste system played a socially determining and regulating role; on this basis, an exceptionally strong and internally self-regulating community arose, the autonomous functioning of which made the branched administration apparatus unnecessary. There was hypertrophied stability. India is characterized by weak political power, an unstable state, and an amorphous political and administrative structure. The Aryans were united by a religious and cultural tradition, their ethnic face was valued above all. The brahmin, kshatriya, and vaishya varnas were the dominant varnas, and the sudra varnas were the servants of the three upper varnas. The rivalry between the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas (in religion, this rivalry was reflected in the clash of ancient Brahminism and Buddhism) ended with the victory of the Brahmins, as a result, Brahminism was transformed into Hinduism, and Buddhism did not take other positions and was integrated into Hinduism.

Since in India the social status of an individual was determined by the corresponding varna, there were no opportunities to improve one's position, hence the desire for internal, personal development. Culture has a pronounced introvertive character, with a weak socio-political activity.

Many monuments of ancient literature have come down to the present: the Vedas, Mahabharata and Ramayana - epic poems, a treatise on politics "Arthashastra", a treatise on love "Kamasutra", there is a Buddhist canon "Tipitaka".

The oldest literary monument is the Vedas (literally - knowledge). The "Vedas" are formed in the III millennium BC, and in the I

millennium BC they were written down in the language of the ancient Aryans, Sanskrit. The Vedas are divided into four parts: 1) Samhitas (collections of hymns in honor of the gods), there are four of them: Rigveda (1028 hymns), Samaveda (melodies and chants in a certain ritual order), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulas and sayings), Akhtarvaveda (700 conspiracies on all occasions); 2) Brahmanas (explanations of the ritual and other explanations for samhitas); 3) Aranyaki; 4) Upanishads. The last two parts are the oldest interpretations of a religious and philosophical nature.

The Vedas are a religious monument, but they contain rather abstract ideas: about the origin of the world, about objective necessity, about law - in fact, philosophical reasoning. Mind is one of the qualities most valued by the Vedas, both in gods and in people. Particular attention is paid to ethics and logical intuition.

The epic is of inestimable importance for Indian culture. Already in the Vedic period (from the end of the 2nd millennium BC), two cycles of legends were formed, which then developed into two huge epic poems, the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

"Mahabharata" (100 thousand slokas, that is, couplets) has no analogues in the world in terms of volume and content. It is dedicated to the bloody struggle for the throne of cousins, descendants of the legendary king of Bharata.

"Ramayana" tells about the adventures of Prince Rama in the wilds of South India and about his trip to the island of Lanka (Ceylon) in search of his beloved.

Moreover, both poems include many myths and legends that are not directly related to the plot of the poems, where explanations are given for the origin of the Universe, man, varnas, and the state. The poems contain the first systems of Indian philosophy, in particular Bhagavatism.

"Bhagavad Gita" - part of the "Mahabharata", outlining the most important worldview issues and ethical principles.

Buddhist period (VI - III centuries BC) - the time of the emergence and spread of Buddhism. From the point of view of socio-economic and political, it was marked by the rapid development of the economy, the formation of cities and the emergence of large states up to the creation of the all-Indian power of the Mauryas (317 - 80 BC), which was formed as a result of the struggle against the conquests of Alexander the Great. At that time, the population increased significantly, cities grew as centers of crafts and trade, commodity-money relations developed, and property inequality deepened. The authorities patronized non-traditional religions, in particular, Buddhism. Then Buddhism spread to Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Southeast Asia, China and became a world religion.

In the Classical era (II century BC - V century AD), especially in the IV -

5th century AD a new rise began, which was interrupted by the invasion of the Huns, after which India broke up into small states.

The Classical era is characterized by a developed craft (high-quality steel, from which the iron column is made, does not rust for 1.5 thousand years).

Years). Cotton and woolen fabrics, products made of ivory and precious stones, and spices were produced. The abundance of gold coins speaks of a developed trade, primarily foreign. Goods from India along the Great Silk Road reached the Roman Empire.

In the Middle Ages and Modern times, despite the changes, the unity of culture that had developed in antiquity was preserved. Indian (as well as Chinese) culture continued to exist and develop even after the end of the period of antiquity, exerting a significant influence on the surrounding countries.

Of great importance is Indian theater, which arose earlier than in antiquity (for example, the poet-dramatist Kalidasa wrote Shakuntala, which became a role model). Until the 19th century, the grammar of Panini (V-IV centuries BC) remained unsurpassed. Logic and psychology have reached a special development, which only today could be appreciated.

Until now, magnificent paintings have been preserved, including those in cave temples, temples with stupas, and sculpture.

In modern India, the heritage of bygone eras is manifested in all spheres of life and culture. India is characterized by the exceptional vitality of ancient traditions, which have become part of the general cultural fund of the Indians and have become an integral component of world civilization.

Ancient China developed away from the main centers of civilization. The conditions for the emergence of civilization here were less favorable than in the subtropics, the state was formed later, but at a higher level of productive forces. Until the second half of the 1st millennium BC. China developed in isolation from other civilizations. China's difference is also a later transition to irrigated agriculture. At first, natural precipitation was used, unlike today, the climate was warmer and wetter, many forests grew.

Several periods can be distinguished in the history of ancient China: the decomposition of primitive society and the emergence of the first states date back to the 2nd millennium BC; VIII - III centuries BC - the existence of the state "Eastern Zhou"; 221 - 207 BC -

the existence of the first centralized state in China - the Qin Empire; then formed the early Middle Ages: the Han Empire.

The culture of Ancient China was influenced to some extent from outside, from the north of Eurasia. From the Indo-Europeans came wheat, barley, livestock breeds (cow, sheep, goat), horses and chariots, a potter's wheel, although there was no massive influx of population from the northwest. The influence from outside is evidenced by the presence of Indo-European words denoting these acquisitions, which were not in the ancient Chinese language.

China is a socially oriented country. Each person was the blacksmith of his own happiness in earthly life. Social activity was the basis of the desire to improve the life and personal share of everyone. Since ancient times, Chinese life has been full of mass popular movements and social mobility.

A feature of China was the modest position that religion occupied in the life of society, a rational understanding of life prevailed, and ethical norms came to the fore: ethics decisively prevailed over religion. In China, there was a primacy of the official over the priest, ritual and religious functions were pushed into the background in favor of strengthening the bureaucratic administration. In China, a strong state confronted a weakened private owner. The most important place was occupied by the imperial idea, which determined the future of the country for two millennia. Feudalism developed and flourished earlier in China than in Europe. China is a country of history. There is an abundance of written sources. The texts of Ancient China played a huge role in the subsequent orientation of the country and people, Chinese civilization (for example, the ideas of Confucius).

In the XIV - XI centuries BC. there was a state of Shang-Yin. At this time, three major achievements appeared: a) the use of bronze; b) the emergence of cities; c) the emergence of writing.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC, despite political instability and wars, the culture of Ancient China flourished. The era of the "Warring States" (V - III centuries BC) is a classic period in the history of the spiritual culture of China: a unique era of a wide and open struggle of ideas, in fact, not constrained by any official ideological dogma. Neither before nor after during antiquity and the Middle Ages did Chinese society know such an intensity of intellectual life, such a prevalence of humanitarian teachings.

In this era of the "rivalry of a hundred schools," as it is called, the main directions of the philosophical thought of Ancient China took shape: Confucianism, Taoism, legalism, and author's works of art were created. It was then, as a result of a long process of overcoming archaic forms of social consciousness and the transformation of mythological thinking, that a new socio-psychological type of personality emerged in ancient Chinese society, breaking free from the shackles of the traditional worldview. Together with it, critical philosophy and theoretical scientific thought arise.

Confucianism has had a huge impact on the entire subsequent history of China. The ancestor of this philosophy was Kung Fu Tzu (551 - 479 BC). He came from a noble but impoverished family, and as a child he worked as a shepherd and watchman, in adulthood he became a major official, then at the age of fifty he founded his own school.

The main philosophical work "Lun-yu" ("Conversations and Sayings") is a record by the students of Confucius of the teacher's thoughts, mainly - these are moral teachings. Every educated Chinese learned this book by heart in childhood and was guided by it all his life.

The focus of Confucianism is the relationship between people, the problems of education, ethics. Dissatisfaction with the present prompts us to look for a way out not in the future, but in the past. Confucianism idealizes the past, it is characterized by a cult of the past. The main place in the ethical and political doctrine of Confucius is occupied by the doctrine of a noble person and management based on the rules of conduct. A noble person is a person of morality, duty, a humanist who respects elders, observes the norms of relationships between people, and is alien to the base thirst for self-interest. “Do not do to people what you do not wish for yourself” (“Lun-yu”, ch. 15). Much attention is paid to the acquisition of knowledge, study.

At the same time, Confucius sees human vices: self-interest, ignorance, condemns those who violate the established rules of life.

He approaches the state as a large patriarchal family and seeks to preserve the established order inviolability, at the same time believing that the rulers and the people have mutual obligations. "The path of the golden mean" is one of the main links in the methodology of Confucius's reformism. The main thing is the way of example, not violence.

Issues related to the study of nature were given secondary attention. When studying something, the possibility of practical application of what was learned was especially indicated.

Thus, for all historical limitations, the teachings of Confucius contain the most important ideas of humanism.

Taoism developed around the time of the emergence of Confucianism. The creator was Lao Tzu, his main book "Daodejing" ("The Book of Tao and Te"). Unlike Confucianism with the primacy of ethical and political teachings, Taoism paid special attention to the issues of an objective picture of the world.

The basis of the worldview is the category of "dao" - a comprehensive worldview concept. Tao is the fundamental principle of the world, its origin and the all-encompassing law of the universe. Everything originates from the Tao and returns to it in accordance with the laws of the Tao. In Taoism there are ideas of dialectics, the inconsistency of the world is pointed out.

In the sphere of the ethical ideal, the Taoists have a “perfectly wise” (shenzhen), who opposes the Confucian ideal. The basis of his behavior is the principle of non-action, as the highest form of behavior. The best ruler is the one who lets everything take its natural course. “The best ruler is the one about whom the people only know that he exists,” Lao Tzu believed. Its social ideal is a small patriarchal community. He opposed wars, believing that "a good army is a means of generating misfortune", and "glorifying oneself with victory means rejoicing in the killing of people", on the contrary, "victory should be celebrated with a funeral procession" ("Daodejing"). According to Taoism, man follows the laws of the earth, the earth follows the laws of heaven, the sky follows the laws of the Tao, and the Tao follows itself. Taoists preached "action without struggle", compassion, thrift, humility, taught to repay good for evil.

Later, Taoism degenerated into a religion, into a system of superstition and magic, sought to find the elixir of life and retained little in common with the original philosophical Taoism.

Legists (lawyers) opposed the Confucian ideas of appeasing the Celestial Empire through improving the social and ethical side of relationships between people, and laid the law at the basis of order. They moved from moral coercion to legal coercion and punishment. They believed that only the law, manifested in rewards and punishments, is able to ensure order and prevent confusion. They replaced conscience with fear. They opposed the idea of ​​the state as a big family to the idea of ​​the state as a soulless mechanism. Officials were put in the place of the wise men, not the father of the people, but the despot, the hegemon, took the place of the ruler. External victories were proclaimed the highest goal of the state. For the sake of this, all excesses were expelled, art was abolished, dissent was suppressed, philosophy was destroyed. Everything was simplified and unified. Agriculture and war -

the main thing is what the state should rely on and for what it should exist. The good thing about the lawyers was that they put forward the concept of equal opportunities, according to which public posts should be filled according to ability, and not according to eminence.

Shang-Yang (the Kingdom of Qin, 4th century BC) tried to implement the practical ideas of the lawyers: a system of denunciation, mutual responsibility was created, by the way, Shang-Yang himself was executed. These ideas were widely implemented in the Qin Empire (221 - 207 BC). Emperor Qin Shi-huang ordered to burn most of the books, hundreds of philosophers were executed. The fruits of despotism were: fear, deceit, denunciation, physical and mental degeneration of the people. For hiding books, they were castrated and sent to build the Great Wall of China. For non-information, they were executed, and the informer was promoted. The Qin period is the only period when the tradition was interrupted in China.

The new Han Dynasty restored the tradition. Confucianism became the official state ideology, however, with elements of legalism. But the phenomena of the spiritual life of society characteristic of the pre-Qin period: the pluralism of schools, the struggle of opinions, the non-interference of the authorities in the field of worldview - have never been restored.

In literature and art, ancient China also achieved impressive success. This is evidenced, in particular, by the collection of ancient Chinese poetry "Shijing", which includes 305 poetic works.

Music occupied a special place in the spiritual culture of the Chinese, who believed that words can deceive, people can pretend, only music cannot lie.

In architecture, the structure was based on pillars and beams connecting them, tiled roofs with raised edges.

Mathematics has achieved significant development in the field of natural science knowledge. In the II century BC. The treatise “Mathematics in Nine Books” was compiled, where the rules for working with fractions, proportions and progressions, the Pythagorean theorem, and the solution of a system of linear equations are fixed. Astronomy was highly developed, a solar-lunar calendar was compiled, corrected for a leap year.

In medicine since the 4th century BC. acupuncture was used for treatment. There were treatises on dietetics, therapeutic exercises, collections of recipes were created, and local anesthesia was used for abdominal operations.

Lacquer production has received significant development. Wood and metals were varnished to protect against fire and corrosion. Of outstanding importance was the invention of paper, which was originally made from silk waste, and then from wood fiber. Bronze casting was unparalleled in quality in the ancient world.

As noted, the Neolithic revolution and the folding of civilization in China were late in comparison with other major centers of the East. But the subsequent development was not interrupted: Chinese culture in this respect belongs to the undisputed superiority. It is impossible to understand modern China without referring to the early stages of this civilization, which had a tremendous impact on the entire Far Eastern region. 6.3.

Ancient Greek geographers called Mesopotamia (“the country between the rivers”) a vast area in the Tigris and Euphrates basins, which was distinguished by exceptional fertility and an advantageous geographical position at the intersection of the most important trade routes. Numerous peoples who spoke different languages ​​lived in this territory. The first states arose in the southern part of Mesopotamia, where the Sumerians lived - a people of mysterious origin and language. The ancient Sumerian cities - Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur arose at the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Babylon became the largest city in Mesopotamia, and the state of Assyria arose in the eastern part of Northern Mesopotamia with its center in the city of Nineveh. The cultural achievements of the Sumerians were assimilated and developed by the Babylonians and Assyrians.

One of the most outstanding achievements of the ancient Sumerians was the invention of writing - cuneiform. Sumerian cuneiform was borrowed by many peoples of Asia Minor. The rich Sumerian literature was represented by poems, lyrics, myths, hymns, epic tales. A special genre was represented by laments - works about the death of Sumerian cities as a result of raids by neighboring tribes. The most famous monument of Sumerian literature is the cycle of epic tales about the hero Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, who sought immortality for himself and other people. The poem contains a story about a global flood, then repeated in the biblical book of Genesis. In the literature of the peoples of Mesopotamia, a significant place is occupied by works that tell about the life of the gods, the creation of the world, for example, the epic "When at the top ...", compiled in the 2nd millennium BC. e. and dedicated to the main Babylonian god Marduk. By the 7th century BC e. the most famous Assyrian work goes back - "The Tale of Akihar", a wise scribe and adviser to the Assyrian kings. Its text was very popular in the East and even in Europe (in Russia this work was known as "The Tale of Akira the Wise").

One of the greatest achievements of Babylonian and Assyrian culture was the creation of libraries. The largest of them was founded by the Assyrian king Ashurbanapal (VII century BC) in his palace in the city of Nineveh. It was the first systematic collection of books in the world where clay books were placed in a specific order. Clay was the main writing material in ancient Mesopotamia. Even man, and he, according to the ancient Sumerian myth, was created from clay.

In Sumer, a certain type of temple architecture was formed, characterized by the use of high artificial platforms on which the central temple was installed. Such Temple towers - ziggurats - were an indispensable accessory of every city. One of the most ancient was the ziggurat of the moon god Sin, 18 m high, which was discovered by archaeologists in the city of Ur. However, the most famous was the sanctuary of the Babylonians Esagila - the Temple of the god Marduk. It was a square building, which adjoined a seven-step ziggurat 91 m high - Etemenanki. Called the Tower of Babel in the Bible, it has become a symbol of immoderate human pride.

The architects of ancient Mesopotamia achieved great success in the construction of palace complexes. An example is the palace of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II (7th–6th centuries BC), part of which was the famous Hanging Gardens, which in ancient times was called the “wonder of the world”.

The specificity of the Mesopotamian culture lies in the fact that the environment left a strong imprint on it. Life in Mesopotamia was endangered due to the unpredictability of the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates, so a person was not inclined to overestimate his strength, and recognized the veracity of death. The people of Mesopotamia did not have a developed funeral cult, such as in ancient Egypt. On the contrary, the value of life stimulated a person to live wisely and meaningfully in order to leave a memory of himself in the hearts of people. The Sumerians, and then their successors, the Babylonians and Assyrians, were able to pass on many amazing achievements to other peoples. The Sumerians knew the lunar calendar, set the duration of the solar year. They invented a wheel for a wagon, a potter's wheel and colored glass, bronze, they were the first to put a sail on a boat. The Sumerians created legal codes; around 2300 BC e. the first professional army was formed; around 2000 B.C. e. arithmetic was created, which was based on the sexagesimal calculus system.

In the 19th century BC e. The laws of the king of Babylon Hammurabi were written down, where the idea of ​​the divine origin of laws and the idea of ​​appealing to an objective judge were affirmed. The Code of Laws of Hammurabi has become a model of legislation for many states of the Middle East.

The material and spiritual values ​​accumulated by the peoples of Mesopotamia had a huge impact on the culture of neighboring peoples. The influence of Mesopotamian literature on the formation of Old Testament plots was especially great. These include: the idea of ​​paradise - the garden of the gods; the plot of the creation of man from dust (clay), and women - from the rib of a man; a description of the global flood and the salvation, by the will of the gods, of a single person on a pre-built vessel (“Noah's Ark”). And there are many such plots included in the culture of other peoples.

Thus, the culture of Mesopotamia, which existed simultaneously with the Egyptian, had peculiar features. Many of its elements have entered the culture of modern peoples.

Introduction

Culture is one of the most ancient phenomena of human life. It arose and developed together with man, making up what qualitatively distinguishes him from all other living beings and nature as a whole. However, interest in its study and comprehension as a special phenomenon of reality has developed relatively recently. For a long time - for millennia - culture existed as something taken for granted, unconscious, inseparable from man and society and not requiring any special, close attention.

Culturology is a humanitarian science that studies culture as a system, i.e. generally. It originated at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and was widely recognized in Europe and around the world. Cultural studies began to develop in our country in the early 90s.

In general, culturology has not yet reached a completely mature level and is in its infancy.

Culture of Mesopotamia

The culture of Mesopotamia arose around the same time as that of Egypt. It developed in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and existed from 4 thousand BC. e. until the middle of the 6th century BC. e. Unlike the Egyptian culture of Mesopotamia was not homogeneous, it was formed in the process of multiple interpenetration of several ethnic groups and peoples, and therefore was multilayer . The main inhabitants of Mesopotamia were the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians and Chaldeans in the south; Assyrians, Hurrians and Arameans in the north. The cultures of Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria reached the greatest development and importance.

The origin of the Sumerian ethnos is still a mystery. It is only known that in 4 thousand. BC. the southern part of Mesopotamia is inhabited by the Sumerians and lay the foundations for the entire subsequent civilization of this region. Like the Egyptian, this civilization was river. By the beginning of 3 thousand BC. in the south of Mesopotamia, several city-states appear, the main of which are Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Larsa and others. They alternately play a leading role in the unification of the country.

The history of Sumer knew several ups and downs. The 24th - 23rd centuries BC deserve special mention, when the rise Semitic city of Akkad north of Sumer. Under King Sargon the Ancient, Akkad managed to subjugate all of Sumer to his power. The Akkadian language replaces the Sumerian, and becomes the main language throughout Mesopotamia. Semitic art also has a great influence on the entire region. In general, the significance of the Akkadian period in the history of Sumer turned out to be so significant that some authors call the entire culture of this period Sumero-Akkadian.

Culture of the Sumerian-Akkadian state

The basis of the Sumerian economy was agriculture with a developed irrigation system. Hence it is clear why one of the main monuments of Sumerian culture was the "Land Owner's Almanac", containing instructions on farming - how to maintain soil fertility and avoid clogging it. Cattle breeding was also important. Sumerian metallurgy reached a high level. Already at the beginning of 3 thousand. BC. the Sumerians began to manufacture bronze tools, and at the end of 2000. BC. entered the Iron Age.

From the middle of the 3000 BC. potter's wheel is used in the manufacture of dishes. Other crafts are successfully developing - weaving, stone-cutting, blacksmithing. Extensive trade and exchange take place both between the Sumerian cities and with other countries - Egypt, Iran, India, the states of Asia Minor.

The importance of Sumerian writing should be emphasized. The cuneiform script invented by the Sumerians turned out to be the most successful and effective. Improved in 2 thousand. BC. Phoenicians, it formed the basis of almost all modern alphabets.

The system of religious and mythological ideas and cults of Sumer partly echoes the Egyptian one. In particular, it also contains the myth of a dying and resurrecting God, which is the God Dumuzi. As in Egypt, the ruler of the city-state was declared a descendant of God and was perceived as an earthly God. At the same time, there were noticeable differences between the Sumerian and Egyptian systems. So among the Sumerians, the funeral cult, belief in the afterlife did not acquire great importance. Equally, the priests among the Sumerians did not become a special layer that played a huge role in public life. In general, the Sumerian system of religious beliefs seems to be less complex.

As a rule, each city-state had its patron God. However, there were gods who were revered throughout Mesopotamia. Behind them stood those forces of nature, the importance of which for agriculture was especially great - sky, earth and water. These were the sky god An, the earth god Enlil and the water god Enki. Some stars were associated with individual stars or constellations. It is noteworthy that in the Sumerian writing, the pictogram of a star meant the concept of "God". Of great importance in the Sumerian religion was the Mother Goddess, the patroness of agriculture, fertility and childbearing. There were several such goddesses, one of which was the goddess Inanna, the patroness of the city of Uruk. Some Sumerian myths - about the creation of the world, about the global flood - had a strong influence on the mythology of other peoples, including Christian ones.

In the artistic culture of Sumer, architecture was the leading art. Unlike the Egyptians, the Sumerians did not know stone construction, and all structures were made of raw brick. Due to the swampy terrain, buildings were erected on artificial platforms - embankments. From the middle of 3 thousand. BC. The Sumerians were the first to widely use arches and vaults in construction.

The first monuments of architecture were two temples, White and Red, discovered in Uruk and dedicated to the main deities of the city - the god Anu and the goddess Inanna. Both temples are rectangular in plan, with ledges and niches, decorated with relief images in the "Egyptian style". Another significant monument is the small temple of the fertility goddess Ninhursag at Ur. It was built using the same architectural forms, but decorated not only with relief but also with round sculpture. In the niches of the walls there were copper figurines of copper gobies, and on the friezes there were high reliefs of lying gobies. At the entrance to the temple - two statues of lions made of wood. All this made the temple festive and elegant.

In Sumer, a peculiar type of religious building developed - a ziggurat, which was a stepped, rectangular tower. On the upper platform of the ziggurat there was usually a small temple - "the dwelling of God." Sumerian literature reached a high level. In addition to the aforementioned "agricultural almanac", the most significant literary monument was the Epic of Gilgamesh. This epic poem tells about a man who saw everything, experienced everything, and knew everything, and who was close to unraveling the mystery of immortality.

By the end of 3000 BC. Sumer gradually falls into decay, and, in the end, Babylonia conquers it.