Stroganovs. Patrons and collectors
There are exhibitions, the value of which is not limited to artistic value. One of them is the exhibition "The Stroganovs. Patrons and Collectors", which opened in the Hermitage. First of all, this is an exhibition-action, a tribute to the memory and respect for the people who made the glory and pride of Russia. In this meaning, it is a logical continuation of the line begun at the time by the exhibition "Morozov and Shchukin - Russian Collectors" in the Pushkin Museum im. A. Pushkin.
Collecting works of art was almost an obligatory occupation for representatives of the best Russian families. A number of large private collections are known, such as the collections of I.I. Shuvalov, E.R. Dashkova, A.A. Bezborodko, N.B. Yusupova and others. And one of the first places among Russian collectors belongs to the Stroganov family.
More than 370 works of art, previously included in the collections of various representatives of the Stroganov family, for the first time came together again at the exhibition "The Stroganovs. Patrons and Collectors". They were collected thanks to the efforts of many museums - the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, the Pavlovsk State Museum-Reserve. The Research Museum of the Russian Academy of Arts, the Solvychegorsk Historical and Art Museum, etc., where works from the Stroganov family collection went after the revolution.
Everything here strikes the imagination of the audience: the artistic quality of the works presented, the extraordinary genre diversity of works, the time and geographical scope of the origin of things, the amazing stories of their arrival in Russia, and, finally, their number (despite the fact that this is only part of a large collection).
Among the significant collections of works of art in the homes of the Russian aristocracy, the most valuable in terms of quality and quantity was the collection of the Stroganovs, the beginning of which was laid by Baron Sergei Grigorievich Stroganov (1707 - 1756). In 1754, he commissioned the architect F.-B. Rastrelli, and since then the palace has become a place for collecting and storing art collections, which brought fame not only to their owners, but also to Russia.
The baron's son, Count Alexander Sergeevich Stroganov (1733 - 1811), became a European-scale collector. His art gallery was especially famous, which became widely known thanks to the publication of catalogs prepared by the collector himself. The catalog of 1793 mentions 87 paintings by fifty-five Western European artists. In the 1800 edition, the gallery already had 116 works by seventy-two painters. The collection included works by Italian, French, Dutch, Flemish and Spanish masters. Stroganov clearly gave preference to Italian painters, mainly artists of the Renaissance and academicians of the 17th century. Later, paintings by Russian masters appeared in the collection. Of particular interest in the palace was the Mineral Cabinet, where a collection of minerals found on the territory of Russia and different European countries was concentrated, as well as many fossils: corals, mollusks, fish, turtles, plants. Most likely, the main part of the decorative stone products, originating from the Stroganovs' house-museum and then received by the Hermitage, was collected at the end of the 18th - the first decade of the 19th century.
Under Count Sergei Grigoryevich Stroganov (1794 - 1882), the collection acquired a truly museum value. In the Stroganov Palace, one of the first collections of iconography in Russia was created, in which the works of masters of the Stroganov school made up the largest and most significant part of the collection. Things of an applied nature became more accessible for inspection: furniture, snuff boxes, vases made of colored stone with bronze, chandeliers and candelabra, small bronze plastic. An extensive library, replenished by all the owners of the house, was of great value. In addition to the increase in the collection of paintings, the numismatic part has increased significantly. Sergei Grigorievich paid special attention to collecting Russian and Byzantine coins.
His eldest son, Alexander Sergeevich Stroganov (1818-1864), collected Western European coins. In 1925, the numismatic collection, over 53,000 coins, entered the Hermitage Numismatics Department, significantly enriching several sections of its collection. The most rare and interesting coins are presented at the exhibition.
An independent excellent collection of works of art was collected by the son of Sergei Grigorievich, Pavel Sergeevich Stroganov (1823 - 1911). Following his father, he acquired works by early Italian masters of the 15th - early 16th centuries, small wood sculptures, ceramics and furniture. A large section in the collection was also occupied by paintings by Flemish and Dutch painters. And later, his collection was replenished with works of contemporary Western and Russian masters. Pavel Sergeevich placed his collections in the Znamenskoye-Koriyan estate of the Tambov province, and in 1857 he began building a house designed by the architect I.A. Monigetti in St. Petersburg, on Sergievskaya 11, which was completed in 1859. Presented at the exhibition, five watercolors allow you to recreate the appearance of this house. After Pavel Sergeevich's death, according to the will, a number of works were transferred to the Hermitage, among which were presented at the exhibition "Carrying the Cross" by JF Mainery, "A Room in a Dutch House" by P. Janssens. Pavel Sergeevich also owned the exhibited "Capricious" by A. Watteau, which entered the Hermitage after the revolution.
The younger son of Sergei Grigoryevich, Grigory Sergeyevich (1829 - 1911), who spent most of his life in Rome, knew about the difficulties associated with acquiring works of art for the Hermitage. Therefore, at the end of his life, he wanted to transfer a number of artistic objects to the Hermitage. In 1911-1912, the Count's heirs, Prince Vladimir Alekseevich and Princess Alexandra Alekseevna Shcherbatov, donated sixteen items from its collection to the museum.
For the Stroganovs, antiquity was not the main subject of collecting. But Alexander Sergeevich had a small collection of antiques and antique sculptures. At this time, attention to ancient art was a must for a true connoisseur. Antique sculpture was also purchased to decorate the palace, which by the 70s of the 18th century was a magnificent neoclassical ensemble. In the interiors of the palace, neoclassical imitations coexisted with originals, copies and casts. Sergei Grigoryevich passed on his love for classical antiquities to his sons, Grigory and Pavel, who became prominent collectors of their time. Among the luxurious art collections of Pavel in the house on Sergievskaya Street were Etruscan and Attic painted vases, bronze and terracotta figurines, clay lamps. In the 1920s, this collection entered the Stroganov Palace. After the closure of the Stroganov Palace, 15 marble sculptures, 135 bronzes and 50 terracottas, glassware, carved stones were transferred to the Hermitage.
The Stroganovs had Chinese items already in the 18th century. Documented acquisitions were made under Alexander Sergeevich. An extensive collection of Chinese items was kept in the collection of Count Pavel Sergeevich Stroganov in a house on Sergievskaya Street, which can be seen in the watercolors of the 1860s presented at the exhibition. The exhibition features two cups made of black lacquer with mother-of-pearl inlay, mounted in French bronze, depicted in the watercolor "Green Drawing Room" by J.Mayblum. At the "Chinese masquerade" organized by the royal family in January 1837 in the Anichkov Palace, Pavel Sergeevich was dressed in a Chinese embroidered robe, which can also be seen at the exhibition. The collection of the State Hermitage contains about sixty Chinese items that arrived in 1928 from the Stroganov palaces.
The Stroganovs assembled the world's first collection of late antique and early medieval oriental silver vessels, the core of which was Iranian bowls made during the Sassanid dynasty. This richest collection included 29 items, for the most part real masterpieces. In 1925, almost all of it was transferred to the State Hermitage.
The small Hermitage collection of Mexican antiquities is indebted to the Stroganovs for their best exhibits. Mexican monuments from the Stroganov Palace remain the best in Russia in terms of quality to this day. They were transferred to the Hermitage in 1926-1928. The Aztec bell in the form of an eagle warrior is a world-class masterpiece. The Stroganov collections in the 1920s and 1930s were distributed among museums, some were sold at auction. The exhibition "The Stroganovs. Patrons and Collectors" provides an opportunity to imagine and understand the significant role played by the Stroganov dynasty in the cultural life of Russia.
"The main purpose of the exhibition is to educate the Petersburgers' taste for history and remind them of the significance of the Stroganov dynasty for the cultural life of Russia," said Mikhail Piotrovsky, director of the Hermitage, at the opening.
The rise of the Stroganov family began in pre-Petrine times. In the Time of Troubles and later, the Stroganovs helped the legitimate authorities with monetary contributions. In one of Peter the Great's letters of commendation, it is calculated that the Stroganovs during the interregnum and under Mikhail Feodorovich donated 841,762 rubles in money, which would amount to about 4 million rubles in a modern account. For these services, the Stroganovs were elevated to the title of "eminent people" and received the right to be referred to as "vich". By the title of "eminent people", the Stroganovs were subject only to a personal royal court, they could build cities, fortresses, maintain military people, pour cannons, fight with the owners of Siberia, conduct duty-free trade with Asian foreigners. The Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich assigns them a special article (Art. 94, Ch. X).
The huge funds of Semyon Ioannikevich Stroganov gave him the opportunity to provide significant assistance to Peter I during the Great Northern War; around 1701, he equipped two military frigates with his own money. His wife, nee Novosiltseva, was the first lady of state at court. The estates of Grigory Stroganov were further increased by Peter I according to eight letters of grant, so that in the Perm possessions alone he had 44,643 people "on the face", and 33,235 people "on the run and in the world of wanderers."
In the second half of the 18th century, the business activity of the Stroganovs declined. In the 18th century, when the process of “gentrification” began, that is, the acquisition of noble titles by merchants, the Stroganovs were among the first to make the transition to the privileged class.
In 1722, Peter the Great, for the merits of the last "eminent husband" Stroganov, Grigory Dmitrievich, elevated his sons Nikolai, Alexander and Sergei to the "baronial" dignity. They became the ancestors of the three branches of the Stroganov family. Sergei's son Alexander was elevated in 1761 by Emperor Franz I to the "count" dignity of the Roman Empire, and in 1798 Emperor Paul I elevated him to the Counts of the Russian Empire.
Sergei Grigoryevich (1707 - 1756), baron, lieutenant general, enjoyed the favor of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna and was distinguished by rare charity; in "Academic Vedomosti", regarding his death, it was said, "that he was the eye of the blind, the foot of the lame, and was a friend to everyone." Loving art, he founded the richest art gallery in his house, built by the famous Rastrelli.
In different years, for several generations, representatives of this family occupied high official positions, leaving a memory behind them, including in the administrative field.
It is worth recalling in this connection Alexander Sergeevich Stroganov (1733 - 1811). One of the most enlightened people of his time, he completed his education in Europe, listened to lectures at the University of Geneva in 1752-54, was familiar with Voltaire and other prominent people. Under Catherine II, he became a senator. In 1766, deputies elected to the commission for drafting the New Code gathered in his house. As a member of the latter, he especially insisted on the establishment of schools for the peasants. He was the director of the St. Petersburg Public Library. In 1758 he became an honorary member of the newly created Academy of Arts, and in 1800 Paul I appointed him President of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, where he "gained fame and love of his compatriots through his work." Pavel I also assigned to A. S. Stroganov the construction of a monument to A. V. Suvorov and the construction of the Kazan Cathedral. Formally, the construction was subsidized by the tsarist government, in fact - by Count A. S. Stroganov. The count invested the lion's share of his fortune in the implementation of the grandiose construction. Under Alexander I, A. S. Stroganov became a member of the State Council. And on the day of his funeral, Emperor Alexander I walked from the Kazan Cathedral to the Alexander Nevsky Lavra behind the coffin of the eminent person of Russia.
Another Alexander Sergeevich Stroganov (1818 - 1864), Count, Jägermeister of His Majesty's court, known as a collector of medieval and new European coins; was one of the founders of the St. Petersburg Archaeological Society and a member of the Odessa Society and the History of Russian Antiquities.
Sergei Grigoryevich (1794 - 1882), count, cavalry general, adjutant general, member of the State Council. At the age of fifteen he entered the Institute of the Corps of Railway Engineers; he distinguished himself in the Battle of Borodino, in 1828 - in cases near Shumla and Varna. In 1831 - 1834 served as military governor in Riga and Minsk. In 1835 he was appointed trustee of the Moscow educational district. The time of his administration (1835 - 1847) was, according to the general opinion of contemporaries, a brilliant era for Moscow University. In 1859 he founded the Archaeological Commission, of which he was chairman until the end of his life; contributed a lot to excavations on the Black Sea coast. Together with A.D. Chertkov significantly raised scientific interest in Russian numismatics and compiled the richest collection of Russian coins. In 1854 - 1855. participated in the Sevastopol campaign; in 1859 - 1860 was the Moscow military governor-general, in 1863 - 1865. Chairman of the Railway Committee. He was the main educator of the Grand Dukes Nicholas, Alexander, Vladimir and Alexei Alexandrovich.
Stroganov-patrons is one of the main themes of this exhibition. Today we have the opportunity to learn more about this side of their activities.
Already at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century, the Stroganovs supported the work of the most skillful icon painters, who strove for a special elegance of painting, ordering and acquiring their works for their "rooms". During that period, the "Stroganov" art school was formed. At the end of the 17th century, one can also talk about the Stroganov style in architecture. It was in this style that the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Nizhny Novgorod was built, built at the expense of G. D. Stroganov.
Alexander Sergeevich (1733 - 1811) became one of the outstanding Russian patrons in the full sense of the word. He patronized talents in both art and literature. Derzhavin, Bortnyansky, Bogdanovich, Krylov enjoyed his support. At the end of the 18th century, Count Stroganov opened his collections for public viewing, as they said then "for the common good." The art collection of the Stroganovs also served pedagogical purposes - classes were held here for pupils of the Academy of Arts, whose president was A. S. Stroganov. "In his picture gallery, artists were engaged, compatriots were enlightened, and in the Library, Empress Catherine II herself took Voltaire to read from A. S. Stroganov," which is attested in the surviving form. The library of A. S. Stroganov was rich in manuscripts and was considered the best in Russia. Like the gallery, it was open to the public. Levitsky, Ivanov, Shebuev, Shchukin, Martos visited his house. The famous Voronikhin came from his yard people and owed his education and career to Stroganov. Alexander Sergeevich took a great part in the charity affairs of Empress Maria Feodorovna, was the patron of writers and artists. "With his support, Gnedich was able to take up his great work - the translation of Homer's Iliad."
Countess Natalia Pavlovna (1796 - 1872) became famous for her special kindness in the Stroganov family. Contemporaries noted the amazing gentleness of her character and meekness of heart. “She was especially distinguished by compassion for her neighbor and generally poor people; her whole life revolved around her family, deeds of good, and she had no other world. eternity".
Another well-known philanthropist and philanthropist - Count Sergei Grigoryevich Stroganov (1794 - 1882) - from 1835 to 1847 was a trustee of the Moscow educational district and Moscow University. This period was called "Stroganov's time" by contemporaries. While managing the university, Stroganov knew how to find and encourage talented teachers. Granovsky, Kavelin, Solovyov, Buslaev, Bodiansky - these are just a few professors who began their university career at that time, and later became the pride of Russian science. S. G. Stroganov's understanding of the need to develop higher education in the country affected his rejection of restricting access to the university for people of the lower classes and his fight against censorship. He vigorously campaigned for the improvement of the state of gymnasiums and elementary schools, having prepared the "Regulations on urban elementary schools in Moscow." It is S. G. Stroganov, a great lover of archeology, who owes a lot to the Society of Russian History and Antiquities, in which he was chairman for 37 years (from 1837 to 1874) and for which he achieved the title of Imperial with state subsidies (not forgetting at the same time and about constant own financing). The Archaeological Commission owes its appearance to him. Under his leadership and at his expense, "Antiquities of the Russian State" and a number of other publications were printed, including those authored by himself: "Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, built from 1194 to 1197." (St. Petersburg, 1849) and a critical analysis of Viollet's writings: "On Russian Art" (St. Petersburg, 1879).
Sergei Grigorievich founded a technical school of drawing in Moscow at his own expense - the first Russian drawing school. And in 1825 he organized the now famous Stroganov School in Moscow.
Count Alexander Grigoryevich Stroganov, when he was in Odessa, was interested in the activities of the local Society for the History and Antiquities of Russia, was its president and made a lot of valuable donations to the museum. His huge library was bequeathed to Tomsk University.
And Sergey Alexandrovich Stroganov in 1914 opened his palace and its art gallery to the widest possible public.
The traditions of patronage are continued by the modern descendants of the Stroganovs. This exhibition itself was able to take place largely thanks to the active participation of the Stroganov Foundation, founded by Baroness Helene de Ludinghausen, the last representative of the Stroganov family, now living in Paris. On the proposal of the State Russian Museum, Helen De Ludinghausen (Baroness Stroganova) in 1999 was awarded an honorary diploma of the President of the Russian Federation for her active charitable and sponsorship activities. With the support of the Stroganov Foundation, a number of major projects have already been implemented, and the furniture set for the Grand Dance Hall of the Stroganov Palace is currently being restored. The foundation also provides financial support to the Kazan Cathedral.
180 guests of honor, benefactors of the Stroganov Foundation, arrived at the grand opening of the exhibition "The Stroganovs. Patrons and Collectors". Among them are representatives of the royal houses of Europe, aristocratic families, prominent politicians, bankers, etc.
Viktor Petrov
Russian entrepreneurs of the 19th century treated their business differently than Western entrepreneurs. They considered it not so much a source of income as a mission that was entrusted to their shoulders by God or fate. In the merchant environment, it was believed that wealth should be used, so the merchants were engaged in collecting and charity, which was considered by many as a destiny from above.
Most of the entrepreneurs of those times were quite honest businessmen who considered patronage almost their duty.
It was thanks to patrons that museums and theaters, large temples and churches, as well as extensive collections of art monuments appeared in Russia. At the same time, Russian philanthropists did not seek to make their work public, on the contrary, many helped people on the condition that their help would not be advertised in the newspapers. Some patrons even refused titles of nobility.
The heyday of patronage, which began in Russia in the 17th century, came in the second half of the 19th century. City palaces and suburban noble estates were overflowing with vast libraries of rare books and collections of Western European/Russian art, which their owners donated to the state.
Outrageous rich people have been at all times. Exotic pets, strange friends, unusual appearance, strange wills… And often the oddities of the old Russian rich are balanced by charitable projects and bright business ideas. From this point of view, the most unusual millionaires of Russia in the 19th century are not so different from modern ones. Although some patrons in the depths of their souls cherished the dream of receiving a state award for their deeds or highlighting their name. Today, charity in Russia is experiencing a renaissance, so it would be appropriate to recall our most famous patrons.
Gavrila Gavrilovich Solodovnikov(1826-1901). This merchant became the author of the largest donation in the history of Russia. His fortune was about 22 million rubles, 20 of which Solodovnikov spent on the needs of society. Gavrila Gavrilovich was born in the family of a paper merchant. The future millionaire was introduced to the business from childhood, so he never really learned how to write or express his thoughts. But at the age of 20, Solodovnikov had already become a merchant of the first guild, and at the age of 40 he earned his first million. The businessman became famous for his extreme prudence and thrift. They say that he did not disdain to eat yesterday's porridge and ride in a carriage without rubber on wheels. Solodovnikov conducted his affairs, albeit not entirely cleanly, but he calmed his conscience by drawing up a well-known will - almost the entire fortune of the merchant went to charity. The patron made the first contribution for the construction of the Moscow Conservatory. A contribution of 200 thousand rubles was enough for the construction of a luxurious marble staircase. Through the efforts of the merchant, a concert hall with a theater stage was built on Bolshaya Dmitrovka, where ballets and extravaganzas could be staged. Today it has become the Operetta Theatre, and then it housed the Private Opera of another patron, Savva Mamontov. Solodovnikov wanted to become a nobleman, for this he decided to build a useful institution in Moscow. Thanks to the philanthropist, the Clinic for Skin and Venereal Diseases appeared in the city, equipped with all the most interesting. Today, the Moscow Medical Academy named after I.M. Sechenov is located in its premises. At the same time, the name of the benefactor was not reflected in the name of the clinic. According to the will of the merchant, his heirs were left with about half a million rubles, while the remaining 20,147,700 rubles were used for good deeds. But at the current rate, this amount would be about 9 billion dollars! A third of the capital went to equip zemstvo women's schools in a number of provinces, another third - to create vocational schools and a shelter for homeless children in Serpukhov district, and the rest - to build houses with cheap apartments for poor and lonely people. Thanks to the bequest of a philanthropist in 1909, the first Free Citizen house appeared on 2nd Meshchanskaya Street with 1152 apartments for single people, the Red Diamond house with 183 apartments for families was also built there. With the houses, the features of communes appeared - a shop, a canteen, a laundry, a bathhouse and a library. On the ground floor of the house for families there was a nursery and a kindergarten, the rooms were offered already furnished. Only officials were the first to move into such comfortable apartments “for the poor”.
Alexander Ludwigovich Stieglitz(1814-1884). This baron and banker was able to donate 6 million from his fortune of 100 million rubles to good deeds. Stieglitz was the richest man in the country in the second third of the 19th century. He inherited his title of court banker, along with his capital, from his father, the Russified German Stieglitz, who received the title of baron for merit. Alexander Ludwigovich strengthened his position by acting as an intermediary, thanks to which Emperor Nicholas I was able to conclude agreements on external loans for 300 million rubles. Alexander Stieglitz in 1857 became one of the founders of the Main Society of Russian Railways. In 1860, Stieglitz was appointed director of the newly created State Bank. The baron liquidated his firm and began to live on interest, taking a luxurious mansion on the Promenade des Anglais. By itself, the capital brought Stieglitz 3 million rubles a year. Big money did not make the baron sociable, they say that even the hairdresser who cut his hair for 25 years did not hear the voice of his client. The modesty of the millionaire took on painful features. It was Baron Stieglitz who was behind the construction of the Peterhof, Baltic and Nikolaev (later October) railways. However, the banker remained in history not for his financial assistance to the king and not for the construction of roads. The memory of him remained largely thanks to charity. The baron allocated impressive sums for the construction of the School of Technical Drawing in St. Petersburg, its maintenance and museum. Alexander Ludwigovich himself was no stranger to art, but his life turned out to be devoted to making money. The adopted daughter's husband, Alexander Polovtsev, managed to convince the banker that the country's growing industry needed "scientific draftsmen." As a result, thanks to Stieglitz, a school named after him and the country's first museum of decorative and applied arts appeared (the best part of his collections was eventually transferred to the Hermitage). Polovtsev himself, who was the secretary of state of Alexander III, believed that the country would be happy when merchants began to donate money for education without the selfish hope of receiving a government award or preferences. Thanks to his wife's inheritance, Polovtsev was able to publish 25 volumes of the Russian Biographical Dictionary, but because of the Revolution, this good deed was never completed. Now the former Stieglitz School of Technical Drawing is called Mukhinsky, and the marble monument to the baron-philanthropist has long been thrown out of it.
Yuri Stepanovich Nechaev-Maltsov(1834-1913). This nobleman donated a total of about 3 million rubles. At the age of 46, he unexpectedly became the owner of a whole network of glass factories. He received them from his uncle, a diplomat Ivan Maltsev. He was the only one who survived during the memorable massacre at the Russian embassy in Iran (Alexander Griboedov was also killed at the same time). As a result, the diplomat became disillusioned with his profession and decided to take up the family business. In the town of Gus, Ivan Maltsev created a network of glass factories. To do this, the secret of colored glass was obtained in Europe, with its help the industrialist began to produce very profitable window panes. As a result, this entire glass and crystal empire, together with two rich houses in the capital, painted by Aivazovsky and Vasnetsov, was inherited by an elderly, already unmarried official Nechaev. Along with wealth, he also got a double surname. Years lived in poverty left their indelible imprint on Nechaev-Maltsev. He was known as a very stingy person, allowing himself to be spent only on gourmet food. Professor Ivan Tsvetaev, the father of the future poetess, became a friend of the rich man. During rich feasts, he sadly calculated how many building materials could be bought with the money spent by the gourmet. Over time, Tsvetaev managed to convince Nechaev-Maltsev to allocate 3 million rubles required to complete the construction of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. It is interesting that the patron of fame himself was not looking for. On the contrary, all 10 years that the construction was going on, he acted anonymously. The millionaire went on unthinkable spending. So, 300 workers hired by him mined a special white frost-resistant marble right in the Urals. When it turned out that no one in the country could make 10-meter columns for a portico, Nechaev-Maltsev paid for the services of a Norwegian steamer. Thanks to a philanthropist, skilled masons were brought from Italy. For his contribution to the construction of the museum, the modest Nechaev-Maltsev received the title of chief chamberlain and the diamond order of Alexander Nevsky. But the “glass king” invested not only in the museum. With his money, a Technical School appeared in Vladimir, an almshouse on Shabolovka, and a church in memory of the murdered on Kulikovo Field. For the centenary of the Museum of Fine Arts in 2012, the Shukhov Tower Foundation proposed to name the institution after Yuri Stepanovich Nechaev-Maltsov instead of Pushkin. However, the renaming never took place, but a memorial plaque in honor of the patron appeared on the building.
Kuzma Terentievich Soldatenkov(1818-1901). A wealthy merchant donated more than 5 million rubles to charity. Soldatenkov traded in paper yarn, he was a co-owner of the textile Tsindelevskaya, Danilovskaya, and Krenholmskaya manufactories, in addition, he owned the Trekhgorny brewery and the Moscow Accounting Bank on shares. Surprisingly, Kuzma Terentyevich himself grew up in an ignorant Old Believer family, without learning to read and write. From an early age, he was already behind the counter in his rich father's shop. But after the death of a parent, no one could stop Soldatenkov in quenching his thirst for knowledge. A course of lectures on ancient Russian history was given to him by Timofey Granovsky himself. He also introduced Soldatenkov to the circle of Moscow Westerners, teaching him to do good deeds and sow eternal values. A wealthy merchant invested in a non-profit publishing house, at a loss to print books for the common people. Even 4 years before Pavel Tretyakov, the merchant began to buy paintings. The artist Alexander Rizzoni said that if it were not for these two major patrons, then the Russian masters of fine art would simply have no one to sell their works. As a result, Soldatenkov's collection included 258 paintings and 17 sculptures, as well as engravings and a library. The merchant was even nicknamed Kuzma Medici. He bequeathed his entire collection to the Rumyantsev Museum. For 40 years, Soldatenkov donated 1,000 rubles a year to this public museum. Donating his collection as a gift, the philanthropist asked only to place it in separate rooms. The unsold books of his publishing house and the rights to them were donated to the city of Moscow. The philanthropist allocated another million rubles for the construction of a vocational school, and gave two million for the creation of a free hospital for the poor, where ranks, estates and religions would not be paid attention. As a result, the hospital was completed after the death of the sponsor, it was called Soldatenkovskaya, but in 1920 it was renamed Botkinskaya. The benefactor himself would hardly be upset if he learned this fact. The fact is that he was especially close to the Botkin family.
Tretyakov brothers, Pavel Mikhailovich(1832-1898) and Sergei Mikhailovich(1834-1892). The fortune of these merchants was more than 8 million rubles, 3 of which they donated to art. The brothers owned the Big Kostroma Linen Manufactory. At the same time, Pavel Mikhailovich conducted business at the factories themselves, but Sergei Mikhailovich contacted directly with foreign partners. This division was in perfect harmony with their characters. If the elder brother was closed and unsociable, then the younger one adored secular meetings and rotated in public circles. Both Tretyakovs collected paintings, while Pavel preferred Russian painting, and Sergei preferred foreign, mainly modern French. When he left the post of the Moscow mayor, he was even glad that the need to hold official receptions had disappeared. After all, this made it possible to spend more on paintings. Altogether Sergei Tretyakov spent about a million francs, or 400,000 rubles, on painting. From their youth, the brothers felt the need to make a gift to their native city. At the age of 28, Pavel decided to bequeath his fortune to the creation of an entire gallery of Russian art. Fortunately, his life turned out to be quite long, as a result, the businessman was able to spend more than a million rubles on the purchase of paintings. And the gallery of Pavel Tretyakov worth 2 million, and even real estate, was donated to the city of Moscow. The collection of Sergei Tretyakov was not so great - only 84 paintings, but it was estimated at half a million. He managed to bequeath his collection to his older brother, and not to his wife. Sergei Mikhailovich was afraid that his wife would not want to part with a valuable collection. When in 1892 Moscow got an art museum, it was called the City Gallery of the brothers Pavel and Sergei Tretyakov. Interestingly, after Alexander III visited the meeting, he offered his elder brother the nobility. However, Pavel Mikhailovich refused such an honor, saying that he wanted to die as a merchant. But Sergei Mikhailovich, who managed to become a real state councilor, would clearly accept this offer. The Tretyakovs, in addition to the collection of the gallery, maintained a school for the deaf and dumb, helped the widows and orphans of painters, supported the Moscow Conservatory and art schools. With their own money and on their site in the center of the capital, the brothers created a passage to improve transport links in Moscow. Since then, the name Tretyakovskaya has been preserved in the name of both the gallery itself and the passage created by merchants, which turned out to be a rarity for a country with a turbulent history.
Savva Ivanovich Mamontov (1841-1918). This bright personality in the history of Russian culture had a significant impact on her. It is difficult to say what exactly Mamontov donated, and it is rather difficult to calculate his fortune. Mamontov had a couple of houses in Moscow, the Abramtsev estate, land on the Black Sea coast, roads, factories and millions of capital. Savva Ivanovich went down in history not only as a philanthropist, but also as a real builder of Russian culture. And Mamontov was born in the family of a wine farmer who headed the Society of the Moscow-Yaroslavl Railway. The industrialist made his capital on the construction of railways. It was thanks to him that the road from Yaroslavl to Arkhangelsk, and then also to Murmansk, appeared. Thanks to Savva Mamontov, a port appeared in this city, and the road that connected the center of the country with the North saved Russia twice. First it happened during the First World War, and then during the Second. After all, almost all the help of the allies came to the USSR through Murmansk. Art was not alien to Mamontov, he himself sculpted well. The sculptor Matvey Antokolsky even considered him talented. They say that thanks to the excellent bass, Mamontov could become a singer, he even managed to make his debut at the Milan Opera. However, Savva Ivanovich never got on stage or at the school. But he was able to earn so much money that he managed to arrange his own home theater and establish a private opera, the first in the country. There, Mamontov acted as a director, conductor, and decorator, and also set his voice to his artists. Having bought the Abramtsevo estate, the businessman created the famous mammoth circle, whose members constantly spent time visiting their wealthy patron. Chaliapin learned to play Mamontov's piano, Vrubel wrote in the office of the patron of his "Demon". Savva the Magnificent made his estate near Moscow a real artistic colony. Workshops were built here, peasants were specially trained, and the "Russian" style was planted in furniture and ceramics. Mamontov believed that the people should be accustomed to the beautiful not only in churches, but also at train stations and on the streets. Sponsored by a millionaire and the magazine "World of Art", as well as the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. Only now the art admirer was so carried away by charity that he managed to get into debt. Mamontov received a rich order for the construction of another railway and took a large loan against the security of the shares. When it turned out that there was nothing to repay 5 million, Savva Ivanovich ended up in the Taganka prison. His former friends have abandoned him. In order to somehow pay off Mamontov's debts, his rich collection of paintings and sculptures was sold for next to nothing at auction. The impoverished and aged philanthropist began to live at a ceramic workshop outside the Butyrskaya Zastava, where he died unnoticed by everyone. Already in our time, a monument was erected to the famous philanthropist in Sergiev Posad, because here the Mamontovs laid the first short railway line specifically for transporting pilgrims to the Lavra. It is planned to erect four more monuments to the great man - in Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, on the Donetsk railway and on Theater Square in Moscow.
Varvara Alekseevna Morozova (Khludova)(1850-1917). This woman owned a fortune of 10 million rubles, having donated more than a million to charity. And her sons Mikhail and Ivan became famous art collectors. When Varvara's husband, Abram Abramovich, died, she inherited from him at the age of 34 the Partnership of Tver Manufactory. Having become the sole owner of big capital, Morozova took up providing for the unfortunate. Of the 500 thousand that her husband allocated to her for benefits to the poor and the maintenance of schools and churches, 150 thousand went to a clinic for the mentally ill. After the revolution, the clinic named after A.A. Morozov was named after the psychiatrist Sergei Korsakov, another 150 thousand were donated to the Vocational School for the Poor. The remaining investments were not so great - the Rogozhskoye Women's Primary School received 10 thousand, the sums went to rural and terrestrial schools, to shelters for the nervously ill. The Cancer Institute on Devichye Pole was named after its patrons, the Morozovs. And there was also a charitable institution in Tver, a sanatorium in Gagra for tuberculosis patients. Varvara Morozova was a member of many institutions. As a result, vocational schools and primary classes, hospitals, maternity shelters and almshouses in Tver and Moscow were named after her. In gratitude for the donation of 50 thousand rubles, the name of the patron was engraved on the pediment of the Chemical Institute of the People's University. Morozova bought a three-story mansion for the Prechistensky courses for workers in Kursovy Lane, and she also paid for the Doukhobors to move to Canada. It was Varvara Alekseevna who financed the construction of the first free library-reading room in Russia named after Turgenev, opened in 1885, and then also helped to acquire the necessary literature. The final point of Morozova's charitable activities was her will. The factorywoman, exposed by Soviet propaganda as a model of acquisitiveness, ordered all her assets to be converted into securities, put in a bank, and the funds received to be given to the workers. Unfortunately, they did not have time to appreciate all the kindness of their mistress - a month after her death, the October Revolution happened.
Savva Timofeevich Morozov(1862-1905). This philanthropist donated about 500 thousand rubles. Morozov managed to become a model of a modern businessman - he studied chemistry at Cambridge, and studied textile production in Liverpool and Manchester. Returning from Europe to Russia, Savva Morozov headed the Nikolskaya Manufactory Partnership, named after him. The industrialist's mother, Maria Fedorovna, whose capital was 30 million rubles, remained the managing director and main shareholder of this enterprise. Morozov's advanced thinking suggested that thanks to the revolution, Russia would be able to catch up and overtake Europe. He even drew up his own program of social and political reforms, which aimed at the transition of the country to a constitutional regime of government. Morozov insured himself for the amount of 100 thousand rubles, and issued the policy to the bearer, transferring it to his beloved actress Andreeva. There, in turn, she transferred most of the funds to the revolutionaries. Because of his love for Andreeva, Morozov supported the Art Theater, he was paid a 12-year lease on the premises in Kamergersky Lane. At the same time, the contribution of the patron was equal to the contributions of the main shareholders, which included the owner of the gold-gutter manufactory Alekseev, known as Stanislavsky. The restructuring of the theater building cost Morozov 300 thousand rubles - a huge amount for those times. And this is despite the fact that the architect Fyodor Shekhtel, the author of the Moscow Art Theater Seagull, made the project completely free of charge. Thanks to Morozov's money, the most modern stage equipment was ordered abroad. In general, lighting equipment in the Russian theater first appeared here. In total, the philanthropist spent about 500 thousand rubles on the building of the Moscow Art Theater with a bronze bas-relief on the facade in the form of a drowning swimmer. As already mentioned, Morozov sympathized with the revolutionaries. Among his friends was Maxim Gorky, Nikolai Bauman was hiding in the industrialist's palace on Spiridonovka. Morozov helped to deliver illegal literature to the factory, where the future People's Commissar Leonid Krasin served as an engineer. After a wave of revolutionary uprisings in 1905, the industrialist demanded that his mother transfer the factories to his complete subordination. However, she achieved the removal of the obstinate son from business and sent him with his wife and personal doctor to the Cote d'Azur. There, Savva Morozov committed suicide, however, the circumstances of his death turned out to be strange.
Maria Klavdievna Tenisheva(1867-1928). The origin of this princess remains a mystery. According to one of the legends, Emperor Alexander II himself could be her father. Tenisheva tried to find herself in her youth - she got married early, gave birth to a daughter, began to take singing lessons in order to get on the professional stage, and began to draw. As a result, Maria came to the conclusion that the purpose of her life is charity. She divorced and remarried, this time to a prominent businessman, Prince Vyacheslav Nikolayevich Tenishev. He was nicknamed "Russian American" for his business acumen. Most likely, the marriage was calculated, because only in this way, having grown up in an aristocratic family, but illegitimate, a girl could get a firm place in society. After Maria Tenisheva became the wife of a wealthy entrepreneur, she gave herself up to her calling. The prince himself was also a well-known philanthropist, having founded the Tenishev School in St. Petersburg. True, he still fundamentally helped the most cultured representatives of society. Even during the life of her husband, Tenisheva organized drawing classes in St. Petersburg, where one of the teachers was Ilya Repin, she also opened a drawing school in Smolensk. In her estate, Talashkino, Maria opened an “ideological estate”. An agricultural school was created there, where ideal farmers were brought up. And masters of arts and crafts were trained in handicraft workshops. Thanks to Tenisheva, the Russian Antiquities Museum appeared in the country, which became the country's first museum of ethnography and Russian decorative and applied arts. A special building was even built for him in Smolensk. However, the peasants, about which the princess baked for the good, thanked her in their own way. The prince's body, embalmed for a hundred years and buried in three coffins, was simply thrown into a pit in 1923. Tenisheva herself, who together with Savva Mamontov maintained the magazine "World of Art", gave funds to Diaghilev and Benois, lived out her last years in exile in France. There she, still not being old, took up enamel art.
Margarita Kirillovna Morozova(Mamontova) (1873-1958). This woman was related to both Savva Mamontov and Pavel Tretyakov. Margarita was called the first beauty of Moscow. Already at the age of 18, she married Mikhail Morozov, the son of another well-known philanthropist. At 30, Margarita, being pregnant with her fourth child, became a widow. She herself preferred not to deal with the affairs of the factory, whose co-owner was her husband. Morozova breathed art. She took music lessons from the composer Alexander Scriabin, whom she supported financially for a long time in order to enable him to create and not be distracted by everyday life. In 1910, Morozova donated the art collection of her deceased husband to the Tretyakov Gallery. A total of 83 paintings were handed over, including works by Gauguin, Van Gogh, Monet, Manet, Munch, Toulouse-Lautrec, Renoir, Perov. Kramskoy, Repin, Benois, Levitan and others). Margarita financed the work of the publishing house "The Way", which until 1919 published about fifty books, mainly on the topic of religion and philosophy. Thanks to the philanthropist, the journal "Questions of Philosophy" and the socio-political newspaper "Moscow Weekly" were published. In her estate Mikhailovskoye in the Kaluga province, Morozova transferred part of the land to the teacher Shatsky, who organized the first children's colony here. And the landowner supported this institution financially. And during the First World War, Morozova turned her house into a hospital for the wounded. The revolution shattered both her life and her family. The son and two daughters ended up in exile, only Mikhail remained in Russia, the same Mika Morozov, whose portrait was painted by Serov. The manufacturer herself lived out her days in poverty at a summer cottage in Lianozovo. A private pensioner Margarita Kirillovna Morozova received a separate room in a new building from the state a few years before her death.
Studies show that the motives for charity and patronage among Russian entrepreneurs were complex and far from unambiguous. There was no single ideological basis for performing charitable deeds. In most cases, both selfish and altruistic motives acted at the same time: there was also a businesslike, well-thought-out calculation, and respect for science and art, and in a number of cases it was a special kind of asceticism, whose origins go back to national traditions and religious values. In other words, everything depended on the social image of the benefactors. From this point of view, we can talk about the most important incentives for charity and patronage of Russian entrepreneurs.
The Central State Historical Archive of the USSR contains many documents, one way or another connected with charitable institutions. And all the accompanying references to these documents end with the same words: "Abolished by the Great October Socialist Revolution."
Work was in full swing - there was something to abolish. By the beginning of this century, the Department of the Empress Maria’s establishment alone had 683 charitable societies and institutions, of which 645 were located in the European part of Russia - shelters, educational homes, almshouses.
In total, by 1902, 11,040 charitable institutions were functioning in the Russian Empire. There were 19,108 parish boards of trustees. Yes, there were many in need in Rus', but everyone received help and support from those who had it: not a single humiliated and insulted social group was left without attention. Many Russian charitable societies had their own distinctive signs. Believe me, their design, sophistication and originality were not inferior to military awards. To be accepted into society was considered a great honor. But, of course, it was not bravado with insignia that attracted wealthy people to the ranks of philanthropists. For example, I. I. Betskoy is the son of the “last boyar”, Field Marshal Trubetskoy and Baroness Wrede. He was educated in Paris and devoted his whole life to educational work in Russia. In St. Petersburg, with the light hand of Betsky, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was founded according to the project of Stasov.
Under Alexander the First, Prince P. G. Oldenburgsky shone in the field of professional charity: he devoted 42 years of his life to serving disadvantaged people. In St. Petersburg he founded the School of Law, the first night orphanage. Pyotr Georgievich spent more than a million rubles for charity. In 1889, a monument was erected to him on Liteiny Prospekt with the inscription: "To the enlightened benefactor." It's not hard to guess when the monument was demolished...
But for the most part in Russia, women were still involved in charity work, and first of all, empresses. The great reformer Catherine II made charity a state branch.
Empress Maria Feodorovna stood up for women's education and succeeded well in this direction.
Charity and patronage in Russia
The word "charity" in the old days meant compassion for one's neighbor, mercy. Various charitable institutions were built for the needy - hospitals, shelters, schools, colleges, almshouses. Charity was one of the main virtues of Christianity. In pre-revolutionary Russia, charity was usually not included in government programs to help the poor, it was done by private individuals and societies for helping the needy. State assistance was designated by the term "charity" (public charity). Charity was widespread in the state and public life of Russia. Even under Prince Vladimir, the poor and the poor could come to the princely court and receive there "every need, drink and food ...". This example was followed by Vladimir Monomakh, in the following words he set out the duties of the prince in relation to the poor: “be fathers of orphans”; "do not leave the strong to destroy the weak"; "Don't leave the sick without help." Russian tsars and tsarinas during exits and departures, church holidays, visits to prisons widely distributed alms. Princely and royal charity was an example for the boyars.
The basis of charity in the pre-Petrine era was Orthodox churches and monasteries. Under the latter, almshouses were set up for the poor and the elderly, and in lean years food supplies were distributed from the monastic stocks to the starving, and common meals were arranged for the poor.
In the 18th century the scale of Russian charity has increased significantly. In 1775, a special order of public charity appeared as part of the new provincial institutions. He was entrusted with the care of education, treatment, the organization of public schools, orphanages, shelters and almshouses for the elderly, work and strait houses. After 65 years, there were already about 800 such institutions in the country. concern for public charity was transferred to zemstvos and cities. In Moscow in 1894 district guardianships for the poor were established everywhere.
Moscow occupied a special place in Russian philanthropy. In the Catherine era, an orphanage (1763), the Widow's House (1772), the Catherine's (1776) and Golitsyn's (1801) hospitals, the Sheremetev hospice (1810) and many other large charitable institutions were opened here, often built according to the designs of famous architects (Golitsyn hospital M. F. Kazakov).
The rise and flourishing of charity in the second half of the 18th - the first third of the 19th century. became the result of noble philanthropy (philanthropy). The construction of hospitals, shelters, almshouses for the poor was a matter of honor and prestige. Wealthy nobles D. M. Golitsyn, N. P. Sheremetev, A. N. Strekalova and others donated huge amounts of money to the establishment of various charitable institutions.
The system of charity in old Russia was distinguished by a variety of forms of institutions and societies. Semi-governmental, semi-public nature was the activity of the institutions of the Office of Institutions of Empress Maria (1796), named after the wife of Emperor Paul I. By 1900, the Office of Mary consisted of more than 500 educational and charitable institutions, where tens of thousands of people lived, studied, were treated. The largest institutions of the Office of Mary included the council of orphanages, the ladies' guardianship of the poor, the so-called Mariinsky hospitals for the poor, etc.
In parallel with the Department of Mary in Russia, there was a Philanthropic Society (since 1816 - Humanitarian) created in 1802 on the initiative of Alexander I, the main goal of which was to provide voluntary versatile assistance to the poor. In Moscow, the system of this society included well-known almshouses - Maroseyskaya, Nabilkovskaya, Cherkasskaya, etc.
Church charity had a wide scope in Russia. Only in Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century. there were 69 church guardianships of the poor. More than 100 small almshouses were maintained by Moscow parish churches.
Class institutions were of particular importance in the system of private charity. In Moscow, at the expense of nobles, merchants, priests, educational institutions, shelters, almshouses were organized, where representatives of this class studied or lived.
Russian state and private charity since the second half of the 19th century. existed mainly on the donations of the merchants. The merits of this class for the development of charitable institutions in Moscow are especially great. Representatives of well-known merchant dynasties: Alekseevs, Bakhrushins, Baevs, Boevs, Lyamins, Mazurins, Morozovs, Solodovnikovs, Khludovs and others built dozens of charitable institutions and institutions at their own expense, supplied them with modern medical equipment for those times.
In total, in Moscow by the beginning of the 20th century. there were 628 charitable institutions: almshouses, shelters, temporary shelters and hostels, doss houses, free and cheap canteens and tea houses, industrious houses, communities of sisters of mercy, outpatient clinics, etc. The forms of assistance in them were also very diverse: the provision of housing, lodging for the night , free lunches, the issuance of one-time or permanent cash and in-kind benefits, medical assistance, payment for medicines. Approximately the same structure had and charity in other cities of the Russian Empire.
The most important part of broad charity was patronage, which played a huge role in the formation and development of national culture. The word "philanthropy" comes from the name of the Roman statesman Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, who lived in the 1st century. BC e. and helping talented Roman poets of that time. The name of Maecenas, as a fan of the fine arts and patron of poets, became a household name and entered the languages of many peoples of the world. We call patrons people who voluntarily donate money, wealth, etc. to the construction of various public buildings (temples, theaters, hospitals, educational institutions) that help artists, writers, poets, musicians. “In order for art to flourish,” wrote K. S. Stanislavsky, “we need not only artists, but also patrons.” Extensive collections of highly artistic monuments of art, museums, theaters and other centers of spiritual life were created precisely through the efforts of patrons in Russia.
Patronage as a support of culture, science and art by private individuals has been developed in Russia since the 18th century, when the prerequisites for educational, museum-collecting and monument-protective activities arose in the country. Wonderful collections of monuments of Western European art, extensive libraries were collected in city palaces and country noble estates. However, only individual representatives of the Russian aristocracy of the 19th - early 20th century. — N. I. Rumyantsev, A. S. Uvarov and P. S. Uvarova, M. K. Tenisheva, Yu.
The heyday of patronage came in the second half of the 19th century. thanks to the Russian merchants, who adhered to the Orthodox traditions of helping their neighbor and supporting cultural public institutions. Often patronage became obligatory for many merchant families. Every big and small city had such patrons, but Moscow patrons were famous throughout Russia. The famous family of industrialists Morozov left behind many monuments of cultural and educational activities. So, at the expense of Maria Fedorovna and Feodosia Ermilovna Morozov, many Old Believer churches were built and decorated, Sergei Timofeevich Morozov built the Handicraft Museum in Leontievsky Lane, and Savva Timofeevich built the magnificent building of the Art Theater.
Contemporaries called the family of merchants Bakhrushins, who generously donated millions for the construction of churches, houses with free apartments, as professional philanthropists. Alexander Alekseevich Bakhrushin donated a large sum of money for the construction of the building of the Korsh Theater (now the Moscow Art Theater named after Gorky on Moskvin Street). But most of all, Muscovites and Russians remember Alexei Alexandrovich Bakhrushin, the founder of the famous theater museum, donated by the owner in 1913 to the Academy of Sciences.
No less famous patrons of culture were the Moscow merchants Shchukins. Patronage and collecting is a long tradition of this family. Peter Ivanovich, who collected a huge collection of monuments of Russian art, built a museum building on Gruzinskaya Street with his own money, and then in 1905 donated it to the Historical Museum with a collection of about 24 thousand items! His brother Sergei Ivanovich collected a remarkable collection of modern Western European paintings, which later became an adornment of the Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin.
The basis of the world's largest museum of Russian art - the Tretyakov Gallery was the collection of the merchant Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov, donated by him in 1892 to Moscow. Savva Ivanovich Mamontov, a prominent railroad industrialist, a multi-talented man, a great connoisseur and connoisseur of art, created a kind of creative circle in his estate Abramtsevo, uniting such talented masters of Russian art as V. D. Polenov, M. A. Vrubel, V. M. Vasnetsov, V. A. Serov and others. On the stage of the Private Opera in Moscow, based on the funds of Mamontov, the ingenious gift of F. I. Chaliapin flourished.
The first of them was guided, apparently, by religious motives. The norms of Orthodox morality, which put Christian charity at the forefront, helping all those in need, prevailed among Russian entrepreneurs and merchants. Even those rich people who were not deeply religious were forced to deduct significant sums for the charity of the poor and aid to culture for fear of being excommunicated from the Church on charges of acquisitiveness and other vices.
Let us especially note that many Russian businessmen-philanthropists came from Old Believer families, where children were brought up according to the ancient charter of deanery - in strictness and obedience, in the spirit of asceticism and goodwill. So, the millionaire philanthropist, the largest Russian publisher K. T. Soldatenkov (1818-1901) spent all his childhood in the Old Believer environment of the Rogozhskaya outpost, and later was a member of the Rogozhskaya Old Believer community. The old faith was also practiced by members of the Ryabushinsky family, a large clan of merchants of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The very fact of belonging to Orthodox and Old Believer families did not necessarily mean the deep piety of certain patrons. However, even in this case, family traditions of goodwill played, in our opinion, a decisive role in their philanthropic activities.
The second most important motivating factor in the activities of patrons was, no doubt, their patriotism, "Russianness". So, L. Tretyakov, according to I. Repin, "carried on his shoulders the question of the existence of an entire Russian school of painting. A colossal, extraordinary feat."
S. Mamontov created in Moscow, wrote V. Stasov, "at his own expense a Russian opera", having had an invaluable influence on all Russian operatic art.
The publishing company of K. Soldatenkov specialized in publishing the works of major Russian writers - I. Turgenev, N. Nekrasov, A. Koltsov, and others. At the same time, leading patrons of the capital actively collected and promoted Western European art. And this is no coincidence; their patriotism did not interfere, but helped to correctly assess the achievements of foreign culture in their relation to Russian culture.
Finally, the third group of Russian philanthropists acted, apparently, out of a desire to receive social benefits and privileges - ranks, titles, orders, nobility. This issue was considered quite fully by A. Bokhanov, who correctly pointed out that "charity often opened up the only opportunity for entrepreneurs to receive ranks, titles and other distinctions that were practically impossible to achieve in any other way (in particular, through their professional activities"). Ranks and orders were, of course, not an end in themselves - they made it possible to raise the class status. So, all the orders of the 1st degree and Vladimir of the 4th degree (since 1900 - the 3rd degree) made it possible to obtain hereditary nobility. From this point of view, the story of the entrepreneur-philanthropist L. S. Polyakov (he contributed large sums to the Rumyantsev Museum and the Museum of Fine Arts), who received the Order of Vladimir III degree and Stanislav I degree, and achieved nobility on this basis, is very characteristic. Some patrons "ordered" orders and honorary titles in exchange for contributions: for example, the directors of the Moscow Philharmonic Society, on the eve of its 25th anniversary in 1903, indicated in a petition who what award should be intended for: D. Vostryakov - the Order of Stanislav I degree, B Vostryakov - the title of manufactory-advisor, K. Gutheil - the Order of Vladimir IV degree, etc. But these cases were still not typical for Russian philanthropy: for example, the mentioned directors of the IFO played, as we will see below, an important role in financing the Moscow Art Theater, but at the same time they did not put forward such conditions.
Sources of patronage investments
An economic analysis of patronage activities involves a thorough analysis of the sources of charitable investments. Money is not taken out of thin air; as a rule, it is withdrawn from the commercial and industrial spheres and transferred to the branches of culture and art. It is quite difficult to trace these financial flows, because under the conditions of private ownership of the means of production, the owners of capital, patrons of the arts are reluctant to share their trade secrets with the public. Nevertheless, some conclusions can be drawn here from a comparison of the commercial and industrial activities of patrons and their charitable work. Specific examples show that the initial capital of patrons was created by their ancestors - grandfathers, fathers; the younger generation partly multiplied the inheritance, partly gave it another purpose.
So, the ancestor of the Bakhrushin dynasty was Alexei Fedorovich (1800-1848), who founded leather production in Moscow and had three sons - Alexander, Vasily and Peter, who also established a cloth factory in 1864. The son of Peter - Alexei (1853-1904), became a well-known collector who bequeathed his fortune to the Historical Museum, and the son of Alexander - Alexei (1865-1929), financed the construction of the F.A. Korsh Theater, convened the First Theater Museum in Russia - now the State Central Theater Museum named after A. A. Bakhrushin.
Father K. T. Soldatenkov traded in cotton yarn and chintz. After his death, his son continued his business, expanded it and became a shareholder in a number of large firms, including the Nikolskaya manufactory.
The father of G. G. Solodovnikov was engaged in manufactory trade in Ukraine as early as the beginning of the 19th century. Gavrila Gavrilovich himself was the owner of the Passage Solodovnikov store on Kuznetsky Most in Moscow, a banker, and a large landowner.
The Tretyakov family has long been a linen trader. By the end of the 40s of the XIX century. The Tretyakovs owned 5 shops in the mall between Ilyinka and Varvarka. In the 50s, the brothers Pavel and Sergey created a trading house under the sign "Partnership of brothers P. and S. Tretyakov and V. Konshin" with a capital of 270 thousand rubles. This production became the basis of their patronage and charity.
Dynasty Morozov - textile manufacturers. At the end of the XIX century. they owned four firms - the Partnership of the Nikolskaya Manufactory "Savva Morozov Son and Co", the Partnership of Manufactories "Vikula Morozov with Sons", the Company of the Bogorodsk-Glukhovskaya Manufactory and the Partnership of the Tver Manufactory. The most important of them was the Nikolskaya Manufactory - now the Cotton Mill named after K.I. Nikolaeva in Orekhovo-Zuyevo, Moscow Region. It was this manufactory that he headed at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. the famous Savva, she became the source of his fabulous income and donations.
Savva Mamontov's father and uncle were wine farmers. Father, Ivan Fedorovich, was engaged in farming in Siberia - in Shadrinsk and Yalutorovsk. At the end of the 40s, he moved to Moscow to head the farming economy of the Moscow province. At the end of the 50s, together with V.A. the road to Sergiyem Posad, is included in the leadership of the Society. Moscow-Yaroslavl railway. Ivan Fedorovich transferred all his capital and experience to Savva, who, after the death of his father, became the director of the Moscow-Yaroslavl Road Society, extended it to Kostroma and Vologda, received a concession for the Donetsk railway, which was finally built by 1882. Thus, by the middle In the 80s, the capital of Savva Mamontov, which arose from farming, silk trade and railway construction, began to look for new areas for investment. And art has become such an investment.
These are the most characteristic examples showing the history of the emergence of the capital of large patrons. Patronage itself was a form of "transfusion" of funds from the material and production sector of the economy into the cultural and artistic.
Patrons-organizers: K. Stanislavsky, S. Morozov and the Moscow Art Theater
Vivid examples of the activities of the patron-organizer were given by the Russian theater and concert business of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily the history of the famous Moscow Art Theater. This topic has already received coverage in the book by Y. Orlov. We will try to deepen the study of the patronage aspect of the activities of K. Stanislavsky and S. Morozov and offer the simplest classification of forms of patronage in connection with the history of the organization of the Moscow Art Theater. As history shows, a theater patron could act as a tenant, founder, shareholder, entrepreneur and landlord. We will consider these five forms of activity.
Even before the creation of the Moscow Art Theater, its founder K. Stanislavsky gained experience in patronage. In his memoirs, he noted that the activities of P. M. Tretyakov, K. T. Soldatenkov, S. I. Shchukin, A. A. Bakhrushin had a great influence on him: I would have recognized the famous Russian Medici in an embarrassing, timid, tall and thin figure, reminiscent of a clergyman! He also mentioned S. I. Mamontov, the creator of the Russian Private Opera, with a kind word: its artistic principles and organizational form were studied in detail by him back in the late 80s 19th century
In 1888, he himself acted as a patron-tenant. At the end of this year, the grand opening of the Moscow Society of Art and Literature (MOIL) took place; Stanislavsky not only prepared a draft agreement on the creation of MOIL, but also rented a room for him in the Gunzburg house on Tverskaya for three years for 26.1 thousand rubles. In addition to renting, he was obliged to bring the rented premises into a decent appearance, renovate the stage and props, buy furniture, etc. In response, the Society assumed all these expenses in the form of debt, considering them as a perpetual loan, in case of non-payment of the annual installment, the debt was transferred "to the following years until it is finally repaid." Konstantin Sergeevich did not stipulate any rights for himself personally in this project, except for the acquisition of all the property of MOIL in the event of its termination. Despite such favorable conditions, the enterprise actually failed: already in 1890, Stanislavsky's debts had grown so much that the question arose of closing the Society. But it didn't come to that; they decided only to drastically cut their rent expenses by moving to a small apartment on Povarskaya.
Such a sad experience benefited the future business. When, during the famous meeting on June 22, 1897 in the "Slavianski Bazaar", and then in a letter dated July 12 of the same year, V.I. , then the latter replied on July 19, with a refusal: "Taught by bitter experience, I made a promise to myself; never to conduct theatrical business at my own risk, since I have no right to do so, partly because I am not rich enough for this (my capital is equal to 300,000, who are all entirely in business), and, secondly, because I am a family man ... ". Stanislavsky was a shareholder and co-director of the factory of the Vladimir Alekseev partnership, he knew well the economic philosophy of the Moscow merchant-philanthropist and therefore proposed creating not a theatrical enterprise, but a partnership on shares: in the first case, as he believed, merchants "by principle will not go to theater, and in the second case, they will fork a lot of money out of principle and go to the theater to support “their own business.” Thus, Konstantin-Sergeevich refused to become a patron-entrepreneur, patron-tenant, but offered Vladimir Ivanovich Nemirovich-Danchenko to become patrons-founders , that is, to undertake the gratuitous labor of preparing the constituent documents of the joint-stock partnership. And Nemirovich-Danchenko relented, although he did not fully agree with this idea. Soon Stanislavsky showed him his draft charter for the National Public Theaters Joint Stock Company, the second edition of which was made by him back in 1895. Already in August 1897, Nemirovich-Danchenko made a p marks, agreeing in principle with the unit partnership model. In this project, the goals of public theaters, the form of their establishment, the composition of the founders, as well as the capital of 1 million rubles are fixed. out of 10 thousand shares for 100 rubles. each. These ideas were developed by Nemirovich-Danchenko a little later - in the report "Moscow Public Theater", read at a meeting of the Russian Technical Society on January 15, 1898. "It clearly reflected the three goals of the new theater - to provide comfortable seats for poor people at low prices , to bring the performing arts out of the routine, to give the opportunity to develop young forces who received a theatrical education.Thus, Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko made an intellectual contribution to the formation of a new theatrical enterprise, acting as patrons-founders.
But to create a new theater, patrons-shareholders were also required, able to contribute the initial capital. Attempts to find support from the millionaire V. A. Morozova, the wife of S. Morozov’s cousin, as well as from other major Moscow merchants, did not produce results; The appeal to the Moscow Duma for help also remained unanswered. And here a witty move was found by Nemirovich-Danchenko, who, having studied the philosophy of merchants-patrons well, knew that in "Moscow cultural life, private initiative always tried to find support in some kind of patronage." While teaching at the School of Music and Drama at the Moscow Philharmonic Society, which is under the auspices of the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, Vladimir Ivanovich subtly used the high public assessment of his work by the princess and managed to attract wealthy entrepreneurs who were directors of the Moscow Philharmonic Society to his side. Already on April 10, 1898, an agreement on the establishment of a public theater was signed by 10 shareholders. The largest contributions were made by K. S. Stanislavsky and S. T. Moroev - 5 thousand rubles each, and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko entered "by personal labor." Among the shareholders were also 5 wealthy directors of the Company - D.R. Vostryakov, N.A. Lukutin, N.A. Prokofiev, K.K. Ushkov and K.A. Gutheil, as well as a member of the Board of Trustees of the same company K. V. Osipov: their total contribution was 13 thousand rubles. The total capital of the future theater increased to 28 thousand rubles, which was enough to start a business. It is noteworthy that the contract was concluded "on the basis of the brochure of V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko" Moscow public theater "attached to this agreement." there was a joint-stock company without shares, a share partnership: out of 10 shareholders, only 2 represented the theater itself, 8 others were outsiders, actually philanthropists-shareholders.
Among the shareholders was the name of S. Morozov - a man who, according to Stanislavsky, "was destined to play in our theater an important and excellent role as a patron of art, able not only to make material sacrifices to art, but also to serve it with all devotion ...". Why was there a need for Morozov's capital? The answer to this question is contained in the table.
Already the first season of the Moscow Art Theater ended with a deficit of 38.9 thousand rubles. Part of this deficit was covered by a reserve capital of 28 thousand rubles, in addition; Stanislavsky refused the salary of the director and chief director, which gave another 7 (2 thousand; the situation remained, however, difficult. It worsened even more in the third season, when expenses jumped by almost 100 thousand rubles, and the deficit increased to almost 80 Thousand rubles The increase in ticket prices, which increased fees, did not help, but it threatened the main principle of the theater - public accessibility. And at that moment Savva Morozov saved the theater.
Morozov assumed the functions of a patron-entrepreneur. For the first four seasons, he was the largest shareholder and, in addition, covered the deficits noted above. In the fifth season, when the original three-year contract expired, he drew up a new three-year "Condition" between the shareholders of the Moscow Art Theater, according to which a new "Partnership on shares of 15 shareholders with a capital of 65 thousand rubles" was formed, where Morozov himself owned the largest share of 14 8 thousand rubles, while other shareholders were credited to him on very favorable terms. He retained the position of chairman of the board and the right of general control over the entire course of the case. He intended to subsidize the theater in the following form: Morozov undertook to rent Lianozova's house in Kamergersky Lane, rebuild the stage and hall for 1200 seats, and then transfer the entire premises to the theater for 3 years with a rent of 15 thousand rubles. The patron fulfilled all his obligations. The theater was rebuilt by him in a fantastically short time - no more than six months, from April to October 1902, that is, just in time for the beginning of season 5. The repair was expensive - 350 thousand rubles, but during it such technical logical innovations that were not thought of in the best theaters of the West - a revolving stage, a huge hatch, a counter-ramp, a special lighting system controlled by an "electric piano", and even individually equipped dressing rooms! The success exceeded all expectations: in the fifth and sixth seasons, the theater not only rose to a new creative level, but also achieved a positive balance. A third of the profit received was distributed, according to the "Condition", among the shareholders as a dividend, the rest replenished the working capital. The calculation of the philanthropist-entrepreneur turned out to be correct: Morozov saved the Moscow Art Theater from a financial disaster.
However, the victory of S. T. Morozov contained the grain of his future defeat. His break e Moscow Art Theater was brewing. For the first time, this manifested itself in 8 more frequent conflicts between the patron and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, in the cooling of his relations with other shareholders, in Morozov’s desire to support M. F. Andreeva, who in February 1904 filed an application for resignation from the theater. The internal reason for the gap, however, was something else - the contradiction between the claims of the philanthropist-entrepreneur to the sole leadership of the organizational side of the Moscow Art Theater and the internal laws of the share partnership, which was the theater in fact, was aggravated. This conflict erupted on April 21, 1904, when Nemirovich-Danchenko sent Savva Timofeevich a draft of a new partnership to continue the work of the Moscow Art Theater from June 15, 1905: in this project, the form of partnership was recognized as more preferable than the entrepreneurial one, and there was no place for Morozov in it .
Savva initially responded with a complete refusal to participate in the case, but after persuasion put forward counter conditions, according to which he agreed to the role of a philanthropist-landlord. In a letter to V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko dated April 30, 1904, he announced an increase in rent from 15 thousand to 25 thousand rubles, which, however, indicated only a decrease in the subsidy, but not its termination: given that the cost of rebuilding the theater was 350 thousand rubles, and the maturity of this amount was determined at 9 years out of 4% per annum, Morozov believed that the full rent should have been 40 thousand rubles. Thus, the patronage subsidy amounted to 15 thousand rubles. In the autumn, November 29, S. T. Morozov, in a letter to K. S. Stanislavsky and A. A. Stakhovich, proposed considering his share of 14.8 thousand rubles. either as a loan to the Partnership with the obligation of the latter to accrue interest, or as a share contribution with the right to receive a dividend on it. All these proposals were accepted by the Moscow Art Theater, which was fixed in the "Conditions" between the 13 shareholders of the theater and the philanthropist-landlord S. T. Morozov dated January 5, 1905. In it, the rent increased to 53 thousand rubles. per year, but at the same time, Morozov took on the costs of insurance, water and electricity for the building. In fact, the agreement testified to the transformation of the philanthropist into a commercial subtenant, renting Lianozov's house to rent it out to the Partnership in order to cover losses from the restructuring and make a profit. It seemed that Savva's philanthropic project collapsed.
But fate decreed otherwise. The death of Savva, which followed on May 13, 1905, that is, 4 months after the signing of the last "Conditions", freed the Moscow Art Theater from painful debt payments: having passed away, Morozov left his capital to the theater. Therefore, for posterity, he remained not a landlord, but a patron of the arts, a philanthropist, which earned him eternal memory.
Patrons-collectors: the Tretyakov brothers and their gallery
The first attempt to organize the first Russian art gallery, the Russian Museum, dates back to the beginning of the 19th century. Its founder - P. P. Svinin (1787-1839) - was forced to sell his unique collection in 1829 due to financial difficulties. Svinin's proposal, made to the state treasury in 1829, did not meet with a sympathetic response, and in 1834 the emperor refused the collector, allowing him to sell the collection abroad. After the death of the collector, some of his paintings were acquired by the Academy of Sciences, some were included in the collection of F.I. Pryanishnikov, and ultimately - in the Tretyakov Gallery. But all this happened against the will of the owner of the collection.
The art collection of N. D. Bykov (1812-1884), which began to take shape in the 30s of the XIX century, had a similar fate. After the death of the owner, it was divided among the heirs and largely sold at auction in October 1884. Although part of the Bykov collection was transferred to the Tretyakov Gallery and some other museums, the collection as a whole ceased to exist.
A different, happier fate awaited the art gallery of F. I. Pryanishnikov, a minister, a member of the State Council, who did a lot "to alleviate the miserable fate of our artists." His gallery is the only Russian private art collection acquired by the treasury: it was bought in 1865 for 70,000 rubles. and left to Pryanishnikov for lifetime possession. After 2 years, it was added to the collection of the Academy of Arts, and a little later - donated to the Moscow Public Museum. Such interest of the government is explained not only by the high artistic value of this gallery, but also, probably, by the high social position of its founder, F.I.
Until now, we have been talking about St. Petersburg collectors. Moscow collections had a similar fate. Back in May 1810, according to the will of Prince A.M. Golitsyn, an art gallery was opened at the Golitsyn hospital - the first public art museum in Russia. But after 6 years, her heir - Prince S. M. Golitsyn - decided to sell it in order to use the proceeds to expand the hospital.
Failed in this field and the famous Moscow merchant-collector V. A. Kokorev (1817-1889). The gallery was created by him at his own expense and was conceived very broadly - as a museum of old and new, Russian and Western European painting. The gallery was housed in a mansion in Bolshoi Trekhsvyatitelsky lane, equipped with the latest museum technology and becoming the first special building in Moscow. But as a result of financial turmoil, Kokorev was forced to sell it and in 1864 transfer the gallery to his mansion on Sofiyskaya Embankment. From that moment on, he began to sell the collection. In 1866, he proposed to the Ministry of the Imperial Court to buy part of the collection, in 1869 he had similar negotiations with P. M. Tretyakov, and the following year - with the heir to the throne, Alexander Alexandrovich. The buyers made a number of acquisitions, but refused to buy in bulk. The remains of the collection were sold by the heirs of V. A. Kokorev in 1890-1910, and many valuable works were sold for next to nothing.
The fate of the collection of K. T. Soldatenkov (1818-1901), the largest private collector of the second half of the 19th century, who came from among the Old Believer merchants of the Rogozhskaya Zastava, turned out to be different. Already in the 60s of the XIX century. his gallery, located in the rich and famous Soldatenkovs' house on Myasnitskaya, has become an artistic landmark of the capital. In the 1990s, towards the end of his life, Soldatenkov faced the same problem as most Russian collectors: what to do with their collection? He solved this issue differently than his predecessors, bequeathing his extensive library and about 300 paintings, including 230 Russian paintings, to the Rumyantsev Museum. Thus, in the person of Kuzma Terentyevich Soddatenkov, we see one of the first classical Russian patrons of the arts who created a collection and disinterestedly, according to his will, transferred it to society. Soldatenkov failed in only one thing - he failed to create his own gallery, which could immortalize his name. This success fell to the lot of the Tretyakov brothers, who showed the world the highest example of Russian patronage.
The economic philosophy of the patrons of the Tretyakovs was best manifested in their wills. The first testamentary letter of Pavel Mikhailovich was written by him at the age of 28, on May 17, 1860 in Warsaw. Of all the capital belonging to him in 266 thousand rubles. Pavel Mikhailovich bequeathed to give 150,000 rubles for the establishment of an "art museum or public art gallery" in Moscow. The entrance fee to the gallery was to be 10-15 kopecks. silver, and fees, according to the testator, should have been "set aside in the reserve capital of the gallery and incremented with interest, as much as possible more profitable." Tretyakov planned to spend one third of the total capital on the purchase of the F. Pryanishnikov collection, which was to be combined with the Tretyakov collection and form the core of the gallery. For the greater part of the remaining amount, a "society of art lovers, but private, not from the government, and most importantly, without officialdom" should be organized: this society was to manage the gallery in the future, buy a house for it, acquire new works, etc.
After 28 years, on November 16, 1888, Sergei Mikhailovich Tretyakov wrote his will. In it, he joins his brother in his decision to transfer the Tretyakov house and the collection located in it to the Moscow City Duma, but on the terms of Pavel Mikhailovich; in addition, Sergei Mikhailovich donated 100,000 rubles to the Moscow City Council, the interest from which was to be used to purchase works by Russian artists in order to replenish the collection. This will was announced 4 years later - on July 25, 1892, when Sergei Mikhailovich died; a month later, Pavel Mikhailovich writes a statement to the Moscow City Duma, in which he confirms the joint decision with his brother to transfer the collection to Moscow and puts forward a number of conditions for the Duma: to retain the right to use the living quarters in the house for his family, to reserve the place of a lifetime trustee of the gallery, to provide free admission galleries at least 4 times a week, etc. It took the Duma only two weeks to accept the gift on the terms of a patron: the gallery became state-owned, but retained the memory of the creators in the name - it became Tretyakovskaya.
Four years later, on September 6, 1896, shortly before his death, Pavel Mikhailovich writes his second and last will, in which he contributes "one hundred thousand rubles for the use of interest on the repair of the Gallery, one hundred and twenty-five thousand rubles for the purchase of interest from this amount of paintings and sculptures works of art to replenish the collection ... "After 8 months, however, the patron makes an addition to the will, directing the specified amount of 125 thousand rubles. not to replenish the collection, but "for the repair and maintenance of the gallery, together with the amount above this assigned."
What are the features of patronage of the Tretyakov brothers, what is their economic philosophy? They carried on their shoulders and preserved for posterity the Russian national school of painting, thus accomplishing, as already mentioned, "a colossal, extraordinary feat." Unlike their predecessors, from the very first steps they refused to use the collection for commercial purposes - they set a goal to present it to Moscow, Russia. The collection of works of Russian fine art was practiced even before them - suffice it to recall the collections of Svinin and Pryanishnikov, but only the Tretyakovs managed to assemble a holistic, representative, comprehensive, characteristic collection. Having bequeathed it to Moscow, they repeated the step of Soldatenkov, but unlike him, they created their own gallery, immortalizing their name and business.
At the same time, this act of Russian patrons should not be overly idealized, because they were entrepreneurs, people with a practical mind. Their views have undergone a complex evolution, which is easiest to trace by comparing the wills of the Tretyakov brothers. In the original plan, the "museum" was supposed to be exclusively public, in the final version - public-state, under the control of the Moscow Duma, but with a number of restrictive conditions: the whole thing was to be managed by a public trustee, the composition of the collection was to remain constant, the premises galleries could not be rented out, etc. This model was developed by Pavel Mikhailovich in 1860-1888, because already in the will of Sergei Mikhailovich it was fixed quite definitely: was made, according to experts, under the influence of the dissatisfaction of the testator with the contemporary state of Russian art of the late 90s of the XIX century; Tretyakov was afraid of formalist tendencies, which he thought threatened the integrity of the collection.
The thoughtfulness of the Tretyakovs' plan, their disinterestedness and patriotism determined the success of their project. In the Regulations on the management of the gallery, approved by the Moscow Duma in June 1899 and October 1904, all the wishes of the brothers regarding the trustees and the organization of the museum's work were taken into account. Later, in 1913-1916, the new trustee I. E. Grabar somewhat changed the exposition, the gallery was replenished with new works, the building was reconstructed, but the main idea of the Tretyakovs remained - a public Russian national gallery worked in Moscow. Nowadays, when the gallery management is tempted to increase the entrance fee or include alien works in the collection, one should more often turn to the completions of the founders of the gallery: their economic philosophy, we hope, will help to define the face of the present and future Tretyakov Gallery.
Summing up our study of the economic philosophy of the great Russian patrons of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, we note their decisive role in the development of domestic entrepreneurship and culture. By their nature, these are tragic figures: the transfer of huge sums from the commercial sector to the non-commercial one challenged the business world and the laws of the market economy, and this inevitably entailed envy, ridicule, ostracism from fellow entrepreneurs, and sometimes the danger of ruin. Even the world of culture and art did not always correctly accept and evaluate these sacrifices: after all, in order to receive gifts, it was necessary, as V.I. - neither them nor their capitals. And patrons felt this coldness, but the best of them still made sacrifices from the interests of culture as a whole, its future creators and performers. And it was the right choice: grateful descendants visiting galleries and theaters, libraries and museums, created at the expense of old patrons, sometimes remember people who took on a heavy cross and carried it in order to "become perfect."
Departmental institutions of Empress Maria: provincial guardianship of orphanages
Since ancient times, mercy and virtue have been an important part of Russian self-consciousness. The adoption of Christianity in Rus' put charity on a higher level, giving it, above all, a systematic and ideological justification. This can be proved by the theory of "Holy Rus'" that appeared in the 16th century, one of the postulates of which is that in order to achieve the Kingdom of God, it is necessary to constantly do good in relation to the orphans and the poor of this world. However, the development of charity in Rus', and later in Russia, cannot be fully credited to the Orthodox Church, the church only managed to use the features of the people that we know under the name "Russian", and it does not matter here that a fairly significant part of it was not Slavs. Sufficiently severe climatic conditions, boundlessness of spaces, raids of hostile tribes encouraged such a form of hostel, which we know under the name "Verv".
Representatives of all estates took a lively and active part in the daily care of the suffering. In the history of charity in Rus', two main periods can be distinguished, firstly, the period - the period of pre-Petrine Rus', the main feature characterizing it is the rather weak participation of the state in charitable acts. Russian princes, performing acts of charity, acted not as the personification of the state, but as private individuals. The second period was the period from the time of Peter the Great and up to the events of 1917-18. This period is characterized by the dominant role of the state in the matter of charity, which was determined, at first, by the needs of the Russian Empire under construction, and then by the specifics of its existence, as the second feature of this stage, one can single out the tightening of attitudes on the part of officials towards the suffering.
In this chapter, an attempt is made to briefly highlight the issue of the formation of a system of charitable institutions on the Pskov land, using the example of orphanages.
The history of the formation of orphanages in Russia
Since the 70s of the 18th century, a special place in the administration of each province was occupied by the Order of Public Charity, which was in charge of educational, medical, and also charitable institutions. The governor himself was the chairman of the Order of Public Charity. It also included the leader of the nobility, the Mayor, 6 representatives from the nobility, merchants and state peasants, the Order was subordinate to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Senate. However, despite the fact that the state began to take control of charitable institutions and everything related to them, monasteries continued to make a great contribution to helping those in need, in which children's shelters began to open en masse in the 18th century. The first Russian major industrialists also contributed to the cause of charity, so in 1837, in St. Petersburg, the first non-monastic shelter in Russia was opened at the expense of P. G. Demidov. A year later, according to the order of Nicholas I, the Main Guardianship of Orphanages was established under the highest patronage of the Empress, and on December 27, 1839, the Regulations on Orphanages developed by the guardianship were approved. According to the regulations, shelters provided temporary shelter and primary education for young children.
In 1840, in the month of April, Grigory Alexandrovich Stroganov, chairman of the Main Guardianship, recommended that all governors take the initiative and arrange orphanages. So by 1843, 12 shelters were opened in one capital of Russia.
Pskov Orphanage St. Olga
In Pskov, the first orphanage was opened in 1844. On March 15, 1844, Major General Fyodor Fedorovich Bartolomey applied through the Pskov Gubernskiye Vedomosti with a special "Invitation to Charity for the Children's Orphanage to be opened", in addition, it was reported that, at his request, the Empress on January 31, 1844 appropriated the first alleged shelter in Pskov - the name of the Pskov shelter "Saint Olga of Russia", in memory of Princess Olga, who was born in the vicinity of Pskov. Also, the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna made a monetary gift for the future shelter in the amount of 300 rubles. The direct patronage of the shelter was provided by Princess Olga Nikolaevna, daughter of Nicholas I.
A clear example of help to the future shelter from the reigning persons, as well as the governor's appeal to all estates and officials had their effect, more than 3 thousand rubles were promptly collected. Assisted in the organization of the shelter and a native of the Pskov province, V. G. Zhukovsky (state, public figure, industrialist and philanthropist). They were given 1,000 rubles in banknotes for the needs of the shelter, and in the future they were promised to transfer 100 rubles in banknotes annually.
On July 11, 1844, in the winter Cathedral of the Annunciation Cathedral, where the Olginsky Limit was, Archbishop of Pskov and Lifland Nathanael 1st Pavlovsky, in the presence of all the provincial authorities, served a divine liturgy, thereby timing the opening of the shelter to the day of memory of St. Olga. After the service, the archbishop lit up the premises of the orphanage. The pupils were treated to a festive dinner. The guests of honor proclaimed toasts to the health of the Imperial House and the prosperity of the first orphanage in Pskov, and at the same time made new donations.
In the future, the Olginsky orphanage existed on donations from wealthy Pskov residents. The management of the shelter in the first years of its existence was carried out on a voluntary basis, created for these purposes by the local guardianship. Elena Mikhailovna Bartolomey (the wife of the governor) was appointed the first trustee of the shelter, and Konstantin Ivanovich Pinabela, head of the governor's office, was appointed director. From 1858 to 1859 Varvara Stepanovna Perovskaya (mother of Sofia Perovskaya), the wife of the Vice-Governor Lev Perovsky, was the trustee of the orphanage.
At the opening, 40 children were admitted to the shelter, of which 31 were girls and 9 were boys. However, since 1863, only girls were admitted to the orphanage. At that time, pensioners lived in a shelter for up to 12 years. Pupils wore cotton dresses and white dresses. And the rest of the coming children could visit the orphanage until they were 16 years old. Essentially, they only slept at their parents' house and spent the whole day at the orphanage, where they received food and education. The pupils were trained according to the program of the primary 3-year school. Particular attention was paid to needlework. Pupils sewed linen for the orphanage, and since 1863, they began to accept private orders from the townspeople.
The main task of the management of the shelter, in addition to educating the pupils, was to find funds for the maintenance of the shelter. In addition to actions to collect private donations, concerts, charity performances were held, which brought income in the amount of 200-300 rubles, lotteries were also held, things for which were donated by Pskovites. Difficult times for the shelter came in the 60-70s. 19th century, when the volume of donations dropped sharply, but thanks to the efforts of the administration of the shelter, the situation was rectified. And since the end of 1872, the shelter had permanent donors who were obliged to annually contribute an amount of at least 100 rubles and received in return the title of honorary members of the guardianship.
In the first years of its existence, the shelter was housed in a rented house of the Litvinovs on Sergievskaya Street. In 1848, the guardianship purchased a house for 2,500 rubles. It was a one-story wooden house with outbuildings and a garden. Somewhat later, another two-story house was purchased. In 1905, not only the oldest Pskov orphanage of St. Olga under the direct patronage of Their Imperial Majesties (Maria Alexandrovna, Maria Fedorovna), opened in 1844, was under the jurisdiction of the Pskov Provincial Guardianship of Orphanages, and outside the provincial city, Toropetsk County Guardianship, open in 1860, Kholmskoe Uyezd Guardianship, opened in 1867; Porkhov County Guardianship, opened in 1900. And just as before, the Provincial Guardianship took care of the material and spiritual development of the Pskov orphanage of St. Olga, which was under their care, as in previous years, the orphanage was exclusively for girls. There were 40 girls at the full maintenance of the orphanage, the rest - 91 pupils, were visiting. It should be noted that the number of pensioners of the shelter for decades, starting from 1844, remained unchanged, and amounted to 40 pupils, but since 1872 their number was increased to 60.
The school of the orphanage taught:
1. Law of God
2. Russian language
3. Church Slavonic
4. Reading
5. Arithmetic
6. Choral singing
As before, much attention in the organization of the educational process was paid to teaching needlework, gardening.
The entire daily routine of the shelter was under the constant supervision of the trustee of the shelter, the wife of the governor, Countess Ekaterina Nikolaevna Adlerberg and her assistant, the wife of retired Major General Sofia Karlovna Ushakova. The director of the shelter, a Pskov merchant nephew, Ilya Aleksandrovich Safyanshchikov, was in charge of the economic part. The state of health of the pupils was monitored by a doctor, state councilor, Ludwig Tsezarevich Byaloblotsky (and free of charge). The maintenance of each pupil cost a year - 127 rubles. 50 kopecks, and each incoming - 12 rubles. 50 kop. The daily food allowance was 9 kopecks for each pupil.
On May 29, 1905, the 25th anniversary of the acceptance by Her Imperial Majesty Empress Maria Fedorovna of the Department of Institutions of Empress Maria under Her Most August Patronage was celebrated by performing a prayer service of thanksgiving to the Lord God in the presence of the chairman of the guardianship and their honorary members, the service and administrative staff of the orphanage and children under care, to whom the priest of the orphanage, Archpriest Alexander Petrovich Korolev, addressed with a heartfelt word. And a telegram was sent to the name of the Empress with the expression of the most loyal feelings from all those present, and to which Her Imperial Highness honored Count Alexander Vasilyevich Adlenberg with a highly merciful answer.
This jubilee holiday evoked grateful memories of bright pages from the historical past, from the members of the Pskov Provincial Guardianship, the Olginsky shelter. After all, the shelter owes a lot in its development, prosperity to the highly humane labors and cares of the former trustees of the shelter - Countess E. K. Palen (from 1864 to 1868) and Baroness L. H. . - until 1888). Subsequently, the above-named persons became life members of the Guardianship, at the request of the Pskov Provincial Guardianship of Orphanages before the Empress and with her blessing.
Throughout the existence of the shelter, donations were constantly received, including in 1905, for example, a significant monetary donation was received (according to the spiritual will of the deceased widow of the Collegiate Secretary Anna Karlovna Matveeva) in the form of five temporary certificates of a 5% state loan in 1905 for a nominal the amount of 3300 rubles. And in cash in the amount of 39 rubles. 70 kop. The largest items of income, as in previous years, were:
1. Receiving interest from the capital of the Trusteeship.
2. Fees for the holidays of the Nativity of Christ and St. Pascha.
3. Annual fees of honorary members.
4. Subsidies from the Pskov Gubernia and Uyezd Zemstvos for the maintenance of scholarship holders and for the organization of the educational unit in the shelter.
As mentioned above, the Olginsky shelter was located in a two-story wooden house on a stone foundation, with high white rooms, and, like the first buildings of the shelter, it was located in the same block, on the right side of Sergievskaya Street, between Ivanovskaya and Stennaya. At present, this place is occupied by house number 15 on Oktyabrsky Prospekt, stretching from Gogol Street to Sverdlov.
During the First World War, the shelter experienced difficult times, and was evacuated in September 1915 to Novgorod, but already in November 1916, it was transferred back to Pskov.
Toropetsky orphanage of St. Olga
On December 6, 1860, another orphanage of St. Olga was opened in the county town of Toropets. The orphanage was opened on the capital bequeathed for this purpose by State Councilor VL Nefedyev. The shelter was located on the second floor of a stone two-story house, which also belonged to him. The orphanage brought up only girls aged 3 to 12. The shelter existed on interest from the founder’s fixed capital, and from the capital that was formed from the lottery and donations from individuals in the amount of 3200 rubles, as well as interest from the capital in the amount of 3600 rubles donated in 1903 by Captain 2nd Rank Vladimir Nikolayevich Skvortsov and the widow captain 1st rank N.N. Kiseleva for the maintenance of two scholarship holders. L.N. Skvortsova. In addition, there was a capital of 1000 rubles, donated in 1891 by the hereditary honorary citizen Pyotr Petrovich Kalashnikov, intended to buy a sewing machine for one of the graduates of the orphanage with interest from him. All of the above capitals were kept in the Pskov Provincial Guardianship of orphanages. The local Uyezd Zemstvo Council annually allocated 300 rubles for the maintenance of the orphanage, and the Toropetsk City Society also released funds for the maintenance of 4 pupils.
In 1905, the orphanage contained 11 girls, fully supported, and 37 girls coming. Of those who came, 17 girls studied for a fee, which amounted to 12 rubles a year.
The daily maintenance of each of the pupils cost the shelter 18 kopecks. The annual budget of the shelter was 737 rubles a year.
The priest of the local church of the Annunciation, Nikolai Prokopevich Knyazev, was the teacher of the law, the caretaker of the shelter was Natalya Timofeevna Grigoryeva, and her assistant to the ball was Varvara Fedorovna Grigorieva. Various methods were used in the educational process, for example, literacy training was organized according to the Tikhomirov method, spelling according to the Nekrasov method, the Law of God - Cheltsov. The educational process proceeded in accordance with the program approved by the Ministry of Public Education for public elementary schools. The main attention during the training was given to the formation and development of housekeeping skills in pupils. Rewards were provided for those who successfully mastered the learning wisdom, for example, one of the graduates was awarded for her success in learning a sewing machine.
Pupils at the end of the course of study were transferred to the care of their parents or persons replacing them. In conclusion, I would like to mention that at the time in question in the Pskov province there were other shelters under the auspices of Empress Maria, for example, there was the Kholmsky "Kushelevsky" orphanage, opened on January 1, 1867 with funds donated by the Kholmsky landowner, Major from the retired cavalry to Lukoy Ivanovich Kushelev. There was an orphanage in Porkhov, opened in 1900, with a fixed capital of 4,000 rubles.
Summing up this paragraph, we can highlight the following features of the formation and functioning of orphanages in the Pskov province in the 19th century.
1. At first, the initiative to create orphanages came from the state, the reforms of the 60-80s, as a result of which the country began to switch to capitalist development, led to the emergence of a sufficient number of wealthy people who, along with the state, began to participate in the opening and support of orphanages.
2. There is a large role of individuals, various charitable societies in supporting the existence of orphanages.
3. The children's shelters that were opened were mainly focused on girls, while in the construction of the educational program the main emphasis was placed on teaching household-oriented subjects (needlework, home economics, etc.). This circumstance was due to the position of women in the structure of Russian society in the late 19th early - 20th centuries.
4. A particularly rapid growth of orphanages was observed in the late 19th - early 20th century, this circumstance was caused by an improvement in the general economic situation in the country and an increase in public interest in the situation of its members in need.
The role of the state in the development of charity in the education system of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries.
The modernization of Russian reality that unfolded in the last decade of the 20th century affected all its aspects - political, social, economic, cultural, spiritual. A natural reassessment of many established ideas began. The values that were defined in the Soviet period from class positions began to be supplemented by universal values that had not been recognized until recently. Among these values is such a humane phenomenon as charity. Its true meaning is only being comprehended today, although Russia has had centuries of historical experience in this regard.
Until recently, the historical experience in the field of charity was rejected and not studied, since the official Soviet ideology did not find a place for it in the social process. With the establishment of Soviet power, public and private charity were replaced by the state system of care. The official position on this issue is clearly illustrated by the state edition of the 1927 Great Soviet Encyclopedia: "Charity is a phenomenon characteristic only of a class society. The concept of charity is alien to the social system of the USSR."
Nowadays, the traditions of charity are becoming more and more in demand for the following reasons. As a result of the radical reforms being carried out, Russian society in a short time found itself in a completely different socio-economic space. The emerging qualitatively new social relations were accompanied by an accelerated stratification of people's property, the distance between the highly wealthy and the low-income strata increased more and more. There was an objective need to provide assistance to the latter, for which appropriate mechanisms are needed, which were not available. The situation was aggravated by the fact that there were no traditions as such in the Soviet period, and the experience that had been formed in the past was artificially interrupted by the well-known events of 1917. Thus, the current modernization, proclaiming a radical breakdown of the former Soviet-style public institutions, has made many little-studied aspects of the pre-Soviet period in demand. Among them is the charitable practice that has existed in Russia throughout its history.
Of particular interest in this regard is the activity of the Russian state in developing charity, improving the system of care in the field of education, and analyzing the effectiveness of organizational and legislative initiatives of state bodies. This activity was built in three directions: First, the legislative direction, i.e. creation of a legal space for the activities of all forms of charity; secondly, the development of incentive measures that would stimulate the activity of philanthropists; thirdly, direct charity, i.e. assignment from the treasury of sums of money for the needs of the education system. Undoubtedly, each of these directions does not exhaust the entire variety of practical approaches, although the latter in their bulk constituted the content of these particular directions.
Legislative direction of activity
The historical roots of charitable practice go back to the ancient Russian era. In particular, Prince Vladimir Monomakh, addressing his sons in 1117, punished: "The most important thing is not to forget the poor and feed them as much as you can!" . In fact, charity becomes an element of life from the very beginning of the formation of the Old Russian state, a norm of behavior for the class of the haves.
In the future, the phenomenon takes on an ever wider scope, it is an integral part of state policy, it embraces the general public and private individuals. There is a very solid legal base under this phenomenon. For a better understanding of the historical roots of the activities of the Russian state in the field of charity, it is useful to recall some of the earlier stages of its development.
First of all, this is the 18th century, the time when, in fact, the first attempt was made to organize a state system of charity. So, the Manifesto of Catherine II of September 1, 1763 announced the creation of the first educational home in Moscow. Then similar institutions began to appear in other provincial cities, including Kazan. It was assumed that in these houses the children who were being cared for would not only be fed, but also taught labor skills. Then in 1781, private charity is officially allowed. As a rule, noble nobles, persons of the royal house, rich industrialists acted as donors. But the main act of this period was the creation in 1775 of orders for public charity, which lasted until 1864, when zemstvo institutions were introduced. They were entrusted with the tasks of conducting public education, protecting the health of the population, and public charity.
Undoubtedly, in many ways, all these efforts were a kind of tribute to the policy of "enlightened absolutism", but at the same time one cannot help but see something else: an attempt by Catherine's government to give the cause of charity a certain systemic character. This was the special significance of the second half of the 18th century. The next thing that is fair to note is the nature of the material sources of charity. Provided that the prevailing practice provided for the responsibility of both state institutions and private benefactors, in reality the latter bore the largest share of the costs.
In all respects, the 19th century was a milestone for Russian charity. Continuing in many respects the affairs of the previous century, this period at the same time introduced fundamental additions. Thanks to a number of legislative measures, all forms of charity - state, public and private - taken together, are beginning to take on a certain systemic form. With regard to philanthropy in the field of education, coordinators appeared legally in the person of the Ministry of Public Education, established in 1802, as well as in the person of the Trustee of the educational district, whose position was introduced in 1803. And since 1835, according to the Regulations on educational districts, the latter becomes the head of all educational institutions of this or that district entrusted to him. Around the same time, in 1828, the title of Honorary Trustee was established for those who made large donations. By all these measures, the autocratic state demonstrated attention to the problems of education in general, and charity in particular.
Simultaneously with the legislative rule-making, the government carried out organizational measures. So, in 1816, the Imperial Humanitarian Society was created, for which the priority task was to take care of orphans and children of the poor. Over time, this Society becomes one of the most influential charitable organizations with a wide range of powers and capabilities.
The zemstvo structures that appeared in 1864 largely took over the care of public education. In particular, the Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions of January 1, 1864 entrusted them with the care of the state of urban and rural educational institutions. By implementing this reform, the state relieved itself of a significant part of its responsibilities on a whole range of issues, primarily of a material and financial nature. However, the autocratic state reserved the control and permitting function. So, for example, the circular of the Minister of the Interior of October 12, 1866, explained that the overall supervision of the process of education in the field is assigned to the governors, who in their actions are obliged to rely on the trustees of the educational districts and relevant state departments.
The socio-economic situation that developed in autocratic Russia by the end of the second half of the 19th century was in many ways remarkable. The originality of the period was determined not only by the well-known reforms of the 60-70s or the process of the rapid entry of the economy into the capitalist fold, but also by the intensified offensive of liberal ideas. The confrontation that was growing in social and political life required from the state completely different approaches and decisions in management, appropriate actions. The historical fact that a significant "majority of the subjects of the Russian Tsar lived in a world of ideas and norms that were very far from pragmatism, rationalism, individualism - the characteristic features of capitalist socio-economic systems" was not yet a guarantee of the stability of the previously formed conservative orders. Therefore, the state, in the current conditions, sought to strengthen its presence at all levels of social and political life, one of the components of which was charity.
During the liberal reforms of the 1960s and 1970s, charity continued to develop, developing new forms in accordance with changing real conditions. The procedure for opening charitable formations was fundamentally changed in 1862. According to the adopted Law, the Highest Resolution gave way to the procedure for approving the statutes of newly created charitable societies by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Emphasizing the desire to further promote the cause of public education and charity in its field, the government issued a number of legislative acts that improve the existing ones: the Regulations on Primary Public Schools, the Gymnasium Charter, the University Charter.
Then, at the end of the 19th century, it was decided to streamline the cause of charity, to bring a modern legal basis for it, for which a special Commission was created in 1892, headed by K. K. Grot. It was believed that the Charter on public charity adopted in 1857 was outdated, so the Commission undertook to prepare a draft of a new document. As specific tasks, it was put forward such as clarifying the contingent of the detainees, systematizing the sources of financial resources, preparing a proposal on the question of what charity should be - class or non-class.
The activity of the state in this direction noticeably decreases at the beginning of the 20th century. It is possible to point out only a few initiatives that in a certain way influenced the state of the system of charity and guardianship. In particular, by the Law of 1902, all bodies of care for public education are transferred from the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to the Ministry of Public Education. By the beginning of the 20th century, the charity system was formed in its main features and remained practically unchanged until the well-known events of 1917.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the legislative side of the problem of charity was scattered by separate elements in such legal documents as "The General Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities of June 18, 1863", "Regulations on City Schools of 1872", "Regulations on Primary Public Schools on May 26 1874", "Rules on the establishment of nominal scholarships in educational institutions of 1876", "On some measures for the development of primary public education on May 29, 1864", "Regulations on trustees at primary schools on March 25, 1907", "Law on higher primary schools on June 25, 1912" and others. Concretizing the problem of charity from different positions, all these legislative acts formed the legal framework for its resolution.
Speaking about the legislative activity of the state, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the bureaucratic apparatus of Russia at all times sought to place any phenomenon within a regulated framework. Suffice it to say that on the issue of donation for the purpose of charity, the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire contains nearly 300 articles. They describe in detail the rules of donation. For example, according to Art. Accounting Charter of 1857 "the money of philanthropists is not mixed with the treasury, they are in a special account." And in accordance with 980 Art. The Code of Laws of the 1887 edition allowed donations "not only of movable property and capital, but also of inhabited lands in favor of charitable, educational and other institutions." However, in the case of a donation of a large building, the permission of the Minister of the Interior was required.
In Russian legislation, approaches to the problem of charity were built mainly from two positions: on the one hand, charity was considered as a social phenomenon that made it possible to attract additional funds to the education system, it was welcomed and encouraged; on the other hand, it was recognized as necessary to put this phenomenon under the control of administrative bodies. Perhaps there is no such particular that would not be standardized by all kinds of documents, and any deviation from the established requirements was quickly suppressed. For this reason, there was an extensive correspondence between various authorities on every little thing.
So, the Regulations on city schools of 1872 determined that these educational institutions could be supported by the government, zemstvo institutions, city societies, estates and individuals. Provided that the sources of funding are zemstvos, public or private benefactors, such schools are opened only with the permission of the trustee of the educational district. The latter also controls the structural organization. For example, only with his consent can a boarding house subsidized by philanthropists appear.
The legislation approached the issue of participation of persons connected in any way with the education system in various political parties very strictly. Even distant affiliation was forbidden, not to mention direct actions. But at the same time, there were no restrictions on class characteristics; representatives of various classes could legally be philanthropists. It is no coincidence that in their composition we see nobles, merchants, employees, people of the clergy, as well as from the peasant environment.
Stimulating activity of the state
The Russian state stimulated the development of charity, encouraged all kinds of signs of attention to those involved in this business. In autocratic Russia, all forms of social activities, such as service in city, zemstvo or professional organizations, participation in the activities of charitable societies, membership in the boards of trustees of higher educational institutions, schools and colleges were considered a matter of state and welcomed by the authorities. Philanthropists who donated large sums of money or donated real estate were awarded honorary titles, distinctions and various estate privileges.
Members of the boards of trustees enjoyed the right to wear the uniform of the VIII category of the Ministry of Public Education, which corresponded to the rank of collegiate assessor according to Peter's "Table of Ranks" and made it possible to obtain the title, and with it the privileges of a hereditary nobleman. A similar prospect opened up when awarding government orders of the 1st degree or the Order of St. Vladimir of the 4th degree. According to the Regulations on Awards, the Order of St. Anne could be awarded to philanthropists who made the most significant contribution to the care of the education system. A special kind of encouragement was developed for benefactors of the merchant class: the rank of general, who complained about donating a significant collection to the Academy of Sciences.
At the same time, the administrative apparatus tried very thoroughly to regulate the process of awarding. In particular, in one of the circulars of the Ministry of Public Education, it was directly stated that "the judgment of the labors and merits of each employee belongs to his superiors, and therefore no one himself can ask to be rewarded for his service." The number of awards was also rigidly defined. If we talk about trustees, then in this category there was one award for five persons of secondary and higher educational institutions and also one award for 20 persons of primary.
As for the position of the official authorities, there is complete clarity on this issue. Interested in attracting additional funds to the system of public education, the state stimulated this process, providing an opportunity for this circle of people "to go beyond the boundaries of class and social isolation."
But it is very important to understand the positions of the other side, the philanthropists themselves, how they themselves assessed the significance of the existing system of incentives for themselves. To begin with, we note that the Russian society of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, despite the quantitative and qualitative socio-economic changes, remained strictly ranked. The accumulated material wealth did not yet guarantee an appropriate place in the social hierarchy, the absence of privileged pedigree roots was not always and not in everything compensated by the property status. Under these conditions, for many, charity was a real opportunity to move up the social ladder, a way of self-affirmation.
In connection with what has been said, it will be appropriate to cite the following fact. The full-time caretaker of the Khvalynsk School of the Saratov Province wrote to the board of the Kazan Educational District: “With my diligent efforts to fill the indicated position (guardian of the Annunciation School), I found one worthy person for the post of guardian, who agreed to take it with the obligation to donate 150 rubles annually to the school, but Unfortunately, this person told me at the same time that he would then only take the position of guardian, if only this position gives the right to receive ranks, and when I told him that the position of guardian does not give this right, then he refused to take this position " . Therefore, the district official petitioned the district inspector of public schools and schools of the Kazan educational district to grant the guardians the right to receive certain ranks in charitable service.
In fairness, it should be noted that the motives for charitable activities were not only the desire to occupy a certain social position, but also moral reasons. Some researchers of charity in their works link it with the liberal ideas of the late 19th century. This phenomenon is seen not only as an effective means of smoothing over the sharpness of the social issue, but also as an expression of the responsibility of the intelligentsia for the plight of the masses, the path to social reconciliation. The zemstvo idea of the well-being of the people and charity are determined by phenomena of the same order, related in essence. Many researchers put the factor of morality at the head of the incentive mechanism, regard charity as almost a decisive "condition for personal moral health" of a person. At the same time, it is often emphasized that charity was more needed by the person who directly carried it out than by the one to whom it was intended. Indispensable elements in such an approach are the motives of public duty, selfless service to the cause of caring for the poor.
The government understood that charity needs not only a legislative framework, but also public recognition, attention from government agencies and pursued a policy of publicity in this matter. Glasnost was considered one of the most important conditions for the development of charity. Moreover, on the one hand, it was a form of encouragement for philanthropists, and on the other hand, it ensured control by society and its trust in the activities of charitable organizations and individual donors.
The names of benefactors were entered in special books of honor, published in newspapers indicating the purposes for which their donations went, in reports on the state of public schools, for example, in the Simbirsk province, a special place was given to the description of the charitable activities of citizens in favor of public education, indicating names and surnames, social status , place of residence and type of assistance provided.
The Russian government demanded complete information about the state of charitable activities in society, special cases were reported to the Emperor of Russia. The trustees even received personal thanks from the Emperor of Russia. For example, in a message dated March 31, 1873, it says: "... On behalf of the Sovereign Emperor and the Empress Empress, gratitude was expressed for the arrangement of a house church in the building of the Mariinsky Women's Gymnasium and the compilation of capital of 600 rubles for the maintenance of the scholarship of the Heir to the Tsesarevich ... real state councilor Isakov, Fatyanov and his wife, Khvoshchinsky and his wife, ... Mrs. Bychkova, ... merchant Sapozhnikov." In a message dated August 2, 1875. it says: "... The Empress, ... on the 9th day of last July 1975, most graciously deigned to appoint the retired real state councilor Isakov for the significant benefits provided to him by the Simbirsk Mariinsky Women's Gymnasium, Honorary Guardian of that institution ..."
Charitable activities of the state
If we talk about charity in the literal sense, then assistance from the treasury, as a rule, was assigned mainly to the maintenance of charitable institutions, namely: orphanages of various types, houses for industriousness, educational houses, prison guardians, bunkhouses, etc. As for directly educational institutions, here charity developed more along the lines of provincial and district zemstvos. It should also be pointed out that initially spending on public education was considered optional for the zemstvos, and this provision to a large extent emphasized the humane meaning of their activities in this regard.
So, according to our calculations, for the 1880s, the funding of public education from the zemstvos exceeded the amount of funds allocated by the treasury by 4.6 times in the Kazan province, 4.7 times in the Simbirsk province, and 14.8 times in the Saratov province. . In total, in one Kazan province, out of 427 primary schools, 350 (or 82%) were maintained by zemstvo institutions in 1882. A detailed description of the state of affairs is given by sources in the Simbirsk province in 1889. It is extremely clear that the lion's share of the costs of the total amount of money fell on the zemstvos. In percentage terms, it accounted for 65.6% of total costs, while only 14% fell on the Treasury expenses. It is also striking that the amount of donations from public and private benefactors significantly exceeded the treasury allocations, amounting to 20.4%.
The above facts clearly demonstrate the place and role of zemstvo institutions in the development of the education system. All this had its own historical logic, since the zemstvos, called upon to solve mostly current practical problems, objectively had to deal with everything related to the system of public education. Among these tasks, many were of a charitable nature, for the solution of which special cash savings were created in the estimated capital.
Now it is logical to look at what specific items the financial resources allocated by the Zemstvos were directed to. A typical situation is revealed by the analysis of the practice of the Saratov provincial zemstvo. Here, in 1899-1900, the funds were distributed as follows: 5,760 rubles were spent on paying extra salaries to teachers for all this time, 2,000 rubles on student benefits, and 18,700 rubles on charitable assistance to state educational institutions. The nature of appropriations has practically not changed after a decade and a half (see table). Judging by the above indicators, the largest part of the money was spent on paying the salaries of teachers, in second place are the expenses for the economic needs of educational institutions, mainly for repair work. Far from last were direct expenses for charitable purposes, which involved paying for education and renting apartments, buying clothes, shoes, and providing the opportunity to use textbooks for free.
Table. Cost estimates for education in the Saratov province, %
| Items of expenses | years | ||
| 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | |
|
Salaries for teachers For business purposes Tutorials Teacher training Charity allowances entertainment events For the needs of school libraries Repair work Other |
31,3 15,1 4,6 0,9 7,9 0,3 1,2 38,5 0,2 |
32,9 13,2 4,5 0,6 9,5 0,2 1,1 37,8 0,1 |
46,2 20,3 5,6 0,3 10,0 0,2 1,1 16,3 0,1 |
Compiled according to: Public education in the Saratov province on January 1, 1915: Statistical review. - Saratov, 1915. P. 130.
In many respects, the situation in the Kazan province was characterized in a similar way. Here, too, in the scale of priorities, great importance was attached to the maintenance of teachers and school premises. And there were reasons for this: in 1897, in such counties as Cheboksary, Laishevsky, Kosmodemyanovsky and Tsarevokokshaysky, out of 183 schools, 101 (55.2%) were in unsuitable premises.
Within the framework of zemstvo charity, a significant place was given to the issues of training and retraining of teaching staff. In real practice, zemstvo assistance in solving the personnel issue was largely reduced to maintaining teachers' seminaries and pedagogical courses, according to the content of scholarship holders who studied at teachers' institutes and other educational institutions. Each of these areas was attractive to the zemstvos due to their inherent characteristics: they provided an opportunity to cover the broad masses of the local population with training, were generally accessible to people of any class, the educational process did not last long, etc.
In particular, the Saratov provincial zemstvo financed the summer courses for teachers in 1895, 1896, 1897 and 1900. Each time the zemstvo appointed an amount ranging from 1,500 to 2,100 rubles. But at the same time, provincial councilors said that one-time assistance does not solve the problem of training teachers, this requires a systematic approach. Similar facts took place in other provinces of the Volga region.
All of the above was of fundamental importance, if you look at the real situation with the staff of teachers, which developed at the beginning of the 1890s. So, in the Kazan province, more than a third of primary school teachers had only a lower education, in the Simbirsk province there were 26.5% of such teachers. The picture was no better in the Saratov province, where every fifth teacher had only home training.
A significant place in the zemstvo care of the education system was occupied by assistance to pupils and students with limited financial resources. According to the vowels themselves, this form of assistance was the most preferable, since it was targeted and extended directly to a specific person. The guiding document was the Rules for the establishment of nominal scholarships at educational institutions, published in 1876. The main thing that was emphasized was that any assistance should be fully secured by a contribution in cash or government-guaranteed interest-bearing papers. It was an indispensable requirement that the scholarship holder be considered the poorest and differ for the better in academic excellence and diligence. In addition, at the request of the founders, class affiliation, nationality, religious worldview, gender, age could be taken into account.
As a rule, the amount of assistance in the form of a scholarship was the amount that should have been paid for a year's education. Most often, the scholarship was transferred to the account of the educational institution where the candidate took the course, but in some cases it could also be handed out. Depending on the conditions discussed earlier, the scholarship holder could use part of the money to purchase teaching aids, clothes and shoes, and pay for living in an apartment.
In general terms, the mechanism for awarding scholarships, with minor adjustments to local conditions, was as follows: public commissions under zemstvo councils or councils themselves collected information about the social composition of the student body, the financial situation of the latter, their academic performance and behavior; based on the information received, recommendations were made on the subject of assistance for specific individuals; the developed proposals were submitted to the meetings of the zemstvo assemblies, which adopted the relevant resolutions and entrusted the execution of decisions to the same councils or public commissions. Practically during the entire period under study, this mechanism did not undergo any major changes.
Assistance in the form of scholarships was also inherent in private benefactors, but in the latter case, as a rule, when assigning cash benefits, in addition to the above conditions for providing assistance (property failure, academic performance, diligent behavior), the class factor also played a significant role. Each of the benefactors, when determining the scholarship, indicated from which class the candidate should be selected. Depending on the class affiliation of the donor, among the scholarship holders one could meet people from the nobility, merchants and townspeople.
On the contrary, zemstvo institutions did not recognize such a condition, scholarships were established solely for reasons of the material condition of students in educational institutions. For example, in 1905, the Karsun district zemstvo of the Simbirsk province, in memory of the late Yu. teaching in the gymnasium of a scholarship holder from the natives of the Karsun district without distinction of belonging to a class.
Noting all these facts of Zemstvo care for the education system, at the same time it is fair to admit that, on the whole, the participation of Zemstvos in material support far from covered real needs. The humane aspirations of zemstvos were not always supported by real opportunities, moreover, expenses of a similar nature were legally determined for zemstvos as optional. This gave the right to some of the vowels, primarily of a conservative persuasion, to periodically raise the question of the advisability of charitable assistance to educational institutions. The general picture of financial expenditures can be presented on a typical example, again, of the Saratov Zemstvo. Here, at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, the costs under the item "public education" looked as a percentage of the total amount of costs as follows:
1898 - 3.9%
1898 - 5.3%
1900 - 4.1%
1901 - 5.7%
Finally, one cannot fail to say that peasant societies, for example, provided poor assistance in the matter of charity to county zemstvos. Unlike the urban ones, they did not have sufficient funds for this, almost all worldly fees went to meet daily needs. In addition, charity of this kind was not traditional for the peasantry, it was out of the ordinary ideas about the essence of assistance. “The situation is quite different in the villages.
Charity that exists there is organized by the people themselves and in a completely different way, having its everyday forms: helping the victims of fire, widows and orphans, during reaping, field work, feeding homeless old men and old women in turn or for a fee from society. Helping students in any form is not included in these usual forms, "N.V. Chekhov wrote at the beginning of the 20th century.
Another area of care is children's homes for industriousness. They were organized for the purpose of keeping homeless children left without parents or living in dysfunctional families. The well-known researcher P. V. Vlasov wrote about this: "Difficult social conditions, frequent epidemics, high morbidity and mortality among the poorest population constantly replenished the army of street children." State administrative bodies did not sufficiently coordinate the activities of these institutions, they tried to shift their care to zemstvo institutions, peasant societies, volost authorities and the public. In the houses of industriousness, the educational process was inseparable from the labor one, and, in terms of its content, it was closer to the professional one.
In Simbirsk, the first house of industriousness appeared in 1820 on the initiative of the social activist V. I. Ivasheva. The institution was under the patronage of the Women's Society of Christian Mercy, which in turn was patronized by Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna. In 1836, Emperor Nicholas I visited Simbirsk and got acquainted with the house of industriousness of V. I. Ivasheva. He found the institution in good condition and granted 10,000 rubles for maintenance. The founder of the cause of industriousness herself was awarded a special imperial favor for her noble work.
Despite such obvious positive characteristics, at the same time, such charitable institutions have not received wide distribution in the Volga region. At the beginning of the 20th century, in different years there were 3-4 of them, each, as a rule, for a short time. The situation was no better in other regions of autocratic Russia, and, apparently, it was no coincidence that the problem became the subject of active discussion by the participants in the Congress on Children's Charity, convened on May 11-16, 1914 by the Ministry of Internal Affairs.
The congress recognized educational and labor shelters as a promising form of education and upbringing of homeless children. At the same time, special importance was attached to the selection of educational personnel, the importance of creating a warm home environment in the team. Therefore, in order to increase the effectiveness of this form of charity, the Congress considered "it is necessary to bring into the matter the preservation of family principles by all possible measures."
At the same meeting, a program for the course of primary education was developed, which included such subjects as homeland studies, drawing, drawing, arithmetic, reading, the Russian language, and singing; and for the physical development of children - work and gymnastics. The guardianship bodies were determined by the Ministry of the Interior, provincial and district zemstvo institutions, as well as district guardianships.
Thus, the considered directions, in which the state developed charity in the education system, give grounds to draw some conclusions. One of them is that state charity should be perceived as one of the components of a single phenomenon of care. Recognizing an important role for this species, at the same time it cannot be considered exhaustive. Basically, this role, in our opinion, came down to creating the necessary conditions for doing charity in general, not only by state bodies, but also by public organizations and individuals. Therefore, in organizing the case, much depended on how effective the organizational, legislative initiatives of the state were, whether they met the requirements of a particular stage, how they contributed to the improvement of the system of care in the field of education.
A direct confirmation of this conclusion is the fact that the sources of charity in terms of money were distributed far unevenly. In particular, at the first All-Russian congress of charity figures in 1910, it was noted that of the total amount spent for charitable purposes, only 25% came from appropriations from the state treasury. The rest of this amount came from other funding sources. The material factor of state charity began to narrow especially noticeably with the advent of zemstvo institutions. It was on them that the state assigned the largest share of charitable expenses, primarily regarding those objects of attention that were given to the care of local governments - public education and public health, almshouses, libraries, orphanages, etc.
Here we approached the course of reasoning to the following conclusion regarding the place and role of zemstvo institutions in the development of charity. It would be fair to answer right away that through the efforts of the zemstvos, the matter of assistance and charity has changed quantitatively and qualitatively for the better. It has become systematic and targeted, covering a fairly wide range of acute issues of the education system, including such as the material condition of educational institutions, the provision of the learning process with visual aids, the organization of catering in canteens, the ability of students to pay for their education, etc.
It seems to us that the content of this component in charity was largely determined by the very zemstvo idea of serving the people. It was understood by many vowels absolutely concretely: to come to the aid of the needy, to alleviate the situation of the distressed. "The main, basic character of all measures is the same; these measures must be imbued with concern for the disadvantaged person, care understood in the broadest and best sense of the word," - spoke at an emergency provincial zemstvo meeting in May 1895, the vowel of the Saratov district of the same province of the same name E.A. Isaev.
It should also be noted that of all the educational institutions, the zemstvos provided assistance most of all to schools and elementary schools. In a certain sense, such an approach was conditioned by the elementary desire of zemstvo assemblies and councils to improve the state of affairs, primarily in those educational institutions where the children of peasants were mostly studying. Recognizing the peasant question as a pivotal one for their practical activities, the zemstvo institutions tried to direct their forces and means to it on the whole range of unresolved problems.
Finally, it is impossible not to point out the fact that there were no serious contradictions in the solution of issues of assistance in the zemstvo environment. Zemstvo councilors of different estates, especially liberal views, were unanimous in assessing the unsatisfactory state of public education, in allocating appropriate material resources for its needs.
In general, state charity in any of its manifestations acted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries not only as a continuation of previously established traditions, but also as an integral element of general socio-economic processes.
Let us sum up the study of the question of the role of guardianship in education in the 19th and early 20th centuries, their interrelation, and ways of further development. Having stepped on the throne, Paul very soon issues the following decree: “How, by the will of our Her Imperial Majesty, the dearest wife, out of philanthropy urgent to her and wanting to promote the common good, takes over the main authorities over the educational houses in both altar cities of ours established with all the institutions belonging to them ; then, as a result of this, we command the trustees, who are related in what is due to Her Majesty!
Maria Fedorovna was actually appointed the first minister of charitable institutions, following her (it soon became a tradition) the wives of the emperors began to head the department, and each contributed to the cause. For example, Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna, the wife of Alexander the First, contributed to the creation of two societies - the Imperial Humanitarian and the Women's Patriotic. Each of them deserves special mention.
“...To be moved outwardly and very often by a deceptive appearance of poverty and squalor is not yet a beneficence. It is necessary to look for the unfortunate in their very dwellings - in this abode of weeping and suffering. With affectionate treatment, salutary advice, in a word, by all moral and physical means, try to alleviate their fate: this is what true beneficence consists in ”- these words of Alexander the First became the motto of every member of the Humanitarian Society.
On his account were almshouses, houses of free and cheap apartments, overnight shelters, folk canteens, sewing workshops, outpatient clinics and hospitals. The first concern was "to bring out of poverty those who can feed themselves with their labors and industry."
The Minister of Commerce, Count Rumyantsev, the court adviser Shcherbakov, and the merchant Van der Fleet became the first members of this society. For them, people of high rank, charity was a need and a kind of privilege. The philanthropic society, founded in 1802 "to help all kinds of poor", by 1900 extended its assistance to 160,000 poor people.
The idea of creating a Patriotic Society was born in the St. Petersburg circle of high society ladies (V. A. Repnina, M. A. Vorontsova, E. A. Uvarova, M. V. Kochubey, M. D. Nesselrode, A. I. Orlova, S. P. Svechina, E. V. Novoseltseva, E. I. Bakherakh, S. G. Volkonskaya, A. P. Vasilchikova, E. M. Olenina - these are the names of the founders) after the war of 1812, when Moscow burned down and people deprived of blood, poor.
The financial basis was contributions. The Sovereign Emperor made his first contribution - 50,000 rubles. For one year alone, the expenditure in favor of the victims amounted to 287,201 rubles 15 kopecks. By the way, the Russian statisticians kept a brilliant record of funds. You can find out everything from the listings. For example, the maintenance of the school for orphans in 1812 took 15 thousand rubles annually. More than a dozen such schools have been opened in a hundred years.
The voluminous "Handbook of charitable institutions operating in the city of St. Petersburg" (St. Petersburg, 1913) describes the activities of each. Here, for example: “Protection of “Women”: “The activity is aimed at combating the trafficking in women for the purposes of debauchery. The Society is a member of the International Union of National Committees Combating the Same Evil, maintains two dormitories for 80 women, a cheap canteen and a library at the Department for the Care of Jewish Girls, and also helps with money and arranges places for those in need in charitable institutions.
I examine the table: members and employees - 670; detainees - 400; annual receipt of money from institutions and individuals - 6,321 rubles. Of course, this is a very small society. And yet 670 Petersburgers rooted for the fate of former prostitutes. And they contributed some money from year to year to mitigate their fate.
Here is the annual table of the directory. What is the income of money for charity in 1913 in all institutions of St. Petersburg? A stunning figure: 7,918,160 rubles. Royal!
Who hasn't donated money to charity! Even organ grinders donated money to set up orphanages, and then they got the right to walk the streets with a hurdy-gurdy. In favor of the poor was the sale of forgotten things. The mug gatherings were very popular. Iron mugs hung on the walls of shelters, shops, near the bazaars - people willingly threw their nickels there.
For charitable purposes, card production was monopolized. The only factory that produced playing cards was the property of the Imperial Orphanage and was run by the St. Petersburg Board of Trustees. An impressive income. A note from the Arkhangelsk hodgepodge V.F. Kuplinsky to the chief manager of the institutions of Empress Maria dated March 10, 1895 is curious: “Three hundred clubs play in Russia every year, the amount of winnings is 5 million 400 thousand rubles a year. I propose to tax the clubs - ten percent in favor of the Red Cross ... "
By 1913, there were 1,200 monasteries and even more churches in Russia. There was no such church institution that would not contain hospitals, almshouses or shelters. It is no coincidence that these institutions were called charitable. Love for God was affirmed through love for your neighbor, and the second biblical commandment ("Love your neighbor as yourself") was fulfilled as if by itself.
Guardianship in the 19th century should be seen as an emerging social institution of public participation in the management of education. Such participation was necessary both for reasons of the acquisition of modern economic, social and cultural significance by the education system, and for reasons of consolidation of society and Russia's choice of its new historical path of development. Sometimes trustees invested their capital and soul only out of mercantile interests. Education can and should become a sphere that takes an active part in the formation of the state and civil society.
In the history of Russia, this problem is perceived as a kind of order to the education system: not only the raw material orientation of economic injections, not only of Russian philanthropists, but also of foreign investors, has been recorded. In the last years of the 19th century, there was a tendency for the social orientation of education, its participation in meeting the needs of the local community. The focus of education on the development of culture is manifested through an innovative movement, the formation of the independence of schools in determining the content of education.
The emergence of a social institution of guardianship in this regard should be understood as a specification of the mission of the education system in the changing economic, social and cultural conditions of the country's life.
In this regard, the main purpose of patronage activities is as follows: - to be a public institution for the examination of education development strategies, to orient the content of educational reforms towards ensuring social well-being and cultural development; - attract additional resources to the education system for the implementation of innovative educational programs; - to initiate the development of the institution of expertise and monitoring of the education system; - to promote the development of forms of public participation in the management of education.
