In vocabulary, the main means of expression are trails(translated from Greek - turn, turn, image) - special figurative and expressive means of the language, based on the use of words in a figurative sense.
The main types of tropes include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, paraphrase (periphrase), hyperbole, litote, irony.
Special lexical figurative and expressive means of language (tropes)
Epithet(translated from Greek - application, addition) is a figurative definition that marks a feature that is essential for a given context in the depicted phenomenon.
From a simple definition, the epithet differs in artistic expressiveness and figurativeness. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.
Epithets include all "colorful" definitions, which are most often expressed by adjectives.
For example: sadly orphaned Earth(F. I. Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, silent peace(I. A. Bunin).
Epithets can also be expressed:
- nouns , acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative description of the subject.
For example: sorceress - winter; mother - cheese earth; The poet is a lyre, not just the nurse of his soul(M. Gorky);
- adverbs acting as circumstances.
For example: In the wild stands alone in the north ...(M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were stretched tensely in the wind(K. G. Paustovsky);
- gerunds .
For example: the waves rush roaring and sparkling;
- pronouns expressing the superlative degree of this or that state of the human soul.
For example: After all, there were fighting fights, Yes, they say, some more!(M. Yu. Lermontov);
- participles and participle turnovers .
For example: Nightingales with rumbling words announce the forest limits(B. L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance of ... scribblers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in the language, except for words, not remembering kinship (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).
The creation of figurative epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative sense.
From the point of view of the type of figurative meaning of the word, acting as an epithet, all epithets are divided into:
metaphorical (They are based on a metaphorical figurative meaning.
For example: golden cloud, bottomless sky, lilac fog, walking cloud and standing tree.
Metaphorical epithets- a striking sign of the author's style:
You are my cornflower blue word
I love you forever.
How does our cow live now,
Sadness straw pulling?
(S.A. Yesenin. “I haven’t seen such beautiful ones?”);
How greedily the world of the night soul
Heeds the story of his beloved!
(Tyutchev. “What are you howling about, night wind?”).
metonymic (They are based on a metonymic figurative meaning.
For example: suede gait(V. V. Nabokov); scratchy look(M. Gorky); birch cheerful language(S. A. Yesenin).
From a genetic point of view epithets are divided into:
- general language (deathly silence, lead waves),
- folk-poetic (permanent) ( red sun, violent wind, good fellow).
In poetic folklore, the epithet, which, together with the defined word, constitutes a stable phrase, performed, in addition to the content, mnemonic function (gr. mnemo nicon- the art of memory).
Constant epithets made it easier for the singer, the narrator to perform the work. Any folklore text is saturated with such, for the most part, "decorating" epithets.
« In folklore, - writes the literary critic V.P. Anikin, - the girl is always red, well done - kind, father - dear, kids - small, youngster - remote, body - white, hands - white, tears - combustible, voice - loud, bow - low, table - oak, wine - green, vodka - sweet, eagle - gray, flower - scarlet, stone - combustible, sands - loose, night - dark, forest - stagnant, mountains - steep, forests - dense, cloud - formidable , the winds are violent, the field is clean, the sun is red, the bow is tight, the tavern is the king, the saber is sharp, the wolf is gray, etc.»
Depending on the genre, the selection of epithets has changed somewhat. Recreation of style, or stylization of folklore genres, involves the widespread use of constant epithets. Yes, they abound A song about Tsar Ivan Vasilievich, a young guardsman and a daring merchant Kalashnikov» Lermontov: the sun is red, the clouds are blue, the golden crown, the formidable king, the daring fighter, the thought is strong, the thought is black, the heart is hot, the shoulders are heroic, the saber is sharp etc.
The epithet can incorporate the properties of many trails . Based on metaphor or at metonymy , it can also be combined with the personification ... foggy and quiet azure over sadly orphaned earth(F. I. Tyutchev), hyperbole (Autumn already knows what deep and mute peace is - A harbinger of a long bad weather(I. A. Bunin) and other paths and figures.
The role of epithets in the text
All epithets as bright, "illuminating" definitions are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness of the images of the depicted objects or phenomena, at highlighting their most significant features.
In addition, epithets can:
Strengthen, emphasize any characteristic features of objects.
For example: Wandering among the rocks, a yellow ray crept into the wild cave And illuminated the smooth skull...(M. Yu. Lermontov);
Clarify the distinguishing features of the object (shape, color, size, quality):
For example: Forest, like a painted tower, Lilac, gold, crimson, Cheerful, motley wall Stands over a bright glade(I. A. Bunin);
Create word combinations that are contrasting in meaning and serve as the basis for creating an oxymoron: squalid luxury(L. N. Tolstoy), brilliant shadow(E. A. Baratynsky);
To convey the attitude of the author to the depicted, to express the author's assessment and the author's perception of the phenomenon: ... Dead words smell bad(N. S. Gumilyov); And we value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word, And we will not change the power of the word.(S. N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What does it mean smiling blessing heaven, this happy resting earth?(I. S. Turgenev)
Figurative epithets highlight the essential aspects of the depicted without introducing a direct assessment (“ in the blue fog of the sea», « in the dead sky" etc.).
In expressive (lyric) epithets , on the contrary, the relation to the depicted phenomenon is clearly expressed (“ flickering images of crazy people», « tedious night story»).
It should be borne in mind that this division is rather arbitrary, since pictorial epithets also have an emotional and evaluative meaning.
Epithets are widely used in artistic and journalistic, as well as in colloquial and popular science styles of speech.
Comparison- This is a visual technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.
Unlike metaphor comparison is always binomial : it names both compared objects (phenomena, signs, actions).
For example: Villages are burning, they have no protection. The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy, And the glow, like an eternal meteor, Playing in the clouds, frightens the eye.(M. Yu. Lermontov)
Comparisons are expressed in various ways:
Form of the instrumental case of nouns.
For example: Nightingale stray Youth flew by, Wave in bad weather Joy subsided.(A. V. Koltsov) The moon slides like a pancake in sour cream.(B. Pasternak) Leaves flew like stars.(D. Samoilov) Flying rain sparkles golden in the sun.(V. Nabokov) Icicles hang like glass fringes.(I. Shmelev) A patterned clean towel A rainbow hangs from the birches.(N. Rubtsov)
The form of the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb.
For example: These eyes are greener than the sea and darker than our cypresses.(A. Akhmatova) Girl's eyes are brighter than roses.(A. S. Pushkin) But the eyes are blue of the day.(S. Yesenin) Bushes of mountain ash are more foggy than depth.(S. Yesenin) Freer youth.(A. S. Pushkin) The truth is more valuable than gold.(Proverb) Lighter than the sun is the throne room. M. Tsvetaeva)
Comparative turnovers with unions like, like, like, like and etc.
For example: Like a predatory animal, into a humble abode The winner bursts with bayonets ...(M. Yu. Lermontov) April looks at a bird's flight With eyes as blue as ice.(D. Samoilov) Here every village is so loving, As if in it the beauty of the whole universe. (A. Yashin) And stand behind the oak nets Like the evil spirits of the forest, stumps.(S. Yesenin) Like a bird in a cage, The heart jumps.(M. Yu. Lermontov) my verses, like precious wines, It will be your turn.(M. I. Tsvetaeva) It's close to noon. The fire is burning. Like a plowman, the battle rests. (A. S. Pushkin) The past, like the bottom of the sea, Spreads like a pattern in the distance.(V. Bryusov)
Beyond the river in restlessness
cherry blossomed,
Like snow across the river
Filled the stitch.
Like light blizzards
Rushed with all their might
Like swans were flying
Dropped fluff.(A. Prokofiev)
With the help of words similar, like this.
For example: Your eyes look like the eyes of a cautious cat(A. Akhmatova);
With the help of comparative clauses.
For example: Golden foliage swirled in pinkish water on the pond, Like butterflies, a light flock With fading flies to the star. (S. A. Yesenin) The rain sows, sows, sows, It has been drizzling since midnight, Like a muslin curtain Hanging behind the windows. (V. Tushnova) Heavy snow, spinning, covered the Sunless heights, As if hundreds of white wings flew silently. (V. Tushnova) Like a tree shedding its leaves So I drop sad words.(S. Yesenin) How the king loved rich palaces So I fell in love with the ancient roads And the blue eyes of eternity!(N. Rubtsov)
Comparisons can be direct andnegative
Negative comparisons are especially characteristic of oral folk poetry and can serve as a way to stylize the text.
For example: It's not a horse top, not human talk... (A. S. Pushkin)
A special type of comparison is extended comparisons, with the help of which entire texts can be built.
For example, the poem by F. I. Tyutchev " Like hot ashes...»:
Like hot ashes
The scroll smokes and burns
And the fire is hidden and deaf
Words and lines devour -
So sadly my life is smoldering
And every day the smoke goes away
So gradually I go out
In unbearable monotony! ..
Oh Heaven, if only once
This flame developed at will -
And, without languishing, without tormenting the share,
I would shine - and went out!
The role of comparisons in the text
Comparisons, like epithets, are used in the text in order to enhance its figurativeness and figurativeness, create more vivid, expressive images and highlight, emphasize any significant features of the depicted objects or phenomena, as well as to express the author's assessments and emotions.
For example:
I like it my friend
When the word melts
And when it sings
Heat pours over the line,
So that words blush from words,
So that they, going in flight,
Curled, fought to sing,
To eat like honey.
(A. A. Prokofiev);
In every soul it seems to live, burn, glow, like a star in the sky, and, like a star, it goes out when it, having completed its life path, flies from our lips ... It happens that an extinguished star for us, people on earth, burns for another thousand years. (M. M. Prishvin)
Comparisons as a means of linguistic expressiveness can be used not only in literary texts, but also in journalistic, colloquial, scientific ones.
Metaphor(translated from Greek - transfer) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena on some basis. It is sometimes said that a metaphor is a hidden comparison.
For example, a metaphor Red rowan bonfire burns in the garden (S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with a fire flame.
Many metaphors have become commonplace in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention, have lost imagery in our perception.
For example: bank burst, dollar circulation, dizzy and etc.
In contrast to comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared is given, the metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness of the use of the word.
The metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.
For example: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief, a pearl of poetry, a spark of love and etc.
All metaphors are divided into two groups:
1) general language ("erased")
For example: golden hands, a storm in a teacup, move mountains, strings of the soul, love faded ;
2) artistic (individual-author's, poetic)
For example: And the stars fade diamond thrill in the painless cold of dawn (M. Voloshin); Empty skies clear glass(A. Akhmatova); And blue eyes, bottomless bloom on the far shore. (A. A. Blok)
Metaphors of Sergei Yesenin: bonfire of red mountain ash, birch cheerful tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky;
or September's bloody tears, overgrowth of raindrops, lantern buns and roof tops
at Boris Pasternak
The metaphor is paraphrased into a comparison using auxiliary words. like, like, like, like etc.
There are several types of metaphor: erased, expanded, realized.
Erased - a common metaphor, the figurative meaning of which is no longer felt.
For example: chair leg, headboard, sheet of paper, clock hand etc.
A whole work or a large excerpt from it can be built on a metaphor. Such a metaphor is called "unfolded", in which the image "unfolds", that is, it is revealed in detail.
So, the poem by A.S. Pushkin “ Prophet"is an example of an extended metaphor. The transformation of the lyrical hero into the herald of the will of the Lord - the poet-prophet, his quenching " spiritual thirst", that is, the desire to know the meaning of being and find one's calling, is depicted by the poet gradually: " six-winged seraph", the messenger of God, transformed the hero of his" right hand"- the right hand, which was an allegory of strength and power. By God's power, the lyrical hero received a different vision, a different hearing, other mental and spiritual abilities. He could " heed”, that is, to comprehend the sublime, heavenly values \u200b\u200band earthly, material existence, to feel the beauty of the world and its suffering. Pushkin depicts this beautiful and painful process, “ stringing"one metaphor to another: the hero's eyes acquire eagle vigilance, his ears fill" noise and ringing"of life, the language ceases to be "idle and crafty", passing on the wisdom received as a gift, " quivering heart" turns into " coal burning with fire". The chain of metaphors is held together by the general idea of the work: the poet, as Pushkin wanted to see him, should be a forerunner of the future and an exposer of human vices, inspire people with his word, encourage goodness and truth.
Examples of an extended metaphor are often found in poetry and prose (the main part of the metaphor is marked in italics, its “deployment” is underlined):
... let's say goodbye together,
O my light youth!
Thanks for the pleasure
For sadness, for sweet torment,
For noise, for storms, for feasts,
For everything, for all your gifts...
A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin"
We drink from the cup of life
With closed eyes...
Lermontov "Cup of Life"
…boy caught by love
To a girl wrapped in silks...
N. Gumilyov " Eagle of Sinbad"
The golden grove dissuaded
Birch cheerful language.
S. Yesenin " The golden grove dissuaded…"
Sad, and crying, and laughing,
The streams of my poems are ringing
At your feet
And every verse
Runs, weaves a living ligature,
Their not knowing the shores.
A. Blok " Sad, and crying, and laughing..."
Save my speech forever for the taste of misfortune and smoke ...
O. Mandelstam " Save my speech forever…"
... seethed, washing away the kings,
July Curve Street...
O. Mandelstam " I pray like pity and mercy..."
Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong embrace and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger on the rocks, breaking the emerald bulks into dust and spray.
M. Gorky " Song of the Petrel"
The sea has woken up. It played in small waves, giving birth to them, decorating with fringed foam, pushing against each other and breaking them into fine dust.
M. Gorky " Chelkash"
Realized - metaphor , which again acquires a direct meaning. The result of this process at the everyday level is often comical:
For example: I lost my temper and got on the bus
The exam will not take place: all tickets are sold.
If you've gone into yourself, don't come back empty-handed etc.
The simple-hearted joker-gravedigger in the tragedy of W. Shakespeare " Hamlet”to the question of the protagonist about,“ on what ground"lost his mind" the young prince, replies: " In our Danish". He understands the word the soil"literally - the top layer of the earth, the territory, while Hamlet means figuratively - for what reason, as a result of which.
« Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh's hat! "- the tsar complains in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin" Boris Godunov". The crown of Russian tsars since the time of Vladimir Monomakh has been in the form of a hat. It was adorned with precious stones, so it was "heavy" in the literal sense of the word. In a figurative way - Monomakh's hat» personified « heaviness”, the responsibility of the royal power, the heavy duties of the autocrat.
In the novel by A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin» An important role is played by the image of the Muse, which since ancient times has personified the source of poetic inspiration. The expression "the muse visited the poet" has a figurative meaning. But Muse - the poet's friend and inspirer - appears in the novel in the form of a living woman, young, beautiful, cheerful. AT " student cell» Precisely Muse « opened a feast of young inventions- pranks and serious disputes about life. It is she who " sang"Everything that the young poet aspired to - earthly passions and desires: friendship, a cheerful feast, thoughtless joy -" children's fun". Muse, " how the bacchante frolicked", and the poet was proud of his" windy girlfriend».
During the southern exile, Muse appeared as a romantic heroine - a victim of her pernicious passions, resolute, capable of reckless rebellion. Her image helped the poet create an atmosphere of mystery and mystery in his poems:
How often l asce Muse
I delighted the dumb way
By the magic of a secret story!..
At the turning point of the author's creative quest, it was she who
She appeared as a county lady,
With sad thoughts in my eyes...
Throughout the entire work affectionate Muse"was correct" girlfriend» poet.
The realization of a metaphor is often found in the poetry of V. Mayakovsky. So, in the poem A cloud in pants" it implements the running expression " nerves went wild" or " nerves are naughty»:
Hear:
quiet,
like a sick person out of bed
nerve jumped.
here, -
first walked
barely,
then he ran
excited,
clear.
Now he and the new two
rushing about in a desperate tap dance ...
Nerves -
big,
small,
many -
jumping mad,
and already
the nerves give way to the legs!
It should be remembered that the boundary between different types of metaphor is very conditional, unsteady, and it can be difficult to accurately determine the type.
The role of metaphors in the text
Metaphor is one of the brightest and most powerful means of creating expressiveness and figurativeness of the text.
Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text not only enhances the visibility and visibility of what is depicted, but also conveys the uniqueness, individuality of objects or phenomena, while showing the depth and nature of his own associative-figurative thinking, vision of the world, the measure of talent (“The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors. Only this cannot be adopted from another - this is a sign of talent "(Aristotle).
Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing the author's assessments and emotions, the author's characteristics of objects and phenomena.
For example: I feel stuffy in this atmosphere! Kites! Owl nest! Crocodiles!(A.P. Chekhov)
In addition to artistic and journalistic styles, metaphors are characteristic of colloquial and even scientific style (" the ozone hole », « electron cloud " and etc.).
personification- this is a kind of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts.
Most often personifications are used in describing nature.
For example:
Rolling through sleepy valleys
Sleepy mists lay down,
And only the stomp of a horse,
Sounding, is lost in the distance.
Extinguished, turning pale, the day autumn,
Rolling fragrant leaves,
Eating dreamless sleep
Semi-withered flowers.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)
Less often, personifications are associated with the objective world.
For example:
Isn't it true, never again
We won't break up? Enough?..
And the violin answered Yes,
But the heart of the violin was in pain.
The bow understood everything, it calmed down,
And in the violin, the echo kept everything ...
And it was a pain for them
What people thought was music.
(I. F. Annensky);
There was something good-natured and at the same time cozy in face of this house. (D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak)
Avatars- the paths are very old, with their roots in pagan antiquity and therefore occupy such an important place in mythology and folklore. The Fox and the Wolf, the Hare and the Bear, the epic Serpent Gorynych and the Poganoe Idolishche - all these and other fantastic and zoological characters of fairy tales and epics are familiar to us from early childhood.
One of the literary genres closest to folklore, the fable, is based on personification.
Even today, without personification, it is unthinkable to imagine works of art; without them, our everyday speech is unthinkable.
Figurative speech not only visually represents thought. Its advantage is that it is shorter. Instead of describing the subject in detail, we can compare it with an already known subject.
It is impossible to imagine poetic speech without using this technique:
"The storm covers the sky with mist
Whirlwinds of snow twisting,
Like a beast, she will howl,
He will cry like a child."(A.S. Pushkin)
The role of personifications in the text
Personifications serve to create vivid, expressive and figurative pictures of something, to enhance the transmitted thoughts and feelings.
Personification as an expressive means is used not only in the artistic style, but also in journalistic and scientific.
For example: X-ray shows, the device speaks, the air heals, something stirred in the economy.
The most common metaphors are formed on the principle of personification, when an inanimate object acquires the properties of an animate one, as if acquiring a face.
1. Usually, the two components of a metaphor-personification are the subject and the predicate: the blizzard was angry», « the golden cloud spent the night», « waves are playing».
« get angry", that is, only a person can experience irritation, but" winter storm", a blizzard, plunging the world into cold and darkness, also brings" evil". « spend the night", sleep peacefully at night, only living beings are capable," cloud"But personifies a young woman who has found an unexpected shelter. Marine « waves"in the imagination of the poet" play', like children.
We often find examples of metaphors of this type in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin:
Not suddenly raptures will leave us ...
A death dream flies over him ...
My days are gone...
The spirit of life woke up in him...
Fatherland caressed you ...
Poetry awakens in me...
2. Many metaphors-personifications are built according to the method of management: “ lyre singing», « the voice of the waves», « fashion darling», « happiness darling" and etc.
A musical instrument is like a human voice, and it too " sings”, and the splashing of the waves resembles a quiet conversation. " favorite», « minion"are not only in people, but also in the wayward" fashion"or changeable" happiness».
For example: "Winters of threat", "Abyss voice", "joy of sadness", "day of despondency", "son of laziness", "threads ... of fun", "brother by muse, by fate", "victim of slander", "cathedral wax faces ”, “Joy language”, “mourn the burden”, “hope of young days”, “pages of malice and vice”, “shrine voice”, “by the will of passions”.
But there are metaphors formed differently. The criterion of difference here is the principle of animation and inanimateness. An inanimate object does NOT gain the properties of an animate object.
one). Subject and predicate: “ Desire is seething”, “Eyes are burning”, “Heart is empty”.
Desire in a person can manifest itself to a strong degree, seethe and " boil". Eyes, betraying excitement, shine and " are burning". Heart, soul, not warmed by feeling, can become " empty».
For example: “I learned grief early, I was comprehended by persecution”, “our youth will not suddenly fade”, “noon ... burned”, “the moon floats”, “conversations flow”, “stories spread out”, “love ... faded away”, “I call the shadow "," life fell.
2). Phrases built according to the method of management can also, being metaphors, NOT be personification: “ dagger of treachery», « glory tomb», « chain of clouds" and etc.
Steel arms - " dagger" - kills a person, but " treason"is like a dagger and can also destroy, break life. " Tomb"- this is a crypt, a grave, but not only people can be buried, but also glory, worldly love. " Chain" consists of metal links, but " clouds”, whimsically intertwining, form a semblance of a chain in the sky.
For example: “flattering necklaces”, “twilight of freedom”, “forest ... voices”, “clouds of arrows”, “noise of poetry”, “bell of brotherhood”, “poems incandescence”, “fire ... black eyes”, “salt of solemn insults”, “ the science of parting”, “the flame of southern blood” .
Many metaphors of this kind are formed according to the principle of reification, when the word being defined receives the properties of some substance, material: "windows crystal", "gold hair" .
On a sunny day, the window seems to sparkle like " crystal", and the hair takes on the color" gold". Here, the hidden comparison embedded in the metaphor is especially noticeable.
For example: "in the black velvet of the Soviet night, In the velvet of the world's emptiness", "poems ... grape meat", "crystal of high notes", "poems with rattling pearls".
Ministry of Education and Science
Armavir State Pedagogical University
Faculty of Foreign Languages
Department of English Philology
and methods of teaching English
Course work
METAPHOR AS A MEANS OF OPTIMIZING UNDERSTANDING A LITERARY TEXT
Performed:
student of group 401
Zelenskaya M.A.
Scientific adviser:
Art. teacher
Gorshkova N.V.
Armavir 2010
Introduction
Conclusion
Introduction
Topic of this study - "Metaphor as a means of optimizing the understanding of a literary text." It is no coincidence that the phenomenon of metaphoricality attracts the close attention of researchers. This is due, first of all, to the general interest in the study of the text in the broad sense of the term, the desire to provide a linguistic justification and interpretation of various stylistic devices that create the expressiveness of the text. Researchers are also attracted by the problems associated with the expressiveness of language and speech. With the modern approach, facts are studied not in isolation, but in context, since, according to the figurative expression of V.V. Vinogradov, it is in the conditions of context that “the saturation of words with semantic radiations” takes place (Vinogradov, 1963:).
The metaphorical nature of use is one of the possibilities for creating expression, because it is usually associated with semantic shifts, which leads to additional expressive richness of the text as a whole - this is due to relevance the topic we have chosen.
Of particular importance for researchers is the work with samples of fiction, a special analysis of which will help to assess their artistic value, expressiveness not at an arbitrary, intuitive level, but on the basis of a conscious perception of the expressive means of the language.
Target This work is to explore the use of metaphor in the works of Stephen King and prove its significance for a more complete understanding of the text.
object Stephen King's novels "Cycle of the Werewolf" and "The Mist" were used for this study.
Subject studies are special cases of the use of metaphor in these works.
The purpose, object and subject of the study determined the range of the following tasks :
identify cases of manifestation of metaphor in the text of the work;
analyze the contextual significance of metaphors.
The study used the following methods: the method of contextual analysis and the method of stylistic analysis of a literary text.
The purpose and objectives of this study determined its structure. This course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.
Chapter 1. Different approaches to considering the role of metaphor in a literary text
1.1 Metaphor as an effective means of expressing the writer's artistic thought
Metaphor - turn of speech - the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on analogy, similarity, comparison (Ozhegov, 1990: 351).
It is well known that a word can change its meaning and a semantic shift occurs when a word falls into an unusual context for it.
"Techniques for changing the basic meaning of a word are called tropes" (Tomashevsky, 1937: 29-30). Trope (from the Greek tropos) - turnover - the use of a word in its figurative meaning to characterize a phenomenon with the help of secondary semantic shades inherent in this word and already directly related to its main meaning. The correlation of the direct and figurative meanings of words is based on the similarity of the compared phenomena, or on their contrast, or on their contiguity - hence various types of tropes arise, which were classified in detail in ancient rhetoric and theories of literature, although this kind of classification does not have significant significance. The main types of tropes are metaphor, based on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, metonymy, based on contiguity, and synecdoche, based on the ratio of part and whole.
In essence, tropes include both various types of transferring meanings, as well as epithet, comparison, hyperbole, litote, irony.
The trope is a general phenomenon of the language, greatly expanding the boundaries of the use of the word, using many of its secondary shades.
Metaphor is considered by many to be the most important trope and is so characteristic of poetic language that the word itself is sometimes used as a synonym for figurative speech, as an indication that words act here not in a direct, but in a figurative sense. Metaphorical language often means "allusive" or "figurative" language.
In a metaphor, one or more properties are transferred to an object or phenomenon from another object or phenomenon, but these latter do not appear directly in the path, but are only implied. "Metaphor is a hidden comparison. In contrast to a simple comparison that has two members, a metaphor has only the second" (Abramovich, 1965: 167).
Even in ancient times, language resorted to metaphor. Initially, "shoot" meant only one thing: to shoot an arrow from a bow. But then this verb began to be used due to the similarity of its action and purpose in relation to firearms, although for the sake of accuracy it would be necessary to create the verb "bullet". The words "shooter" and "shooter" were originally also metaphorical: the mobility of a child is compared with the speed of a flying arrow. But this metaphor, once fresh and effective, has already faded from long use. Metaphors are fading not only of ancient origin, but also newer ones. So, for example, the metaphor "wing of the house" has become a technical term and an everyday word.
Such metaphors are called worn out because they do not have an aesthetic and emotional impact on us, they do not remind us of the comparison originally embedded in them, and metaphors should cause just such a reaction. They cannot, in fact, be called metaphors; they are metaphors only historically.
A metaphor is an undivided comparison. In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widely used in art. Sometimes the entire work is a metaphorical image.
The main type of metaphor is personification, which is sometimes called prosopopoeia or personification. The essence of personification is that the signs of a living being are transferred to something inanimate, and the inanimate acts as an animate being. Often abstract concepts are personified. For the allegorical expression of abstract concepts, an allegory is used, which is their conventional designation, based, however, on some one similarity between an abstract concept and a specific phenomenon or object.
So, for example, the allegorical expression of faith in European literature and painting is the cross, hope - the anchor (hence the metaphor "anchor of salvation"). Most often, allegories are constant, familiar, like a permanent epithet, and often, since they are conditional, they need explanation. The boundaries between individual paths cannot always be drawn clearly and precisely. For example, a truly artistic epithet should appear in a figurative sense of the word. Such an epithet is called metaphorical, since it is often a metaphor in an abbreviated form. So, inside the paths there is mutual permeability: one path passes into another, mixes with it and makes it difficult to determine which of the paths is in front of us. The possibilities of creating new figurative meanings of words are enormous. It's all about the skill of the author, the ability to find new, unexpected comparisons. Metaphor is an effective means of expressing the artistic thought of the writer.
1.2 Linguistic approach to metaphor
Two main semantic properties of artistic speech - figurativeness and allegoricalness - determine the special cognitive role of metaphor in artistic speech. Metaphor is the most important feature of a literary text. In this regard, before turning to metaphor, let us consider the main points of the current state of the general theory of metaphor.
A review of the literature on the theory of metaphor, which is given in the works of Arnold I.V., Arutyunova N.D., Baranov A.N., Bakhtin, Black M., Vinogradov V.V., Nikitin M.V., Vovka V.N. . and so on, shows how wide the range of opinions is on all the main points of the theory. It should be immediately noted that the existing differences in approaches are not the result of a "wrong" understanding of the essence of the issue. Of course, there are controversial provisions in the positions of many researchers, but the main thing that determines the fundamental differences in opinions is the complexity of the subject of research itself.
The current "theoretical pluralism" is associated with a gradual shift in the main attention of researchers from the study of language as a stable system with stable linguistic meanings to the position of language as a creative process of communication (Tolochin, 1996: 48).
It was the turn of linguistic research in the last three decades to the problems of the functioning of language in speech, the formation and transmission of meaning in a statement that opened up new facets in many phenomena that have long been studied, to which metaphor also belongs.
Scientists writing about metaphor - M. Black, A.N. Baranov admit that they are dealing with figurative comparison (Tolochin, 1996: 56). This is how Aristotle defined metaphor. However, the understanding of this definition may be different. The differences relate primarily to the interpretation of the comparison mechanism.
In modern works on metaphor I.V. Tolochin identifies three main views on its linguistic nature:
metaphor as a way of existence of the meaning of a word;
metaphor as a phenomenon of syntactic semantics;
metaphor as a way of conveying meaning in communication.
In the first case, the metaphor is considered as a lexicological phenomenon. This approach is the most traditional, since it is closely related to the idea of language as a relatively autonomous from speech activity and a stable system. Accordingly, representatives of this approach believe that the metaphor is realized in the structure of the linguistic meaning of the word.
The second approach focuses on the metaphorical meaning that arises from the interaction of words in the structure of a phrase and a sentence. It is the most common: for it, the boundaries of the metaphor are wider - it is considered at the level of syntactic compatibility of words.
The third approach is the most innovative, since it considers figurative comparison as a mechanism for forming the meaning of an utterance in various functional varieties of speech. For this approach, it is a functional - communicative phenomenon that is realized in a statement or text.
G.N. Sklyarevskaya in her monograph "Metaphor in the Language System", published in 1993, characterizes the first approach of the study. The author examines the linguistic metaphor, opposing it in many respects to the artistic metaphor. According to Sklyarevskaya, a linguistic metaphor is a ready-made element of vocabulary (Sklyarevskaya, 1993: 31). Describing the structure of the linguistic metaphor, G.N. Sklyarevskaya includes in the sphere of her understanding the structure of the lexical meaning of words with metaphorical figurativeness. In the process of analysis, a comparison is made between the semes of a word with a literal meaning and a word with a metaphorical meaning. The author defines the metaphorical meaning as "the doubling of the denotation and the redistribution of semes between the denotative and connotative parts of the lexical meaning" (Sklyarevskaya, 1993: 15). The figurativeness of a linguistic metaphor is realized only by researchers, and at the level of speech perception it is not identified. A linguistic metaphor cannot be perceived as such by ordinary native speakers (Sklyarevskaya, 1993: 33).
This approach to interpretation is called narrow lexicological. The subject of research in this approach are individual lexemes. Their detailed analysis provides interesting information about the structure of the linguistic meaning of individual vocabulary units that have a figurative beginning. However, this approach cannot answer the question about the mechanisms of meaning formation in different types of speech.
There is another tradition - to consider metaphor as a phenomenon of syntactic semantics. This position is most clearly reflected in the works of N.D. Arutyunova, M. Black, A. Richards. This approach allows obtaining interesting information about the influence of the semantic compatibility of words on the process of metaphorization. The proponents of the semantic-syntactic approach see a categorical shift as the basis of the metaphor formation mechanism. The metaphor "offers a new distribution of objects into categories and immediately refuses it" (Arutyunova, 1990: 76). The essence of a metaphor is "a transposition of identifying (descriptive and semantically diffuse) vocabulary, intended to indicate the subject of speech, into the sphere of predicates, intended to indicate its features and properties" (Arutyunova, 1990: 92).
The semantic-syntactic approach gives a lot for understanding the nature of metaphor. The main value of this is that it reveals the mechanism for the formation of a metaphorical meaning on the basis of a categorical characterization given by the tenor-vehicle structure itself.
The third approach - functional-communicative - is most relevant for linguistic areas that study various aspects of speech theory. Within the framework of this approach, the metaphor is considered as an element of the text. The functional-communicative approach to metaphor provides a methodological basis for the study of metaphors in real texts and allows us to analyze the specifics of the functioning of a metaphor depending on the communicative orientation of speech. The inclusion of pragmatic and cognitive aspects in the study of metaphor opens up the possibility of analyzing the originality of the functioning of metaphor in various functional styles of speech, including artistic ones.
1.3 Stylistic theory of metaphor
A simple metaphor can be one-term or two-term. A metaphor based on exaggeration is called hyperbolic:
All days are nights to see till I see thee,
And nights bright days when dreams do show them me.
An expanded, or extended, metaphor consists of several metaphorically used words that create a single image, that is, from a number of interconnected and complementary simple metaphors that enhance the motivation of the image by reconnecting all the same two plans and their parallel functioning:
Lord of my love, to whom in vassalage
The merit hat my duty strongly knit,
To thee I send this written embassage,
To witness duty, not to show my wit.
Traditional metaphors are metaphors that are generally accepted in any period or in any literary direction. So English poets, describing the appearance of beauties, widely used such traditional, constant metaphorical epithets as p early teeth, coral lips, ivory neck, hair of golden wire". In a metaphorical epithet, two-dimensionality is obligatory, an indication of similarity and dissimilarity, semantic mismatch, violation of markedness. For example, animistic metaphorical epithets are possible, when the property of a living being is attributed to an inanimate object: an angry sky, the howling storm, or an anthropomorphic metaphorical epithet that attributes human properties and actions to an animal or object: laughing valleys, surly sullen bells. Of general interest is the compositional or plot metaphor, which can be extended to the entire novel. A compositional metaphor is a metaphor that is realized at the text level. Many works of modern literature can be cited as a compositional metaphor, in which the theme is modern life, and imagery is created by co-opposing it with mythological subjects: the novel by J. Joyce "Ulysses", the novel by J. Updike "Centaur", the play O "Nile" Mourning goes to Electra.
1.4 The value of metaphors for the reader's complete understanding of a literary text
Metaphor is "a dream, a dream of language". The interpretation of dreams needs the cooperation of the dreamer and the interpreter, even if they converge in one person. In the same way, the interpretation of metaphors bears the imprint of both the creator and the interpreter.
Understanding (as well as creating) a metaphor is the result of a creative effort: it is just as little subject to rules.
This property does not single out a metaphor from among other uses of the language: any communication is the interaction of a thought uttered and a thought extracted from speech. The only question is the extent of the gap. The metaphor enhances it by using non-semantic resources in addition to the usual language mechanisms. There are no instructions for creating metaphors, no manuals for determining what it "means" or "what it says" (Aristotle, 1957: 96). A metaphor is recognized only due to the presence of an artistic principle in it.
D. Davidson argues that metaphors mean only that (or no more than that) that the words included in them mean, taken in their literal meaning (Davidson, 1990: 172). Since this thesis runs counter to well-known modern points of view, much of what he said carries a critical charge. A metaphor, when viewed free from all hindrances and delusions, becomes no less, but a more interesting phenomenon.
First of all, Davidson tried to dispel the erroneous opinion that the metaphor, along with the literal meaning or meaning, is also endowed with some other meaning and meaning. This delusion is common to many. The idea of the semantic duality of metaphor takes different forms - from relatively simple in Aristotle to relatively complex in M. Black. It is shared by both those who allow a literal paraphrase of metaphor and those who deny such a possibility. Some authors especially emphasize that a metaphor, unlike ordinary word usage, gives insight - it penetrates the essence of things.
The view of metaphor as a means of conveying ideas, however unusual, seems to Davidson to be just as wrong as the underlying idea that metaphor has a special meaning. Davidson agrees with the point of view that a metaphor cannot be paraphrased, he believes that this is not because metaphors add something completely new to a literal expression, but because there is simply nothing to paraphrase. Paraphrasing, whether it is possible or not, refers to what is said: we are simply trying to convey the same thing in different words. But if Davidson is right, the metaphor conveys nothing beyond its literal meaning.
In the past, those who denied that metaphor had a special cognitive content in addition to its literal meaning often went out of their way to show that metaphor introduces emotion and confusion into speech and that it is unsuitable for serious scientific or philosophical conversation. Davidson does not share this view. Metaphor is often found not only in literary works, but also in science, philosophy and jurisprudence, it is effective in praise and insult, prayer and promise, description and prescription. Davidson agrees with Max Black, Paul Henle, Nelson Goodman, Monroe Beardsley, and others on the function of metaphor. True, it seems to him that, in addition to those listed, it also performs functions of a completely different kind.
Davidson disagrees with the explanation of how metaphor works its magic. He is based on a distinction between the meaning of words and their use, and believes that the metaphor belongs entirely to the sphere of use. Metaphor is concerned with the figurative use of words and sentences, and depends entirely on the ordinary or literal meaning of the words and hence the sentences they comprise.
Metaphor draws attention to some similarity between two or more objects. This banal and true observation leads to conclusions about the meaning of metaphors. The ambiguity of a word, if it exists, is due to the fact that in an ordinary context a word means one thing, and in a metaphorical one another; but in a metaphorical context, hesitation is by no means obligatory. Of course, one can hesitate about choosing a metaphorical interpretation from among the possible ones, but we will always distinguish a metaphor from a non-metaphor. In any case, the effect of the metaphor does not end with the cessation of hesitation in the interpretation of the metaphorical passage. Therefore, the power of a metaphor cannot be due to this kind of ambiguity (Bain, 1887: 156).
If a metaphor, like a polysemantic word, had two meanings, then one would expect that it would be possible to describe its special, metaphorical meaning, one has only to wait until the metaphor is erased: the figurative meaning of a living metaphor should forever be imprinted in the literal meaning of a dead one. Despite the fact that some philosophers share this point of view, it seems to Davidson to be fundamentally wrong.
You can learn a lot of interesting things about metaphors if you compare them with comparisons, because comparisons directly say what metaphors only push us to. Here we must take into account the complexity of the process of selecting comparisons that would exactly correspond to one or another metaphor.
The view that the special meaning of a metaphor is identical to the literal meaning of the corresponding simile should not be confused with the common view of metaphor as an elliptical simile. This theory does not distinguish between the meaning of a metaphor and the meaning of the corresponding comparison and does not make it possible to speak of a figurative, metaphorical or special meaning of a metaphor.
According to Davidson, the theory of metaphor and the theory of elliptic comparison have one big drawback. They make the deep, implicit meaning of the metaphor surprisingly obvious and accessible. In any particular case, the hidden meaning of a metaphor can be discovered by pointing out what is usually the most trivial comparison. Meanwhile, metaphors are often difficult to interpret and completely impossible to paraphrase.
The whole course of reasoning led to the conclusion that those properties of a metaphor that can be explained in terms of meaning must be explained in terms of the literal meaning of the words included in the metaphor. This implies the following: sentences containing metaphors are true or false in the most ordinary, literal way, because if the words included in them do not have special meanings, then the sentences should not have special truth conditions. This does not at all deny the existence of metaphorical truth, only its existence within the sentence is denied. Metaphor actually makes you notice things that might otherwise go unnoticed.
No theory of metaphorical meaning or metaphorical truth can explain how metaphor functions. The language of metaphors does not differ from the language of sentences of the simplest kind. What really distinguishes a metaphor is not the meaning, but the use, and in this the metaphor is similar to speech actions: an assertion, an allusion, a lie, a promise, an expression of displeasure, etc.
According to M. Black's point of view, a metaphor forces one to apply a "system of generally accepted associations" associated with a given metaphorical word to the subject of the metaphor. Black says that "metaphor implicitly includes such judgments about the main subject that are usually applied to the auxiliary subject. Due to this, the metaphor selects, highlights and organizes certain, well-defined characteristics of the main subject and eliminates others" (Bdek, 1990: 167 ). According to Black, paraphrases almost always fail, not because the metaphor lacks special cognitive content, but because "the resulting non-metaphorical statements do not have half the clarifying and informing power of the original (ibid.).
Metaphor generates or implies a certain view of the subject, and does not express it openly. Aristotle, for example, says that metaphor helps to notice similarities. Black, following Richards, notes that the metaphor causes a certain reaction: the listener, having perceived the metaphor, builds a certain system of implications.
Davidson has nothing against these descriptions of the effect produced by the metaphor itself, only against the related views on how the metaphor produces this effect. He denies that the metaphor has an impact due to its special meaning, special cognitive content. Davidson, unlike Richards, does not believe that the effect of a metaphor depends on its meaning, which is the result of the interaction of two ideas.
Metaphor, making some literal statement, makes one object see as if in the light of another, which entails the "enlightenment" of the reader.
Chapter 2. Artistic originality of author's metaphors
2.1 The artistic originality of the works of S. King.
The work of Stephen King lies, of course, in the field of mass literature with its specificity and a special system of relations with other genres of literature. However, the intellectuals of Russia and America do not consider S. King a serious writer, referring to him as a "supplier of literary consumer goods." There are quite a few books published in the USA dedicated to this author, but most of them are purely reference in nature, containing and systematizing information, practically without analyzing it. In the USSR, S. King was recognized as a "denunciator", he even gave an interview to Literaturnaya Gazeta, in the Russian Federation articles devoted to him are purely advertising or swearing. Almost the only serious work is the article by A.I. Shemyakin "Stephen King's mystical novel" in the book "Faces of mass literature of the USA".
Nevertheless, despite the rigid limits of the "low genre" and commercial orientation, the works of S. King are not third-rate "pulp" and provide rich food for linguists. Having a university education, possessing an encyclopedic knowledge in the field of literature and considerable innovative ambitions, S. King, more actively than other representatives of commercial art, uses the achievements of non-genre literature (the one that is more often called "author's", "high", "elitist") for genre purposes than significantly enriches the expressive means of mass culture, which, in turn, has a great influence (for example, on the novels of Dean Koontz). In any case, even the most ardent opponents of commercial literature "cannot deny" S. King "real achievements in the novelty of artistic language" (Paltsev, 1998: 26).
Let's try to determine the origins of the terrible and irrational in the imaginary world of S. King. As researcher N. Paltsev notes, the writer's works are a crystallized expression of his main ideological interest - to "unusual, latent, hidden in human nature" (Paltsev, 1998: 94). This can be easily traced at any of the stages of his not so short path in the literature. At the center of almost any novel is the internal conflict of a personality, in whose life mysterious circumstances suddenly appear. Can a person believe and adequately respond to them, is it possible to adapt consciousness to new conditions - that's what interests the writer in the first place. Consciousness, its interaction with reality, is one of the constant objects of attention: "King used both the scientific data of neuropsychology and hypotheses about the yet unexplored properties of the human brain as the basis of his novels" (Litvinenko, 2004: 12). Here, the influence of Freud's philosophy on his worldview is obvious, from which comes King's understanding of the human psyche as consisting of three levels. The "It" zone, which is not subject to the main area of consciousness, contains primitive human fears and instincts, forbidden desires. It is "It" that gives rise to the terrible images of King's works, and it is "It" that allows readers to fear these images: "The fears born of your mind always bear the tinge of subjective reality" (Freud, 1994: 67). This is what the writer achieves, in whom almost always the horror itself and its perception by the human psyche are interdependent. The fears of the heroes are reflected in the fears of the readers and vice versa, forcing the mass consciousness to resonate.
Thus, according to Stephen King, consciousness is a kind of ontological and cognitive entity, which is an unknown source of enormous energy, which under certain circumstances can be released. The images created by the imagination show "how much hidden pain and fear is stored in the "black box" of your subconscious and how destructive this force is when it breaks out" (EEE, 2007: 89). Each such release of energy becomes terrible for a person, because the latter is completely unprepared for a collision with him. Deep forces and unrevealed potencies dormant in people, nature and society, in order to one day break out, transforming the environment unrecognizably; the mysterious faces of being, for the time being indistinguishable under the shell of the familiar, ordinary, everyday - such is the steady object of S. King's attention.
In addition to this source of the terrible in the writer's works, N. Paltsev points to the role of nature and society. Interior elements (for example, a fire extinguisher), animals, some cosmic substances can become participants in the action in the fantastic works of S. King. Not only the irritated consciousness, but the whole surrounding world with familiar concepts and objects suddenly becomes frighteningly hostile. "Most of the original and fascinating creations of C. King are initially completely harmless objects and animals that his restless imagination endows with a barely perceptible and unpleasant threat (Paltsev, 2004). In the end, the author's imagination (or "leap of faith" - a leap of faith ) transform them into a truly sinister world.
The same thing happens with the system of images: the heroes of his novels are ordinary people in ordinary life. It is much easier for the reader to understand them, and their participation makes the story more believable and exciting. But, on the other hand, his characters are not as simple as they seem at first glance, because they are carriers of the most diverse ideas of the author, and, above all, observations in the field of the human psyche. Sometimes S. King in his novels acts as a kind of popularizer of Freud's theory of psychoanalysis: "King carefully studied everything that was written in the twentieth century about the human psyche, and was able to breathe real life into these theories, fill them with blood and flesh, make so that the problems of highbrow intellectuals become significant for any hero: a teenage boy, a housewife, a sheriff of a provincial town, an old woman from the islands of New England. And for any reader" (Paltsev, 2004: 45)
Critics also point out that S. King does not move away from objective reality at all, selflessly plunging into imaginary worlds. On the contrary, "he knows that we are bogged down in a frightening world full of real demons like death and disease, and that perhaps the most terrible and frightening thing in this world is human opinion" (EE, 2007: 23). The terrible in S. King's novels is often socially determined, the writer deliberately draws attention to some details, while his narrative clearly bears the imprint of naturalism. In his skillful hands, such a method becomes a weapon, aptly attacking certain social injustices. To give his literary worlds more authenticity and closeness to the reader, S. King uses a technique that can be defined as "documentary". This means that in his works the writer uses pseudoquotes from newspapers, court records, encyclopedias, letters, diaries, memoirs, scripts, brochures, manuscripts of works of art. This feature of creativity was inherent in the writer throughout his career, starting with the first published novel "Carrie" (1974). So, for example, in the novel "Misery" (1987), he cites draft chapters of the book, typed on a typewriter with a falling letter N, the novel itself contains at least three others: crime, female romantic and female adventure, allegedly written by the protagonist, and one of them - "The Return of Misery" - is shown almost in its entirety, which allows us to trace how "real" details and "life" observations are woven into the fabric of a work of art; in the novel "The Dark Half" (1989), quotes from a "tough novel", also allegedly written by the hero, are included in the epigraph; and in "Regulators" there are even children's drawings. Such hoaxes are necessary for the writer in order to show what is happening from different points of view, to depict how different people, independently of each other, come to the same conclusion about the authenticity of the existence of evil, which acted not once, but today, nearby. It’s as if discordant testimonies are heard, differing stylistically and emotionally, information comes from different sources, contradictory in details, but similar in main things, from all this gradually, like a mosaic, a whole picture is formed, which the reader is able to cover more fully than each of the characters. separately. This gives the impression of documentary authenticity - the legend is transformed into a real threat.
When creating his works, Stephen King relies not only on his own imagination, but also on the imagination of the reader; The author only hints and directs the person in the right direction, and then he himself completes the pictures in accordance with his individual perception. In other words, King does not describe the emotions and feelings of the characters, but awakens them in the reader, and it is with this "own" weapon that he influences him. According to the writer, only such a "two-sided" work is capable of creating the feeling of horror that he seeks.
When reading a work in the genre of horror literature, if it is written consistently and all the more talentedly, the reader's imaginary fear is the main component of the atmosphere of horror, manifesting itself in various forms. Accordingly, the writer must evoke such fear by approaching the category of the terrible from different angles. S. King himself agrees with this: “I don’t think that horror novels can affect the reader if they don’t have two voices. One, loud, with which you tell your reader about ghosts, werewolves and monsters with eerie howls. The other, the quiet one to which you whisper real fears. Then, in this ideal case, you might be able to achieve the feeling of a nightmare that everyone has experienced in life: you know it's not true, but it doesn't matter anymore" (King, 2002: 85 ). The development of the plot, according to S. King, must necessarily be combined with the amusement of the plot. The author invites the reader into the painstakingly created world of his fantasies, but in order to keep his guest there, considerable efforts must be made: "In horror stories, there must be a story that can fascinate the reader, listener or viewer. no and cannot be" (King, 2002: 85). Such skill is the main aspect of the writer's artistic skill, it is it that plays an important role in weaving elements of the terrible into the fabric of the narrative. Forcing the atmosphere (which can be seen as the use of the suspense technique) is necessary to fully capture the reader's attention, for which the main thing is to tie the plot in such a way as to be able to lead the reader to where he himself would never dare to set foot. Literature here lives according to special laws, obeying A. Hitchcock's golden rule: "It's more interesting to guess than to guess" (Hitchcock, 1997: 34). It is not the images as such that are terrible, it is the inner, latent expectation of a meeting with them that frightens.
Biblical motifs occupy a special place in the work of most writers, but the works of S. King in this regard are replete with allusions and metaphors. Biblical motifs are especially clearly expressed in one of the darkest novels by S. King - "The Green Mile", which takes place in prison. The first allusion can come across, remembering some details of prison life. We know that many prisoners, especially those who are sentenced to life imprisonment, turn to God and become the most inspired righteous, but in this book it is not the prisoner who turns to God, but, on the contrary, the head of the prison block "E", in which executions are carried out suicide bombers. This may seem like blasphemy, but we have to admit - S. King describes the second coming of Christ in The Green Mile. In this case, John Coffey plays the role of the Savior - a Negro who was unjustly convicted of killing two white girls, who also has the gift of healing, and Paul Edgecomb, the head of the prison block condemned to death, plays the role of Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator. The last chapters of the "Mile" largely correspond to the biblical ones. Coffey proves his innocence to Edgecombe, but he is unable to free him because it is not in his power. The higher ranks will never agree to release a Negro murderer: this figure is too convenient for a trial. And Edgecomb has to take Coffey on his last journey. Before death, the healer confesses that he is ready for it: "I'm already tired of the pain that I see and feel." Before dying, he gives Edgecombe some of his "power". Now Edgecomb will live longer than other people, but he is doomed to bear the cross of someone else's pain as punishment for raising his hand to the "Creation of God".
Without the metaphorical richness of a literary text, it is impossible to create associative artistic images for the reader, without which, in turn, it is impossible to achieve a complete understanding of the meanings of the text. An associative image usually arises as a result of an unexpected combination of distant concepts, therefore it has an increased metaphorical and subjective nature, which in principle is very important not only in a poetic text, but also in fiction, to which Stephen King's novels undoubtedly belong, where the associative image is built on intensive identification of additional, as it were, optional, unintended connections - this is a hint that must be caught by the reader, which requires intense reader perception. It is these additional connections (often a whole chain of connections) that give the associative image the original author's uniqueness. In a number of expressive means of language and stylistic devices, metaphor is particularly expressive, since it has unlimited possibilities in rapprochement, often in unexpected assimilation of a wide variety of objects and phenomena, essentially comprehending the object in a new way.
Stephen King's metaphor helps to reveal, expose the inner nature of any phenomenon, object or aspect of being, often being an expression of the individual author's vision of the world: "I realized with fresh horror that new doors of perception were opening up inside. New? Not so. Old doors of perception. The perception of a child who has not yet learned to protect itself by developing the tunnel vision that keeps out ninety percent of the universe" (King, 1999: 44).
An individual author's metaphor always contains a high degree of artistic information, as it deduces the word (and object) from the automaticity of perception: "The hard cement of reality had come apart in some unimaginable earthquake, and these poor devils had fallen through" (King, 1999: 42 ).
Metaphor, in contrast to comparison, where both members of the comparison are present, is a hidden comparison, that is, what the object is likened to and the properties of the object itself are not presented in their qualitative separation, but are given in a new undivided unity of the artistic image: "We were united in the black wonder of that flaming death-flight" King, 1999: 41)
2.2 The role of metaphor in Stephen King's The Werewolf Cycle
In our opinion, in order to determine the role of metaphor in S. King's stories and to reveal its semantic function, it would be most correct to try to analyze some of his works. "The Werewolf Cycle" can be divided into several parts, where each murder is a separate story. The use of various metaphors by the author contributes to the creation of an atmosphere of fear.
Only eight victims (all completely different and interesting personalities in their own way), the main character (protagonist) - a boy in a wheelchair who defeated evil - Marty Koslo and his antagonist - Reverend Lester Lowe, he is also a werewolf.
The novel begins with a werewolf appearing in the town of Tucker's Mills. Nature from the very beginning appears to be hostile to man, S. King paints the world around him in dark colors, this description of nature precedes the appearance of a werewolf. For example: Somewhere, high above, the moon shines down, fat and full - but here, in Tarker's Mills, a January blizzard has chocked the sky with snow. (King, 2001: 13)
Using a kind of metaphor - personification (personification), giving human qualities to the wind, the author compares its actions with human behavior: Outside the wind rises to a shrill scream. (King, 2001: 13. ‘Chilling scream’ - you can scream like that only when you are in the face of mortal danger.
In S. King, personification is used to whip up the atmosphere and to create a premonition of the onset of danger. Brutal attacks succeed each other, shrinking in time intervals. Nature seems to help the werewolf 'punish' people for not honoring her: Outside, its tracks begin to fill up with snow, and the shriek of the wind seems savage with pleasure. (King, 2001: 16)
Moonlight is considered to be something romantic. Here the author goes against the stereotype - the moon helps the werewolf 'deal' with a man by blinding him: He (Alfie Knopfler) is trying to scream, and white moonlight, summer moonlight, floods in through the windows and dazzles his eyes (King, 2001: 56)
However, when a metaphorical expression is taken in the literal sense and its further literal deployment occurs, the phenomenon of metaphor realization arises - a technique that often causes a comic effect. For example, V. Mayakovsky's poem "That's how I became a dog" is built on such a play on the colloquial expression "I'm angry like a dog": first "a fang came out from under my lip", then "a tail flew out from under my jacket", and, finally, "became on all fours and barked." King has no intention of creating a comic effect when he describes the transformation of a person into a werewolf: His customer, someone he sees every day, someone everyone in Tarker's Mills sees every day, is changing. The customer's face is somehow shifting, melting, thickening, broadening. The customer's cotton shirt is stretching, stretching... and suddenly the shirt's seams begin to pull apart. The customer's pleasant, unremarkable face is becoming something bestial. The customer's mild brown eyes have lightened; have become a terrible gold-green. The customer screams... but the scream breaks apart, drops like an elevator through registers of sound, and becomes a bellowing growl of rage. It's the thing, the Beast, werewolf! (King, 2001: 26)
The use of emotionally colored lexical units and various literary means of expression allow the author to create a certain psychological background and an atmosphere of fear.
In a number of expressive means of language and stylistic devices, metaphor is particularly expressive, since it has unlimited possibilities in rapprochement, often in unexpected assimilation of a wide variety of objects and phenomena, essentially comprehending the object in a new way.
For example, the author uses the beautiful metaphor flowers of blood begin to bloom to create a vivid image of blood stains blooming on a white tablecloth. The contrasting combination of red and white helps to evoke a certain associative image in the reader, being an expression of the author's individual vision of the world: Al can see flowers of blood begin to bloom on the white cloth. Flowers of blood blooming on a white tablecloth can evoke, for example, an association with Eluard's "Flowers of Evil", bringing a "decadent touch" to the reader's perception. An associative image usually arises as a result of an unexpected combination of distant concepts, therefore it has an increased metaphor and subjectivity, which in principle is very important not only in a poetic text, but also in fiction.
The moon is like a living being, when no one is looking, she plays with the clouds: t brings a rack of clouds from the north and for a while the moon plays tag with this clouds, ducking in and out of them, turning their edges to beaten silver. (King, 2001: 88).
The reader may have an association of playing a cat with a mouse before killing it forever, like a werewolf mercilessly cracking down on another victim in the dark under the light of a mysterious and dangerous full moon for the city.
In the city, no one is going to fight the monster, only a few believe in its existence: And, incredibly, over the werewolf's mad howling, over the wind's screaming, over the clap and clash of his own tottering thoughts about how this can possibly be in the world of real people and real things, over all of this Al hears his nephew say: 'Poor old Reverend Lowe. I'm gonna try to set you free. ’ (King, 2001: 125) S. King makes it clear to the reader that at the moment of danger, thoughts can scatter like a crowd of people scared to death.
Only a teenager dared to fight the monster. Eleven-year-old boy who has been in a wheelchair for a long time: Marty's useless scarecrow legs, so much dead weight, drag along behind him. The terrible image of Marty's crippled legs, which are associated with something terrifying in their uselessness (useless, scarecrow), with "dead weight" (so much dead weight), makes the reader think about the doom of the child. Marty first appears in July, frustrated that the 4th of July fireworks were canceled (because of the murders and, moreover, that day fell on a full moon).
The associative image is built on the intensive identification of additional, as it were, optional, unintentional connections - this is a hint that must be caught by the reader, which requires intense reader perception, it is these additional connections (often a whole chain of connections) that give the associative image the original author's uniqueness. Contrasting the general concept of the book - death, terrible death, inevitable death - with beautiful, bright fireworks, with which only positive emotions and feelings are associated (the author's metaphor is the flowers of light in the sky):
He looks forward to it every year, the flowers of light in the sky over the Commons, the flashgun pops of brightness followed by the thudding KER-WHAMP! sounds that roll back and forth between the low hills that surround the town. (King, 2001: 61)
Marty, too, could have become another victim, if not for his Uncle Al (Uncle Al), who gave the boy a package of fireworks - this caused the werewolf attack and, at the same time, saved Marty from death - he burned out the werewolf's eyes with one of fireworks. The boy had no doubt that the killer was a werewolf, and this helped him not to lose his head and concentrate during the attack. He figured out who the werewolf was, persuaded his uncle to make silver bullets, and he himself delivered the city from evil. Thus, a child who believes in the existence of evil turned out to be stronger than unbelieving adults.
2.3 The role of metaphor in Stephen King's The Mist
The author widely uses in the work such stylistic devices and linguistic means as comparison, personification, allusion, epithets and many others. These artistic means, in interaction with metaphor, help the author create an atmosphere of mystical and, at the same time, real, make the reader's imagination work and think out what the author did not say, allow him to feel his own fears and draw the whole picture (in whole or in part) by himself. - create your own world of fear.
The plot of the novel tells of a strange fog that descended on the city after a storm that raged all night. The protagonist David Drayton decides to go to the store to stock up on food just in case, because the fog gives him bad forebodings.
Leaving his wife at home, he, along with his son and neighbor Brent Norton, with whom he does not have a particularly good relationship, goes to the nearest supermarket, which becomes a refuge for unfortunate residents when a supernatural fog covers a small provincial town, cutting people off from the outside world.
The fog inexplicably generates terrible monsters in its bowels that crave human flesh. At first, no one believes that there is something supernatural outside their shelter - a supermarket, but soon people begin to die, and there is no doubt that something terrible is hidden in the fog. Fear intensifies. Monsters take one victim after another, nothing can stop them.
King makes extensive use of comparison in the novel to express an assessment, an emotional explanation, an individual description, to create an associative image, while relying on the reader's experience: A heavy, hooked beak opened and closed rapaciously. It looked a bit like the paintings of pterodactyls you may have seen in the dinosaur books, more like something out of a lunatic "s nightmare (King, 2001: 41). King compares a cruel, merciless creature that brings death to anyone who steps on its path, even more terrifying due to its obscure origins, is with a dinosaur, by which comparison he makes it clear that the creature is quite real and is a great danger.The description of the next monster also contains a very vivid comparison: Its (the spider's) eyes were reddish purple like pomegranates (King, 2001: 51) The variety of monsters is amazing: "The bugs were all over the loopholes now, which meant they were probably crawling all over the building... like maggots on a piece of meat" (King, 2001: 39 )
It was maybe two feet long, segmented, the pinkish color of burned flesh that has healed over. Bulbous eyes peered in two different directions at once from the ends of short, limber stalks (King, 2001: 39)
Panic begins in the store, people are completely confused, feeling their defenselessness in front of the unknown. When people do not understand the reason for what is happening, they need a reasonable explanation, and they also need a leader who will know what to do and lead them.
Some people do not believe in the danger lurking in thick fog. Lawyer Brent Norton becomes their leader. The protagonist tried to warn of the impending mortal danger, but all his attempts were hopeless.
The author uses such a modification of the metaphor as an oxymoron to emphasize Norton's deadly wrong, and also uses such a stylistic device as a comparison: There was something almost horribly comic about it, too, because it also looked a little like one of those strange creations of vinyl and plastic you can buy for $1.89 to spring on your friends... in fact, exactly the sort of thing Norton had accused me of planting in the storage area (King, 2001: 39).
Biblical motifs occupy a special place in King's work, so his texts are replete with allusions and metaphors. So, further the author uses an allusion: Now there was Norton and four others. Maybe that wasn't so bad. Christ himself could only find twelve (King, 2001: 36) - Drayton, comparing Norton with Christ, gives an ironic coloring to his image. It should be noted that King masterfully uses allusion, thereby helping the reader to build vivid associative images: I couldn't tell what it was, but I could see it. It looked like one of the minor creatures in a Bosch painting-one of his hellacious murals (King, 2001: 39)
The second group believes in danger, but prefers to act cautiously. After all, you can’t sit in this unreliable building indefinitely. Their leader is David Drayton, a father trying to save his young child: Billy seemed to find sleep in less dangerous waters again (King, 2001: 41)
This man is destined to go through all the horrors of hell and survive, but his future is unknown.
And the third group needs a prophet who "will guide them on the right path." This very prophet becomes Mrs. Carmody. Miss Carmody occupies one of the central places in the novel, without interruption she broadcasts that the Almighty has lowered creatures to Earth to carry out God's judgment. She literally imposes her point of view on others, doing it so furiously that one can conclude that she is in an abnormal mental state. King spared no metaphors to describe this woman, no less dangerous than the monsters in the fog. Special attention is paid to Mrs. Carmody's eyes, as the eyes are the mirror of the soul: Her (Carmody's) black eyes glanced arrogantly around, as sharp and sparkling as a magpie's (King, 2001: 30); Her (Carmody's) black eyes seemed to dance with mad glee (King, 2001: 33). But King uses a metaphor that is especially powerful in terms of its impact on the reader's imagination when he wants to show that there is nothing human left in this woman: she is full of terrible joy watching other people's suffering, horror, agony. Here we can also highlight the allusion to the Bible: She (Carmody) was an apocalypse of yellow and dark joy (King, 2001: 51).
More and more people are beginning to listen to the newly appeared "prophetress", those who have already been completely seized by fear. Soon, a crowd of "repentant sinners" is formed around Carmody, who are unwilling and unable to fight reality. Before those who are still able to resist, and who want to leave the supermarket that is becoming unsafe, there is another, no less terrible obstacle: a herd of people distraught with horror, following their "prophet", ready for anything, even for human sacrifice. Blinded by horror, people take Carmody for a savior ("messiah"), they believe that she can save them from the invasion of these terrible creatures, but there are still people who reject her, consider her crazy: The old lady may be as crazy as a bedbug (King , 2001: 33)
Fear, panic, madness are growing every minute, the army of fanatics replenishes its ranks, and there are fewer and fewer people who are ready to resist it.
King often uses epithets to make his speech more emotional, to describe it individually, to create a special state, to build up the atmosphere: his hard-headed Yankee manner; totally unconscious cruelty; the laughter of the damned; the thin and acrid stench of the mist; ululating howl; superficially amused; serene sureness; pinkish color of burned flesh; bulbous eyes; that crazy cunt (about Carmody).
When the author uses hyperbole, he wants to emphasize that the speaker's feelings and emotions are so agitated that he inadvertently exaggerates the quantitative or qualitative aspects of what he is talking about. Thus, an excited Drayton uses hyperbole when describing Mrs. Carmody: Her (Carmody’s) huge purse swinging against one elephantine thigh… (King, 2001: 30). When using hyperbole, such words and phrases as all, every, everybody, a million, a thousand, ever, never and others are often used (Kukharenko, 1986: 57). In King, hyperbole is used relatively rarely, and therefore retains the meaning of exaggeration: She (Mrs. Reppler) uttered a snarl of anger that would have done credit to a caveman splitting the skull of an enemy (King, 2001: 59).
The use of emotionally colored lexical units, as well as various expressive language means and stylistic devices, allow the author to create a certain psychological background and an atmosphere of fear. King quite often uses a metaphor or those stylistic devices that can be called variants of a metaphor - comparison, personification, epithet, and others. Metaphorically saturated speech, carrying a high degree of artistic information, does not allow automatic perception of the text, forcing the reader's imagination to work.
Conclusion
The topic of our study is "Metaphor as a means of optimizing the understanding of a literary text." The purpose of this work was to explore the use of metaphor in the works of Stephen King and to prove its significance for a more complete understanding of the text. The material was Stephen King's novels "Cycle of the Werewolf" and "The Mist". Having examined the use of metaphor in these works, we found out that the metaphor is really necessary to create a figurative idea of the characters in the reader, which, in turn, leads to more deep and complete understanding of the author's intention and deobjectification of the meanings of the text.It should be noted that for a number of expressive means of language and stylistic devices, the metaphor is especially expressive, since it has unlimited possibilities in rapprochement, often in unexpected assimilation of the most diverse objects and phenomena, essentially in relation to metaphor, other stylistic devices - such as oxymoron, personification, antithesis, paraphrase - can be considered as its varieties or modifications. The more ancient elements of imagery that preceded the metaphor are comparison and epithet. Therefore, in our study, we considered not just use bleating of metaphor, but also of the above stylistic devices. An associative image usually arises as a result of an unexpected combination of distant concepts, therefore it has an increased metaphor and subjectivity, which, in principle, is very important not only in a poetic text, but also in artistic prose. The associative image is built on the intensive identification of additional, as it were, optional, unintentional connections - this is a hint that must be caught by the reader, which requires intense reader perception, it is precisely such additional connections (often a whole chain of connections) that give the associative image the original author's uniqueness. After analyzing the use of metaphor in the works of Stephen King, we came to the following conclusions:
Metaphor helps to reveal, expose the inner nature of any phenomenon, object or aspect of being, often being an expression of the individual author's vision of the world.
An individual author's metaphor always contains a high degree of artistic informativeness, as it deduces the word (and object) from the automaticity of perception, since without the metaphorical richness of the literary text it is impossible to create associative artistic images for the reader, without which, in turn, it is impossible to achieve a complete understanding of the meanings of the text.
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The style of artistic speech is a special section of stylistics. The stylistics of artistic speech finds out ways of artistic application of language, combining aesthetic and communicative functions in it. Features of a literary text, ways of constructing different types of author's narration and methods of reflecting the elements of speech of the described environment in it, ways of constructing a dialogue, functions of different stylistic layers of language in artistic speech, principles of selection of language means, their transformation in fiction, etc. are revealed. Kazakova, Malerwein, Raiskaya, Frick, 2009: 7]
The features of the artistic style, as a rule, include figurativeness, emotional presentation; wide use of vocabulary and phraseology of other styles; the use of figurative and expressive means. The main characteristic of artistic speech is the aesthetically justified use of the entire spectrum of linguistic means in order to express the writer's artistic world, which provides aesthetic pleasure to the reader [Kazakova, Malerwein, Raiskaya, Frick, 2009: 17].
According to Rayskaya L.M., writers use all the resources, all the richness of the Russian national language to create impressive artistic images while working on their works of art. These are not only literary language means, but also folk dialects, urban vernacular, jargons and even slang. Therefore, according to the author, most researchers believe that it is impossible to talk about the existence of a special style of fiction: fiction is “omnivorous” and takes from the Russian national language everything that the author considers necessary [Rayskaya, 2009: 15].
Artistic style is the style of works of fiction.
The features of the artistic style can also be called the use of the whole variety of linguistic means to create the imagery and expressiveness of the work. The function of the artistic style is the aesthetic function [Vinokurova, 2009: 57].
Artistic style as a functional style is used in fiction, which performs figurative-cognitive and ideological-aesthetic functions. To understand the features of the artistic way of cognition of reality, thinking, which determines the specifics of artistic speech, it is necessary to compare it with the scientific way of cognition, which determines the characteristic features of scientific speech [Vinokurova, 2009: 57].
Fiction, as well as other types of art, is characterized by a concrete-figurative representation of life, in contrast to the abstract, logical-conceptual, objective reflection of reality in scientific speech. A work of art is characterized by the perception through feelings and the re-creation of reality, the author seeks, first of all, to convey his personal experience, his understanding and understanding of this or that phenomenon [Vinokurova, 2009: 57].
For the artistic style of speech, attention to the particular and the accidental is typical, followed by the typical and the general. For example, in N. V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls”, each of the shown landowners personified certain specific human qualities, expressed a certain type, and all together they were the “face” of Russia contemporary to the author [Vinokurova, 2009: 57].
The world of fiction is a "recreated" world, the depicted reality is, to a certain extent, the author's fiction, therefore, the subjective moment plays the main role in the artistic style of speech. The whole surrounding reality is presented through the vision of the author. But in a literary text, we see not only the writer's world, but also the writer's in the artistic world: his preferences, condemnations, admiration, rejection, etc. This is connected with emotionality and expressiveness, metaphorical, meaningful versatility of the artistic style of speech [Galperin, 2014: 250].
The lexical composition and functioning of words in the artistic style of speech have their own characteristics. The words that form the basis and create the figurativeness of this style include, first of all, the figurative means of the Russian literary language, as well as words of a wide range of use, realizing their meaning in the context. Highly specialized words are used to a small extent, only to create artistic authenticity when describing certain aspects of life [Galperin, 2014: 250].
The artistic style of speech is characterized by the use of speech polysemy of the word, which reveals additional meanings and semantic shades in it, as well as synonyms at all language levels, which makes it possible to emphasize the subtlest shades of meanings. This is explained by the fact that the author strives to use all the richness of the language, to create his own unique language and style, to a bright, expressive, figurative text. The author uses not only the vocabulary of the codified literary language, but also a variety of figurative means from colloquial speech and vernacular [Galperin, 2014: 250].
The emotionality and expressiveness of the image in a literary text are in the first place. Many words that appear in scientific speech as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper and journalistic speech - as socially generalized concepts, in artistic speech - as concrete-sensory representations. Thus, the styles functionally complement each other. For artistic speech, especially poetic, inversion is characteristic, that is, a change in the usual word order in a sentence in order to enhance the semantic significance of a word or give the whole phrase a special stylistic coloring. Variants of the author's word order are diverse, subject to the general plan. For example: “I see everything as hilly Pavlovsk…” (Akhmatova) [Galperin, 2014: 250].
In artistic speech, deviations from structural norms are also possible, due to artistic actualization, i.e., the allocation by the author of some thought, idea, feature that is important for the meaning of the work. They can be expressed in violation of phonetic, lexical, morphological and other norms [Galperin, 2014: 250].
As a means of communication, artistic speech has its own language - a system of figurative forms, expressed by linguistic and extralinguistic means. Artistic speech, along with non-artistic speech, performs a nominative-pictorial function.
The linguistic features of the artistic style of speech are:
1. Heterogeneity of the lexical composition: a combination of book vocabulary with colloquial, vernacular, dialect, etc.
The feather grass has matured. The steppe was clad in swaying silver for many versts. The wind accepted it resiliently, swooping in, roughening it, bumping it, driving gray-opal waves first to the south, then to the west. Where a flowing air stream ran, the feather grass bent prayerfully, and for a long time a blackening path lay on its gray ridge.
2. The use of all layers of Russian vocabulary in order to implement the aesthetic function.
Daria hesitated for a minute and refused:
No, no, I'm alone. There I am alone.
Where "there" - she did not even know close and, going out of the gate, went to the Angara. (V. Rasputin)
3. The activity of polysemantic words of all stylistic varieties of speech.
The river boils all in a lace of white foam.
On the velvet of the meadows poppies are reddening.
Frost was born at dawn. (M. Prishvin).
4. Combinatorial increments of meaning.
Words in an artistic context receive a new semantic and emotional content, which embodies the figurative thought of the author.
I dreamed of catching the departing shadows,
The fading shadows of the fading day.
I went up the tower. And the steps trembled.
And the steps under my foot trembled towards me (K. Balmont)
5. The use of more specific vocabulary than abstract.
Sergei pushed the heavy door. The steps of the porch barely audible sobbed under his foot. Two more steps and he is already in the garden. The cool evening air was filled with the intoxicating aroma of flowering acacia. Somewhere in the branches, a nightingale chirped its trills, iridescently and subtly.
6. Wide use of folk poetic words, emotional and expressive vocabulary, synonyms, antonyms.
Rosehip, probably, since spring has made its way along the trunk to the young aspen, and now, when the time has come to celebrate the aspen's name day, it all flared up with red fragrant wild roses. (M. Prishvin).
The New Time was located in Ertelev Lane. I said "fit". This is not the right word. Reigned, ruled. (G. Ivanov)
7. Verbal speech
The writer calls each movement (physical and / or mental) and change of state in stages. Forcing verbs activates reader tension.
Grigory went down to the Don, carefully climbed over the fence of the Astakhov base, and went up to the shuttered window. He heard only frequent heartbeats... He tapped softly on the frame's binding... Aksinya went silently to the window and peered. He saw how she pressed her hands to her chest and heard her indistinct moan escape her lips. Grigory motioned for her to open the window and took off his rifle. Aksinya opened the doors. He stood on the mound, Aksinya's bare hands grabbed his neck. They trembled and thrashed on his shoulders so, those familiar hands, that their trembling was transmitted to Grigory. (M.A. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don")
The imagery and aesthetic significance of each element of the artistic style (down to sounds) are dominant. Hence the desire for freshness of the image, unhackneyed expressions, a large number of tropes, special artistic (corresponding to reality) accuracy, the use of special expressive means of speech characteristic only for this style - rhythm, rhyme even in prose [Koksharova, 2009: 85].
In the artistic style of speech, in addition to the language means typical of it, the means of all other styles are used, especially colloquial. In the language of fiction, vernacular and dialectisms, words of a high, poetic style, jargon, rude words, professionally business turns of speech, journalism can be used. However, all these means in the artistic style of speech are subject to its main function - aesthetic [Koksharova, 2009: 85].
If the colloquial style of speech performs mainly the function of communication (communicative), scientific and official-business - the function of communication (informative), then the artistic style of speech is intended to create artistic, poetic images, emotional and aesthetic impact. All linguistic means included in a work of art change their primary function, obey the tasks of a given artistic style [Koksharova, 2009: 85].
In literature, the artist of the word - the poet, the writer - finds the only necessary placement of the necessary words in order to correctly, accurately, figuratively express thoughts, convey the plot, character, make the reader empathize with the heroes of the work, enter the world created by the author [Koksharova, 2009: 85] .
All this is available only to the language of fiction, so it has always been considered the pinnacle of the literary language. The best in language, its strongest possibilities and rarest beauty are in the works of fiction, and all this is achieved by the artistic means of the language [Koksharova, 2009: 85].
The means of artistic expression are varied and numerous. These are such tropes as epithets, comparisons, metaphors, hyperbole, etc. [Shakhovsky, 2008: 63]
Tropes - a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to our consciousness in some respect. The most common types of tropes are allegory, hyperbole, irony, litote, metaphor, metonymy, personification, paraphrase, synecdoche, simile, epithet [Shakhovsky, 2008: 63].
For example: What are you howling about, the night wind, what are you complaining about insanely - the personification. All flags will visit us - synecdoche. A man with a fingernail, a boy with a finger - litote. Well, eat a plate, my dear - metonymy, etc.
The expressive means of the language also include stylistic figures of speech or simply figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion, polyunion, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora. The means of artistic expression also include rhythm (poetry and prose), rhyme, and intonation [Shakhovsky, 2008: 63].
Thus, the style of fiction, as a special section of stylistics, is characterized by figurativeness, emotional presentation; wide use of vocabulary and phraseology of other styles; using figurative and expressive means.
Speech. Analysis of expressive means.
It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (figurative and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Lexical means.
Usually, in the review of task B8, an example of a lexical means is given in brackets, either in one word or in a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.
| synonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are close in meaning | soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future |
| antonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are opposite in meaning | they never said to each other you, but always you. |
| phraseological units- stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word | at the edge of the world (= “far away”), missing teeth (= “frozen”) |
| archaisms- obsolete words | squad, province, eyes |
| dialectism- Vocabulary common in a certain area | chicken, goof |
| book, colloquial vocabulary |
daring, associate;
corrosion, management; squander money, outback |
Trails.
In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in brackets, as a phrase.
Types of trails and examples for them in the table:
| metaphor- transferring the meaning of a word by similarity | dead silence |
| personification- likening an object or phenomenon to a living being | dissuadedgolden grove |
| comparison- comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through unions as, as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective) | bright as the sun |
| metonymy- replacement of the direct name with another by adjacency (i.e. based on real connections) | The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foamy wine in glasses) |
| synecdoche- the use of the name of the part instead of the whole and vice versa | a lonely sail turns white (instead of: a boat, a ship) |
| paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition | author of "Woe from Wit" (instead of A.S. Griboyedov) |
| epithet- the use of definitions that give the expression imagery and emotionality | Where are you going, proud horse? |
| allegory- expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images | scales - justice, cross - faith, heart - love |
| hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described | in a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned |
| litotes- underestimation of the size, strength, beauty of the described | your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble |
| irony- the use of a word or expression in the reverse sense of the literal, with the aim of ridicule | Where, smart, are you wandering, head? |
Figures of speech, sentence structure.
In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.
| epiphora- repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following one another | I would like to know. Why am I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor? |
| gradation- construction of homogeneous members of the sentence by increasing meaning or vice versa | came, saw, conquered |
| anaphora- repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following one another | Ironthe truth is alive with envy,
Ironpestle, and iron ovary. |
| pun- play on words | It was raining and two students. |
| rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) - exclamatory, interrogative sentences or a sentence with an appeal that do not require a response from the addressee | Why are you standing, swaying, thin mountain ash?
Long live the sun, long live the darkness! |
| syntactic parallelism- the same construction of sentences | young everywhere we have a road,
old people everywhere we honor |
| polyunion- repetition of an excess union | And a sling, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger
Years spare the winner ... |
| asyndeton- construction of complex sentences or a series of homogeneous members without unions | Flickering past the booth, women,
Boys, benches, lanterns ... |
| ellipsis- omission of implied word | I'm behind a candle - a candle in the stove |
| inversion- indirect word order | Our amazing people. |
| antithesis- opposition (often expressed through the unions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms | Where the table was food, there is a coffin |
| oxymoron- a combination of two contradictory concepts | living corpse, ice fire |
| citation- transmission in the text of other people's thoughts, statements indicating the author of these words. | As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below the thin bylinochka ...” |
| questionable-reciprocal the form statements- the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them | And again a metaphor: "Live under minute houses ...". What do they mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction |
| ranks homogeneous members of the proposal- enumeration of homogeneous concepts | He was waiting for a long, serious illness, leaving the sport. |
| parceling- a sentence that is divided into intonation-semantic speech units. | I saw the sun. Above your head. |
Remember!
When completing task B8, you should remember that you fill in the gaps in the review, i.e. restore the text, and with it the semantic and grammatical connection. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates that agree with omissions, etc.
It will facilitate the task and the division of the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.
Parsing the task.
(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun through the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingenious that it is constantly self-renewing and thus keeps billions of passengers traveling for millions of years.
(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, cutting down forests, spoiling the oceans. (5) If on a small spacecraft astronauts fussily start cutting wires, unscrewing screws, drilling holes in the skin, then this will have to be qualified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) It's only a matter of size and time.
(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) Wound up, multiply, swarm microscopic, on a planetary, and even more so on a universal, scale of being. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot is spreading from this place. (12) They scurry, multiply, do their work, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations.
(13) Unfortunately, just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of the so-called technical progress, are such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land. (14) On the one hand, a person, twitched by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, crowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this outside world itself has been brought to such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual fellowship with him.
(15) It is not known how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?
(According to V. Soloukhin)
“The first two sentences use a trope like _______. This image of the "cosmic body" and "cosmonauts" is the key to understanding the author's position. Discussing how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that "humanity is a disease of the planet." ______ ("scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations") convey the negative deeds of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said by the author is far from being indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence ________ "original" gives the argument a sad ending, which ends with a question.
List of terms:
- epithet
- litotes
- introductory words and interstitial constructions
- irony
- extended metaphor
- parceling
- question-answer form of presentation
- dialectism
- homogeneous members of a sentence
We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first - epithet, litote, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second - introductory words and plug-in constructions, parcelling, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.
It is better to start the task with passes that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission #2. Since the whole sentence is given as an example, some syntactic means is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous departures” rows of homogeneous members of the sentence are used : Verbs scurry, multiply, do business, gerunds eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that the place of the gap should be a plural word. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and plug-in constructions and homogeneous member sentences. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without losing their meaning are absent. Thus, at the place of pass No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.
In pass number 3, the numbers of sentences are indicated, which means that the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parceling can be immediately “discarded”, since the authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. There are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in sentences: in my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.
In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute the masculine term, since the adjective “used” must agree with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms - epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here, the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet in front of us.
It remains to fill only the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences, where the image of the earth and us, people, as an image of a cosmic body and astronauts is rethought. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - a metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.
Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.
Practice.
(1) As a child, I hated matinees, because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, chirped on his accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher strictly told him: “Valery Petrovich, higher!” (Z) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose always had a beet red color, like that of a clown. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”
(6) And at first in the kindergarten, and then at school, I carried the heavy cross of my father's absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know who has any fathers!), But it was not clear to me why he, an ordinary locksmith, went to our matinees with his stupid harmonica. (8) I would play at home and not dishonor myself or my daughter! (9) Often straying, he sighed thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to sink into the ground with shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous person with a red nose had nothing to do with me.
(11) I was in the third grade when I had a bad cold. (12) I have otitis media. (13) In pain, I screamed and pounded my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver shrillly, like a woman, began to shout that now we will all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) The father asked how much was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, repeated: “What a fool I am!” (19) The father thought and quietly said to his mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain circled me like a snowflake blizzard. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me that a huge monster, with a clanging jaw, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, snow was falling on the frosty windows with a rustle. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomed into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.
(25) I don’t know how much time has passed, but suddenly the night was lit up with bright headlights, and a long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and through my eyelashes I saw my father. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.
(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time later he was ill with bilateral pneumonia.
(32) ... My children are perplexed why, when decorating a Christmas tree, I always cry. (ZZ) From the darkness of the past, a father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if stealthily wants to see his daughter among the dressed up crowd of children and smile at her cheerfully. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start to cry.
(According to N. Aksyonova)
Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.
This fragment examines the language features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the gaps with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should be in place of the gap, write the number 0.
The sequence of numbers in the order in which they are written by you in the text of the review at the place of the gaps, write down in the answer sheet No. 1 to the right of the task number B8, starting from the first cell.
“The use by the narrator to describe the blizzard of such a lexical means of expression as _____ ("terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture an expressive power, and such tropes as _____ ("pain circled me" in sentence 20) and _____ ("the driver began to scream shrillly, like a woman" in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A technique such as _____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.
The school curriculum necessarily has a theme: "Types of speech: description, narration, reasoning." But after a while, knowledge tends to be erased from memory, so it would be useful to fix this important issue.
What are types of speech? What functions do they perform?
Types of speech: description, narration, reasoning - this is how we talk about a subject. For example, imagine an ordinary table in the office or at home in the kitchen. If you need to describe this item, then you should tell in detail how it looks, what is on it. Such text will be descriptive, therefore, it is a description. If the narrator begins to talk about what this table is for, is it too old, is it not time to change it to a new one, then the chosen type of speech will be called reasoning. A text can be called a narrative if a person tells the story of how this table was ordered or made, brought home and other details of the appearance of the table on the territory of the apartment.
Now for some theory. Types of speech are used by the narrator (author, journalist, teacher, announcer) to convey information. Depending on how it is presented, the typology is determined.
Description is a type of speech, the purpose of which is a detailed story about a static object, image, phenomenon or person.
The narrative informs about the developing action, conveying certain information in a temporal sequence.
With the help of reasoning, the flow of thought regarding the object that caused it is transmitted.
Functional-semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning
Types of speech are often called functional-semantic. What does it mean? One of the meanings of the word "function" (there are many others, including mathematical terms) is a role. That is, speech types play a role.
The function of description as a type of speech is to recreate a verbal picture, to help the reader see it with his inner vision. This is achieved through the use of adjectives in various degrees of comparison, adverbial phrases, and other speech means. This type of speech is most often found in artistic style. A description in a scientific style will differ significantly from an artistic one in the unemotional, clear course of the story, the obligatory presence of terms and
Narrative is characterized by an image of an action, a situation or a specific case. Using verbs and short, concise sentences, this type of speech is often used in news reports. Its function is notification.
Reasoning as a type of speech is characterized by a variety of styles: artistic, scientific, business and even colloquial. The pursued goal is to clarify, reveal certain features, to prove or disprove something.
Features of the structure of speech types
Each type of speech has a distinct structure. The narrative is characterized by the following classical form:
- string;
- development of events;
- climax;
- denouement.
The description does not have a clear structure, but it differs in such forms as:
- a descriptive story about a person or animal, as well as an object;
- a detailed description of the place;
- state description.
Similar examples are often found in literary texts.
Reasoning is fundamentally different from previous types of speech. Since its purpose is to convey the sequence of the human thought process, the reasoning is constructed as follows:
- thesis (statement);
- arguments, together with given examples (proof of this statement);
- final conclusion or conclusion.
Often types of speech are confused with styles. This is a gross mistake. Below we will explain how styles differ from types.
Types and styles of speech: what are the differences?
The concept appears in Russian language textbooks What is it and are there any differences between styles and types?
So, style is a complex of certain speech means used in a particular area of communication. There are five main styles:
- Colloquial.
- Publicistic.
- Official business (or business).
- Scientific.
- Art.
To see you can take any text. The type of speech which will be presented) is present both in scientific and journalistic style. we choose for daily communication. It is characterized by the presence of vernacular expressions, abbreviations and even slang words. It is appropriate at home or with friends, but upon arrival at an official institution, for example, at a school, university or ministry, the style of speech changes to business with scientific elements.
Newspapers and magazines are written in a journalistic style. Using it, broadcast news channels. The scientific style can be found in the educational literature, it is characterized by many terms and concepts.
Finally, the art style. He wrote books that we read for our own pleasure. It is characterized by comparisons (“the morning is beautiful, like the smile of a loved one”), metaphors (“the night sky pours gold on us”) and other artistic expressions. By the way, description is a type of speech that is quite common in fiction and, accordingly, in the style of the same name.
The difference is this: you can describe, reflect or narrate using different styles. For example, when talking about a flower in an artistic style, the author uses a lot of expressive epithets to convey to the listener or reader the beauty of the plant. A biologist, on the other hand, will describe a flower, from the point of view of science, using generally accepted terminology. In the same way, one can argue and narrate. For example, a publicist will write a feuilleton about a carelessly picked flower, using reasoning as a type of speech. At the same time, the girl, using a conversational style, will tell her friend how a classmate gave her a bouquet.
Using Styles
The specificity of speech styles makes their successful neighborhood possible. For example, if the type of speech is description, then it can be supplemented with reasoning. All the same flower can be described in the school wall newspaper, using both scientific or journalistic, and artistic style. It can be an article about the valuable properties of a plant and a poem praising its beauty. In a biology lesson, the teacher, using a scientific style, will offer students information about a flower, and after that he can tell a fascinating legend about it.
Type of speech description. Examples in literature
This type can be conditionally called an image. That is, when describing, the author depicts an object (for example, a table), natural phenomena (thunderstorm, rainbow), a person (a girl from a neighboring class or a favorite actor), an animal, and so on ad infinitum.
As part of the description, the following forms are distinguished:
Portrait;
Description of the state;
Examples of the landscape, you can find in the works of the classics. For example, in the story "The Fate of a Man" the author gives a brief description of the early post-war spring. The pictures recreated by him are so alive and believable that it seems that the reader sees them.
In Turgenev's story "Bezhin Meadow" landscapes also play an important role. With the help of the verbal image of the summer sky and sunset, the writer conveys the powerful beauty and strength of nature.
To remember what a description is as a type of speech, it is worth considering another example.
“We went on a picnic outside the city. But today the sky was gloomy and became more and more unfriendly towards evening. At first the clouds were of a heavy gray hue. The sky was covered with them, like a theater stage after a performance. The sun had not yet set, but it was already invisible. And now lightning appeared between the gloomy curtains of the clouds ... ".
The description is characterized by the use of adjectives. It is thanks to them that this text gives the impression of a picture, conveys color and weather gradations to us. The following questions are asked for a descriptive type story: “What does the described object (person, place) look like? What signs does he have?
Narration: an example
Discussing the previous type of speech (description), it can be noted that it is used by the author to recreate the visual effect. But the narrative conveys the plot in dynamics. This speech type describes events. The following example tells about what happened to the heroes of a short story about a thunderstorm and a picnic next.
“... The first lightning did not frighten us, but we knew that this was only the beginning. We had to collect our things and run away. As soon as a simple dinner was packed into backpacks, the first drops of rain fell on the bedspread. We rushed to the bus stop."
In the text, you need to pay attention to the number of verbs: they create the effect of action. It is the image of the situation in the time period that is the hallmark of the narrative type of speech. In addition, questions of this kind can be asked to a text of this kind: “What was first? What happened next?
Reasoning. Example
What is reasoning as a type of speech? Description and narration are already familiar to us and are easier to understand than text-reasoning. Let's go back to friends caught in the rain. One can easily imagine how they are discussing their adventure: “… Yes, we were lucky that the summer resident motorist noticed us at the bus stop. Good thing he didn't pass by. In a warm bed it is good to talk about a thunderstorm. Not so scary if we were at the same stop again. A thunderstorm is not only unpleasant, but also dangerous. You can't predict where lightning will strike. No, we will never go out of town again without knowing the exact weather forecast. A picnic is good for a sunny day, but in a thunderstorm it’s better to drink tea at home.” The text contains all the structural parts of reasoning as a type of speech. In addition, you can ask him questions that are characteristic of reasoning: “What is the reason? What follows from this?
Finally
Our article was devoted to the types of speech - description, narration and reasoning. The choice of a particular speech type depends on what we are talking about in this case and what goal we are pursuing. We also mentioned the characteristic speech styles, their features and close relationship with the types of speech.
