The efforts of the founders of the school of scientific management were aimed at creating universal management principles based on personal observations and aimed at rationalizing production, while ignoring social relations in the production process and not paying due attention to the human factor.
School of Scientific Management (1885 - 1920). The founder of management science is an American engineer and researcher Frederick Taylor. 1911 - F.Taylor's book "Principles of Scientific Management". The essence of the approach: “Management must have its own laws, methods, formulas, principles. It should be based on measurements, rationalization, systematic accounting.” Taylor and his contemporaries recognized that management work was a specialty. There are 4 groups of managerial functions: choice of purpose, choice of means, preparation of means and control of results. Taylor developed methods for rationalizing the work of workers. Henry Ford (mechanic, entrepreneur, organizer of mass production of automobiles in the United States). The organization of management is based on the following principles: maximum division of labor; specialization, widespread use of high-performance equipment and tooling, arrangement of equipment along the technological process; mechanization of transport operations, regulated rhythm of production. Harrington Emerson - developed an integrated systems approach to organizing management. 1912 - the main work "The Twelve Principles of Productivity".
The main provisions of the school of scientific management:
1. Using scientific analysis to determine the best way to accomplish a task.
2. Selecting workers best suited to the task and providing them with training.
3. Providing employees with the resources required to effectively complete tasks.
4. Systematic and correct stimulation to increase labor productivity.
5. Separation of planning and thinking from the work itself.
Questions for consolidation:
1. What is the essence of the school of scientific management?
2. What is the merit of F. Taylor in the development of management as a science?
3. What is the merit of G. Ford in the development of management as a science?
4. What is the merit of G. Emerson in the development of management as a science?
1. What were the efforts of the founders of the scientific management school aimed at?
A) creation of universal principles of management
B) social relations
B) the human factor
D) rationalization of production
2. Who is the founder of management as a management science?
A) E. Mayo;
B) G. Ford;
C) G. Emerson
D) F. Taylor
3. In what years did the school of scientific management exist?
A) 1880 - 1885
B) 1885 - 1920
C) 1920 - 1930
A) Harrington Emerson
B) Elton Mayo
B) Frederick Taylor
D) Henry Ford
5. What are the four managerial functions identified by F. Taylor?
A) choice of goal, choice of means, preparation of means, control of results
B) planning, organization, motivation, control
C) choosing a goal, developing a mission, completing tasks, monitoring results
D) planning, choice of means, motivation, control
More on the topic 2. School of scientific management, its main provisions and principles. The development of management in the works of F. Taylor, G. Ford, G. Emerson.:
- 3. Classical administrative school of management, its main provisions and principles. Henri Fayol's contribution to the development of the classical school of management
- 4. Neoclassical school of management, its main provisions
- School of Scientific Management. The main characteristics of the views of its founders
- 14. Organization as the main function of management. Principles of building the organizational structure of management. Types of organizational management structures
School of Scientific Management
The contribution of the classical (administrative) school of management to the development of management.
School of scientific management, its merits in the development of management theory.
4. Fundamentals of the school of ʼʼhuman relationsʼʼ.
In the first half of the 20th century, four fairly distinct schools of managerial thought developed. Each of these four schools, like the four approaches to management, has made a significant contribution to the development of management issues. SCHOOL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT most closely associated with the works of F.U. Taylor. The creators of the scientific management school were the first to use observation, measurement, logic and analysis to improve many manual labor operations, achieving their more efficient performance. The use of the results of this kind of research has significantly increased the performance of the operation.
The contribution of the scientific management school to management theory:
1. Using scientific analysis to determine the best ways to accomplish tasks.
2. Selection of workers most suitable for tasks
and providing them with training.
3. Providing employees with the resources required to effectively
tasks.
4. Systematic use of financial incentives
to increase labor productivity.
5. Separating planning from work
Studying the human factor, the school of scientific management proposed the systematic use of incentives to interest workers in increasing productivity and production volumes. The expediency of a short rest and inevitable breaks in work was also substantiated. This gave the management the opportunity to set real production standards and reasonably pay extra for their overfulfillment. The key point here was that people who produced more were rewarded more. Authors of works on scientific management also recognized the importance of selecting people who were physically and intellectually suited to the work they were doing. Οʜᴎ also emphasized the importance of learning. Scientific management also considered it necessary to separate managerial functions from the actual execution of work, which was contrary to the old system in which workers themselves planned their work.
The development and implementation of the concepts of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management began to be widely recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, practitioners saw that the methods and approaches used in science and technology can be effectively used in the practice of achieving the goal of the organization. The ADMINISTRATIVE or "classical school of management" deals with the improvement of the organization as a whole, in contrast to the school of scientific management, which studied individual production operations. In many ways, this difference was determined by the personality of the school developers.
School representatives: Frenchman Henri Fayol, Englishman Lindall Urwick, American
James D. Munty et al.
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In Russia, it actively developed in the 20-30s of the 20th century - Ginzburg A.M., Vitke N.A., Berdyansky I.M.).
The contribution of the classical school to management theory:
1. Development of the principles and functions of management.
2. Creation of a mechanism for managing the organization.
3. Systematized approach to managing the entire organization.
The goal of the administrative (classical) school was to create universal principles of governance.
Practically all scientific directions of management were engaged in the development of general principles of management. At the same time, the development of management principles of the administrative (classical) school of management was most widely used. The 14 principles of management formulated by Henri Fayol have the following content:
1. Division of labor- specialization of work necessary for the efficient use of labor.
2. Authority and responsibility- each worker must be delegated powers sufficient to be responsible for the work performed.
3. Discipline- workers must obey the terms of the agreement between them and management, managers must apply fair sanctions to violators of the order.
4. Unity of command- the employee receives an order and reports to only one immediate superior.
5. Unity of action- all actions that have the same goal should be grouped and carried out according to a single plan.
6. Subordination of interests- the interests of the organization take precedence over the interests of individual employees.
7. Remuneration of staff- Employees receive fair remuneration for their work.
8. Centralization- the natural order in an organization that has a control center.
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The best results are achieved with the right proportion between centralization and decentralization. Authority (power) must be delegated in proportion to responsibility.
9. Scalar chain- an inextricable chain of commands, through which all orders are transmitted and communications between all levels of the hierarchy ("chain of chiefs") are implemented.
10. Order- a workplace for each employee and each employee at his workplace.
11. Justice- established rules and agreements must be enforced fairly at all levels of the scalar chain.
12. Staff stability- installation of employees on loyalty to the organization and long-term work, as high staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization.
13. Initiative- Encouraging employees to develop independent functions, within the boundaries of their delegated authority and work performed.
14. Corporate spirit- the harmony of interests of the personnel and the organization ensures the unity of efforts (in unity - strength).
These principles cover two basic aspects. One of them was the development of a rational system for managing the organization, in particular, determining the best way to divide the organization into divisions or working groups. The main contribution of the administrative school to management theory is that it considered management as a universal process, consisting of several interrelated functions, such as planning and organization. The second category of classical principles concerned the structure of the organization and the management of workers. An example is the principle of unity of command, according to which a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him alone. SCHOOL OF HUMAN RELATIONS AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES(this school is represented by Elton Mayo, Mary Parker Follett. This scientific direction in management theory arose after it was discovered that well-designed work operations and good wages did not always lead to increased labor productivity, as representatives of the scientific management school believed. Sometimes workers reacted much more strongly to pressure from colleagues in the group than to the desires of management and to material incentives.Motives for people's actions, as it was found, are not only economic factors, but also various needs that are only partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money. .
Based on these results, it was concluded that if the management takes more care of their employees, then the level of satisfaction should increase. This in turn will lead to improved performance. This school recommends the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective actions of direct superiors, consultation with employees and providing them with greater opportunities for communication at work.
Contribution of various directions
1. Using scientific analysis to determine the best way to accomplish a task.
2. Development of norms, rules, instructions to eliminate the negative impact of the personal factor on production processes
3. Selecting workers who are physically and intellectually best suited for the task and providing them with training.
4. Providing workers with the resources required to effectively perform their tasks.
5. Systematic and correct use of financial incentives to increase productivity.
6. Separating planning and thinking from the work itself.
7. The need for optimization, maximum mechanization, standardization of production processes, operational production management
School of scientific management - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "School of Scientific Management" 2017, 2018.
Early and modern interpretations of management: general characteristics The word "management" in the form in which it exists in modern English, arose in the time of William Shakespeare. Researchers note that this term has Latin, Italian and ....
The contribution of the classical (administrative) school of management to the development of management. School of scientific management, its merits in the development of management theory. 4. Fundamentals of the "human relations" school. In the first half of the twentieth century, four ...
Founder and main idea developer scientific management is Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). Unlike many management theorists, Taylor was neither a research scientist nor a business school professor. He was a practitioner: first a worker, and then a manager. Starting as a worker, he worked his way through several levels of hierarchy and rose to the level of chief engineer in a steel company.
Taylor's teaching is based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activity. Taylor set himself the task of increasing labor productivity and saw its solution in the rationalization of labor operations on the basis of the scientific organization of the worker's work. The starting point for the rationalization of labor for Taylor was the study of the task, which was supposed to provide information for constructing a rational set of operations to solve this problem. Taylor proceeded from the fact that workers are inherently lazy and do not want to work just like that. Therefore, he believed that rationalization, leading to an increase in profits, would be accepted by the worker only when his income also increased.
Taylor was an industrial engineer, so it was natural for him to look at controls as if they were machines. It should be noted that this approach was universal at that time. Management itself was taught in the form of industrial engineering.
He believed that managers should think and workers should work. This led to the emergence of a large number of functional managers and in-depth specialization based on the operational division of labor.
Basic principles scientific management Taylor are as follows:
- development of optimal methods for carrying out work on the basis of a scientific study of the costs of time, movements, efforts, etc.;
Absolute adherence to the developed standards;
- selection, training and placement of workers for those jobs and tasks where they can give the greatest benefit;
- wages based on performance (less results - less pay, large
results - more pay);
- the use of functional managers exercising control;
- maintaining friendly relations between workers and managers in order to ensure the possibility of scientific management.
The "Taylor system" laid the foundations for the scientific organization of labor, which, in the author's opinion, involves "the development of numerous rules, laws and formulas that replace the personal judgment of the individual worker and which can be usefully applied only after systematic accounting, measurement and etc. their actions.” Here is what this system means in relation, for example, to such an important production problem as wages:
Wages are paid to the person, not the place;
· Pricing should be based on accurate knowledge, not guesswork;
· Prices based on accurate knowledge should be uniform;
By virtue of the prices thus established, the commodities are produced
cheaper, and workers receive higher wages than usual;
Wages based on accurate knowledge create better workers,
gives them the opportunity to earn more, destroys the causes
deliberate slowness in work, stimulates the interest of workers and
entrepreneurs to cooperate.
Taylor came up with the fruitful idea of breaking down the production process into its individual elements, identifying the best way to accomplish each of them, and training personnel to do so.
The history of the development of management as a science indicates that a large number of theories have been developed that reflect different views and points of view on management problems.
This school sought to prove that it is possible to manage "scientifically", relying on economic, technical and social experiment, as well as on the scientific analysis of the phenomena and facts of the management process and their generalization. This method was first applied to a single enterprise by the American engineer F. Taylor, who is considered the founder of scientific production management.
Taylor's goal was to create a system of scientific organization of labor (SOT), based on experimental data and analysis of the processes of physical labor and its organization.
Taylor's research method consists in dividing the process of physical labor and its organization into component parts and then analyzing these parts. In particular, Taylor divided the organization process into the following elements: setting the goal of the enterprise as a whole and for each employee individually; the choice of means of activity and their application on the basis of a predetermined plan; control over the results of activities.
The purpose of the scientific organization of labor at the enterprise is the implementation of production with the least expenditure of resources (labor, material and monetary) while achieving maximum results. The way to achieve this goal is the rationalization of all elements of production: the living labor of workers, the means of labor (equipment, machines, units, production areas) and objects of labor (raw materials, materials, fuel, energy).
Taylor focused on improving productivity. The main provision of Taylor's concept is the need to establish a scientifically based daily task for the worker and methods for its implementation. He believed that the managers did not know the potential of the worker and set production standards by eye.
Taylor, on the basis of experiments conducted to study the methods and movements of workers, to measure the time required to complete individual elements and operations, established scientifically based standards. The value of the norm was determined for the best workers achieving the highest labor productivity. Workers who did not want to work hard were subject to dismissal. Thus, Taylor focused on the individual qualities of workers. He believed that workers should be supervised at every phase of production.
The main goal of the developed methods was to achieve an increase in the productivity of workers by any means. To motivate workers to meet and exceed established standards, Taylor improved the wage system. It has assumed a strictly individual, differentiated character, depending on the fulfillment of established norms. Taylor considered self-interest to be the driving force behind the growth of labor productivity and its remuneration.
Much attention in the Taylor system was paid to the normal maintenance of workplaces (tools, fixtures, etc.). The foremen were charged with the duty of timely provision of workers with everything necessary for efficient work, training of workers, issuing tasks for the day ahead, etc.
Creating his own system, Taylor was not limited only to the issues of rationalizing the work of workers. Taylor paid considerable attention to the best use of the production assets of the enterprise: the right choice of equipment for performing a certain job, caring for equipment, preparing tools for work and providing them with jobs in a timely manner.
The requirement for rationalization also extended to the layout of the enterprise and workshops. This concerned the rational placement of equipment and jobs, the choice of the most optimal ways of moving materials within the enterprise, i.e. on the shortest routes and with the least expenditure of time and money.
Taylor's system provided not only ways to rationalize each element of production separately, but also determined their most appropriate interaction.
The functions of implementing the interaction of elements of production were assigned to the planning and distribution bureau of the enterprise, which was given a central place in the Taylor system. Much attention was also paid to the organization of accounting and reporting at the enterprise.
Taylor's concept was based on the division of labor into two components: performing labor and managerial labor. Taylor's important contribution was the recognition that management work is a specialty.
Thus, we can single out the main provisions of Taylor's concept:
recognition of management as an independent activity, the main function of which is the rationalization of production;
The division of the production process and labor operations into separate elements and the identification of the range of time spent on their implementation, which allows them to be normalized;
planning based on the norms of work tasks; performance of planning functions by special units that determine the sequence, time, deadlines for the performance of work;
increase in labor productivity through higher wages;
selection of workers in accordance with physiological and psychological requirements and their training.
Taylor formulated two main tasks of management:
Ensuring the greatest prosperity of the entrepreneur, which included not only receiving high dividends on invested capital, but also the further development of the business;
improving the well-being of each employee, providing not only high wages in accordance with the efforts expended, but also the development in each employee of the potential that is inherent in him by nature itself.
The philosophical basis of Taylor's system was the concept of the so-called economic man, which became widespread at that time. This concept was based on the assertion that the only driving stimulus of people is their needs. Taylor believed that with the help of an appropriate pay system, maximum productivity could be achieved.
G. Emerson made a significant contribution to the development of the Taylor system. He studied the principles of human labor activity in relation to any production, regardless of the type of its activity.
The analysis made it possible to formulate 12 principles of labor productivity, which boil down to the following:
1. Having clearly defined goals or ideals as the main premise
efficient work.
2. Presence of common sense in every job.
3. The possibility of obtaining qualified advice, competent advice. AT
every organization needs to create a rationalization department that would
divisions.
4. Strict discipline based on standard written instructions,
full and accurate accounting, use of the reward system.
5 . Fair treatment of staff (through "fair" wages). This
the principle implies staff development, improvement of working conditions
6. Availability of timely, complete, reliable, permanent, accurate accounting.
7. Regulation of production (scheduling) as an integral part of the activity
organizations.
8. Work planning.
9. Rationing of operations on the basis of rational methods of their implementation, which
allows you to set time limits and prices, taking into account the identification
unused reserves of labor productivity growth.
10. Normalization of working conditions as a prerequisite for growth
labor productivity.
11. Availability of developed instructions and standards in writing.
12. Existence of a rational wage system for improving its performance.
At the same time, Emerson noted that the growth of labor productivity of workers is largely determined by their "ideals". Therefore, you should not reduce remuneration only to an increase in wages.
Emerson believed that the purpose of the formulated performance principles is to eliminate waste. In what particular case to eliminate losses - this is of fundamental importance.
G. Ford continued Taylor's ideas in the field of production organization. He ensured the creation of mass assembly line production and the development of the automotive industry. In setting up the automobile industry, Ford wrote that the goal was "to produce with a minimum expenditure of material and manpower, and to sell at a minimum profit." However, he made huge profits by increasing sales.
The following principles were put in the basis of the production organized by him:
· one should not be afraid of possible failures, since “failures only give a reason to start again and smarter”;
You should not be afraid of competition, and at the same time you should not seek to harm the business and life of another person who is your competitor;
· Do not put profit above work for the benefit of consumers. “Basically, there is nothing wrong with profit. A well-established enterprise, bringing great benefits, should bring a lot of income”;
“Producing does not mean buying cheap and selling expensive.” Raw materials and materials should be purchased “at fair prices”, adding insignificant additional costs in the production process, but at the same time achieving the production of high-quality products.
Ford took the Taylor system a step further by replacing manual labor with machines. He formulated the basic principles of the organization of production:
1) maximum division of labor, specialization;
2) wide application of high performance special
equipment, tools and fixtures;
3) placement of equipment along the technological process;
4) regulated rhythm of production;
5) mechanization of transport operations;
Based on these principles, it became possible to create a mass production that allows you to increase the productivity of workers, essentially without the intervention of a foreman who does not need to adjust the workers himself. On the production line, this is done automatically, the worker is forced to adapt himself to the speed of the conveyor and other mechanisms.
Henry Ford was a pioneer of modern mass production. The combination of continuity and speed provided the necessary production efficiency. The production methods developed by Ford were of great importance not only for the automotive industry, but also for many other industries.
2.2. The main provisions of the classical school in management.
The ancestor of the classical, or administrative, school A French mining engineer, an outstanding manager-practitioner, one of the founders of the theory of management A. Fayol is considered in management.
Unlike the school of scientific management, which dealt mainly with the rational organization of the work of an individual worker, representatives of the classical school developed approaches to improve the management of the organization as a whole. Fayol and other representatives belonged to the administration of organizations, which is why the classical school is often called administrative.
The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of management, following which will lead the organization to success.
Fayol's concept was based on the position that in any enterprise there are two organisms: material and social. The first includes labor itself, means of labor and objects of labor in their totality; by the second, he meant the relationship of people in the labor process. These relationships became the subject of Fayol's research, i.e. he deliberately limited the scope of his research.
To manage, Fayol argued, means to lead an enterprise towards its goal, extracting opportunities from all available resources.
According to Fayol, administration is part of management, which includes six main groups of management operations:
1) technical and technological (production, manufacturing, processing);
2) commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);
3) financial (attraction of capitals and effective management of them);
4) security (protection of property of individuals);
5) accounting (inventory, balance sheets, production costs, statistics);
6) administrative (foresight, organization, command, coordination and control).
Fayol called the management of these operations general management. He paid the main attention to administrative operations, the content of which lies in the ability to manage personnel.
Fayol's merit lies in the fact that he divided all management functions into general, related to any field of activity, and specific, related directly to the management of an industrial enterprise. He believed that management activity itself should become a special object of study. Fayol defined that management activity includes five mandatory general functions: foresight (planning), organization, command, coordination and control. He formulated the rules and techniques for their implementation.
Foresight (planning). It is expressed in the development of an enterprise action program for technical, financial, commercial and other operations for the future and for the current period.
Fayol paid special attention to foresight. In his opinion, foresight is the most essential part of management.
The main place in foresight is given to the development of a program of action, by which he understood "the ultimate goal, the guiding line of conduct, the stages of the upcoming path and the means that will be put into action." The picture of the future cannot always be clearly presented, but the upcoming events can be worked out in sufficient detail.
Organization. Under the organization of the work of the enterprise, Fayol understood the provision of everything necessary for its work. Fayol distinguished between material and social organization. Material organization includes providing the enterprise with the necessary materials, capital, equipment, social organization - providing the enterprise with people. The social organism must be able to carry out all the operations necessary to carry out the production process.
Disposition. The purpose of management is to extract the greatest benefit from employees subordinate to the head in the interests of the enterprise as a whole. The head, who performs the function of the manager, must adhere to the following rules:
know perfectly subordinate employees;
Dismiss incapable workers;
know well the conditions connecting the enterprise and employees;
Set a positive example
to carry out periodic inspections of the social organism
enterprises;
· hold meetings with key employees in order to coordinate
unity of directions and efforts;
strive to ensure that among the personnel of the enterprise dominated
activity and devotion;
Do not pay much attention to trifles to the detriment of solving the most important issues.
Coordination. Its main goal is to achieve compliance and consistency between the various parts of the enterprise by establishing rational ties in production; these ties are of the most diverse nature: in content, they can be technical, economic, organizational; on a hierarchical basis - links between different levels of the managed object. In addition, this includes links between production proper, on the one hand, and distribution, exchange, and consumers, on the other.
Enterprise management through the function of coordination is designed to rationally organize all these connections on the basis of their study and improvement.
Control. The task of control is to check the execution in accordance with the adopted program. Control should be carried out on time and have specific consequences.
Fayol considered the enterprise as a closed control system. He paid the main attention to the internal opportunities to improve the efficiency of the enterprise by improving the management process. Fayol formulated principles (rules) that, in his opinion, are applicable to any administrative activity. However, he noted that these principles are flexible and mobile and their application depends on changing circumstances.
Fayol formulated 14 principles of management:
1. Division of labor. Fayol believed in the efficiency of the division of labor, but only
within certain limits, beyond which, in his opinion, it can
lead to a decrease in production efficiency.
2. Authority. Official power must be backed up
H. Discipline. Mainly related to compliance
agreements and rules.
4. Unity of command. The employee must receive orders and instructions from
your immediate supervisor.
5. Unity of direction. Each group operating under the same goal must
have a plan and one leader. Fayol emphasized: "One leader and
a single plan for a set of operations that have a common goal.
6. Subordination of personal interests to the general. The interests of workers must
be aimed at fulfilling the interests of the entire enterprise and should not
prevail over them.
7. Reward i.e., the price of the services provided. The reward must be
fair and sufficient for motivation to work. It is equally
applies to both employees and managers.
8. Centralization. The enterprise must achieve a certain
correspondence between centralization and decentralization, which depends on its
sizes and specific conditions of activity. Fayol believed that for each
type of solutions, there must be an appropriate level.
9. Scalar chain (hierarchy). All personnel must be distributed in strict
according to the hierarchical structure. Scalar chain defines subordination
workers.
10. Order. Fayol divided order into "material" and "social".
Each employee must have his own workplace, provided with everything
necessary. Briefly, this principle can be formulated as follows: "Place - for
Everything and everything is in its place.”
11. Impartiality. Managers at all levels of management must fairly
treat your staff. An employee who feels fair to himself
attitude, feels loyalty to the firm and tries to work with full
12. Staff stability. Meaning the high cost of training
those who know the organization and its managers. Fayol believes that
organization is better to have a mediocre, but willing to stay in it
an executive than an outstanding but about to leave her manager.
13. Initiative. The emancipation of the initiative is seen as a means
staff motivation; the manager should encourage this process, even if he
will hurt his self-esteem.
14. Corporate spirit. The strength of the enterprise is in the "unity" of all employees
enterprises. Fayol pointed out the inadmissibility of using in management
principle of "divide and rule". He believed that leaders should encourage
collectivism in all its forms and manifestations.
The classification of management principles proposed by Fayol contributed to the streamlining of the management process. Fayol believed that the system of principles he proposed could not be definitively formulated. It should remain open to additions and changes based on new experience, its analysis and generalizations.
It should be noted that the views of Fayol and Taylor have a fundamental difference. For Taylor, the worker is one of the elements of production along with the objects of labor and the instruments of production. Fayol, on the other hand, considers the worker as a “socio-psychological individual.” Fayol made an attempt to explore the “social organism” of the enterprise from a theoretical position, while Taylor directed almost all his efforts to the rationalization of the “material organism”.
The followers of Fayol, who developed the main provisions of his doctrine, are L. Urwick, M. Weber, D. Mooney, G. Church and others.
Based on the developments of Fayol and his followers, a classical model of organization was formed, based on four main principles:
1) a clear functional division of labor;
2) transmission of commands and orders along the "scalar chain" from top to bottom;
3) unity of management;
4) observance of the "range of control".
All of the above principles of building an organization are valid for the present.
2.3. The main provisions of the school of psychology and human relations.
The transfer of the center of gravity in management from tasks to people is the main distinguishing characteristic of the school of human relations that originated in modern management in the 20-30s. The creator of this school is Elton Mayo (1880-1949). He made the main developments regarding this concept while being a professor at the School of Business at Harvard University. A fundamental step in the development of this concept was Mayo's participation in the so-called Hawthorne experiment.
This study was carried out over several years in the 20-30s. at Western Electric Company. It is generally accepted that this was the largest empirical study ever conducted in the field of management.
At the beginning of the experiment, a group of research engineers set the task of determining the impact on labor productivity of workers of illumination, the duration of breaks, and a number of other factors that shape working conditions. A group of six workers was selected, who were placed for observation in a special room and on which various experiments were carried out. The results of the experiments turned out to be amazing and inexplicable from the point of view of scientific management. . It turned out that labor productivity remained above average and almost did not depend on changes in illumination and other studied factors.
The scientists who participated in the study, led by Mayo, came to the conclusion that high productivity was due to the special relationships between people, their joint work. This study also showed that a person's behavior at work and the results of his work fundamentally depend on the social conditions in which he is at work, what kind of relationship workers have with each other, and also what kind of relationship exists between workers and managers. These conclusions were fundamentally different from the provisions of scientific management. , because the focus of attention was transferred from the tasks, operations or functions performed by the worker, to the system of relationships, to the person, considered no longer as a machine, but as a social being. Unlike Taylor, Mayo did not believe that the worker was inherently lazy. On the contrary, he argued that if you create the right relationship, a person will work with interest and enthusiasm!
Mayo said that managers should trust the workers and focus on creating favorable relationships in the team.
The well-known management theorist Marie Parker Follet (1868-1933) believed that for successful management, a manager must abandon formal interactions with workers, be a leader recognized by workers, and not based on official authority. Her interpretation of management as “the art of achieving results through the actions of others” put flexibility and harmony in the relationship between managers and workers at the forefront. Follet believed that the manager should proceed from the situation and manage in accordance with what the situation dictates, and not with what is prescribed by the management function.
A huge contribution to the development of the behavioral direction in management was made by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), who developed the theory of needs, which later became widely used in management, known as the "pyramid of needs" (see Appendix No. 1). In accordance with the teachings of Maslow, a person has a complex structure
hierarchically located needs, and management in accordance with this should be carried out on the basis of identifying the needs of the worker and using appropriate methods of motivation.
A specific opposition of scientific management and behavioral concepts in the form of their theoretical generalization was reflected in the theory "X" and the theory "Y", developed by Douglas MacGregor (1906-1964). According to this theory, there are two types of management, reflecting two types of views on workers.
Type X organizations are characterized by the following prerequisites:
The average person has an inherited dislike for work and tries to avoid work.
due to the unwillingness to work most people only through coercion, with the help of orders, controls and threats of punishment can be induced to carry out the necessary actions and expend due efforts necessary for the organization to achieve its goals;
· The average person prefers to be controlled, tries not to take responsibility, has relatively low ambitions and desires to be in a safe situation.
Theory Y has the following premises:
The expression of physical and emotional effort at work is as natural for a person as it is during a game or on vacation. The unwillingness to work is not a hereditary inherent trait of a person. A person may perceive work as a source of satisfaction or as a punishment, depending on the working conditions;
External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of inducing a person to act in order to achieve the organization's goals. People can exercise self-control and self-motivation to activities for the interests of the organization, if they have a sense of responsibility, obligations towards the organization;
Responsibility and obligations in relation to the goals of the organization depend on the remuneration received for the results of work. The most important reward is that which is associated with the satisfaction of needs for self-expression and self-actualization;
· An ordinary person, brought up in a certain way, is not only ready to take responsibility, but even strives for it.
At the same time, in relation to the theory "U", McGregor emphasized that many people are willing to use their experience, knowledge and imagination in solving organizational problems. However, modern industrial society makes little use of the intellectual potential of an ordinary person.
McGregor concluded that the management of the type "U" much more effectively, and made a recommendation to managers that their task is to create conditions under which the worker, expending effort to achieve the goals of the organization, simultaneously achieves his personal goals in the best possible way.
If Taylor focused on how best to perform tasks, operations and functions, then Mayo and the behaviorists were looking for answers to questions related to the nature of relationships in a team, to the motives of human activity, and Fayol tried to find answers to questions related to the effective management of an organization in in general, studied the content of the organization's management activities.
One of the main differences between the school of psychology and human relations is the introduction of behaviorism into it, i.e. theories of human behavior. Behaviorism is based on the need to study human behavior, which directly depends on the stimuli that affect it and, in turn, has the opposite effect on them. The behavioral approach was aimed at overcoming the shortcomings of the concept of "human relations". Representatives of this trend are C. Barnard, A. Maslow, R. Lzykert, D. Macgregor, F. Herzberg and others.
Representatives of this school came to the understanding that people are not only a "factor of production", but much more. They are members of the "social system of any enterprise", as well as members of organizations such as family, school, etc. They are interacting members of a wider social system. The normal existence of each person requires the satisfaction of his needs. And if the physiological needs (for food, clothing, etc.) are relatively easy to satisfy, then the satisfaction of social needs (communication, recognition, self-expression, etc.) is much more difficult.
According to the supporters of "human relations", production will not be able to achieve significant efficiency if it does not improve the social organization of the enterprise. The engineering approach has long exhausted itself. The problems of human behavior and the psychology of workers come to the fore. The subject of the study are ethical norms and rules, beliefs, motives of behavior. The concept of "economic man" is being replaced by the concept of "social man".
In general, the school of psychology and human relations considered the enterprise as a closed social system and ignored production and technological factors. Therefore, its main provisions were criticized by contemporaries, who noted a weak relationship between "caring management" and the quality of work of workers.
The lack of a systematic approach to management problems, in particular, the inability to build a scientific theory about the place of a person in an organization, was also attributed to the shortcomings of the school of psychology and human relations.
However, despite the criticism, the main provisions of this school were subsequently reflected in new, more complex and modern concepts of management.
2.4. Fundamentals of the School of Management Science
(quantitative school.)
The formation of the school of management science associated with the development of mathematics, statistics, engineering and related fields of knowledge. The School of Management Science was formed in the early 1950s and is now successfully functioning.
The school of management science distinguishes between two main areas:
1) consideration of production as a "social system" using systemic, process and situational approaches;
2) study of management problems based on system analysis and use of cybernetic approach, including the use of mathematical methods and computers.
The school of management science in its research relies on three methodological approaches - systemic, process and situational, which were formed on the basis of an empirical approach.
Systems approach allows you to consider the organization as a system consisting of a certain number of interconnected elements.
Initially, systems theory was applied in the exact sciences and technology. In management, it began to be used in the late 50s, which was a significant success of the school of management science. The systems approach is based on the general theory of systems, the founder of which is L. von Bertalanffy.
The starting point of the systematic approach is the concept of purpose. The presence of a specific goal is the first and most important sign of the organization, in which this system differs from others - the task of management is a complex process to achieve the goals of the system.
The school of management science explores issues that were not considered by the former schools. It studies the most important subsystems, the nature of their relationships, the structure and goals of the system, and the coordination of all elements of the system.
System- this is some integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. Failure of any part of the system leads to disruption of the entire system. In management, all organizations are treated as systems.
Systems are divided into two types: closed systems, relatively independent of the environment, and open systems, which are influenced by environmental factors. The theory of social systems considers the organization as an open system, as a multifactorial and multipurpose formation.
The main elements of the system are goals, objectives, structure, equipment and technology, people. Between all elements of the system there are multilateral relationships that cause a change in the behavior of people in the organization. All this together is defined as an organizational system aimed at achieving the goals.
The concept of subsystem.we. The organization consists of several interdependent subsystems. Thus, a production organization has social and technical subsystems. Subsystems, in turn, can be composed of smaller subsystems. Since they are all interconnected, the malfunctioning of even the smallest subsystem can affect the system as a whole.
Process approach as the concept of managerial thought was first proposed by the classical (administrative) school of management, which formulated and described the content of management functions as independent of each other. The process approach from the standpoint of the school of management science considers management functions as interconnected, dependent on each other.
situational approach is directly related to the system and process approaches and expands their application in practice. It is often referred to as situational thinking about organizational problems and their solutions.
The essence of the situational approach is to define the concept of a situation, which means a specific set of circumstances,
affecting the organization at a particular time. Consideration of a specific situation allows the manager to choose the best ways and methods to achieve the goals of the organization that are appropriate for this situation.
The merit of the management science school lies in the fact that it was able to identify the internal and external variables (factors) that affect the organization.
To the main internal variables organizations include situational factors operating within the organization. These are goals, tasks, structure, equipment and technology, people. Internal variables are the result of managerial decisions made by the people who created the organization.
Situational Approach Defined External Variables : factors
outside the organization that have a major impact on its success. Subsequently, all environmental factors were divided into two groups: direct impact variables - suppliers, customers, competitors, laws and government agencies; indirect impact variables - the state of the economy, scientific and technological progress, socio-cultural factors (life attitudes, traditions, customs, etc.); political factors, international events.
The school of management science has established that all variables (factors) of both the internal and external environment are interconnected and interdependent. A change in one of them causes a change in all the others.
The second direction of the school of science is connected with the development of the exact sciences, primarily mathematics. It is due to the widespread introduction into the field of management of quantitative methods, collectively known as operations research.
The subject of operations research in managerial decision theory is the decision-making process itself. Mathematical modeling is widely used for decision making, including game theory models, queuing theory models, inventory management, linear and simulation programming, etc.
The theory of managerial decisions is independent complex discipline. The leading role in the theory of managerial decisions belongs to the systems approach, which requires that each manager approaches problem solving from the point of view of system analysis.
Systems analysis is a study whose purpose is to assist the decision maker in choosing a course of action by systematically examining his actual goals, quantitatively comparing (where possible) the costs of effectiveness and risk that are associated with each of the policy alternatives or strategies for achieving goals, and also by formulating additional alternatives if those considered are insufficient.
Management thought has developed very inconsistently. There were several approaches, which sometimes coincided, and sometimes differed significantly from each other. The objects of management are people and technology, so success in management largely depended on success in other areas. As society evolved, management professionals learned more and more about the factors influencing the success of an organization.
In addition, the world was becoming the scene of rapid change driven by scientific and technological progress, and governments in many countries were becoming more determined in their attitude to business. These factors have caused management researchers to become aware of the existence of external forces influencing organizational performance. As a result, new approaches have been developed. There are four main approaches that have made a significant contribution to the development of management science.
First of all, an approach from the standpoint of identifying different schools in management. It includes, in turn, five different schools in which management is considered from different points of view: scientific management, administrative management, human relations, behavioral science, and management science, or the quantitative method.
School of Scientific Management. The formation and development of this school, which became widely known throughout the world under the name "scientific organization of labor", coincided with the beginning of the 20th century. F. Taylor (1856-1915), an American practical engineer and manager, was at the origins of this school. In his daily work, he solved the problems of rationalizing production and labor in order to increase productivity and efficiency. His teaching has become the main theoretical source of modern management concepts.
F. Taylor wrote books that glorified his name throughout the world: "Deal System" (1895), "Shop Management" (1903) and "Principles of Scientific Management" (1911). In his writings, he tried to combine the interests of capital and labor, to implement the "philosophy of cooperation" in capitalist enterprises. The method he developed, which ensures the intensification of labor, aroused great interest among managers from different countries.
F. Taylor sought to prove that the methods of scientific organization of labor developed by him and the principles of "scientific management" formulated on their basis could replace outdated authoritarian methods of management.
F. Taylor advocated the transformation of scientific management into a branch of industrial labor similar to engineering. His system consisted in the consistent implementation of the principle of division of labor into performing labor and managerial labor, in the specialization of work. In a production system that works as a well-coordinated mechanism, each employee must be responsible for his functions. At the same time, one should strive to achieve a correspondence between the types of workers and the types of work. In addition, strict regulation of activities is required. This orients each employee towards the performance of a partial function, but does not require him to understand the overall design.
F. Taylor pointed out the tasks that the administration must perform and due to which the subjectivism and arbitrariness of the old methods of management are replaced by the "scientific logic" of rules, laws and formulas.
F. Taylor considered scientific management as an effective means of bringing together the interests of all employees due to the growth of their well-being and the establishment of close cooperation with the owners and administration to achieve the production and economic goals of the organization. He believed that if the scientific management system is fully accepted, this will resolve all disputes and disagreements between the parties.
Some Russian scientists, first of all, A. A. Bogdanov and A. K. Gastev, should also be attributed to the representatives of the school of scientific management.
This school also has the following features:
using scientific analysis to determine the best way to solve business problems;
purposeful selection of workers best suited to perform tasks, their training;
uniform and fair distribution of duties (responsibility) between workers and managers;
providing employees with resources;
the use of financial incentives;
cooperation between the administration and the workers in the practical implementation of the NOT.
The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management began to be recognized as an independent field of scientific research. A new science was born, identifying methods and approaches that could be effectively used by practitioners to achieve the goals of the organization.
Classical, or administrative, school of government. The greatest contribution to its development was made by the French scientist A. Fayol. Representatives of this school tried to determine the general characteristics and patterns of organizations, approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole.
The purpose of administrative management was to create universal principles of management. This can be recognized as the first independent result of the science of administration. These principles covered two main aspects:
determining the best way to divide the organization into divisions (they considered finance, production, marketing to be such divisions) in order to identify the main management functions;
proposal of principles for building the structure of the organization and managing employees (these are, first of all, the principles of unity of command, authority and responsibility, stability of the workplace, etc.). Many of them are still useful and used in practice.
It should be noted that the representatives of the administrative school did not care about the social aspects of management. They viewed the organization from a broader perspective. The main contribution of A. Fayol to the theory of management was that he considered management to be a universal process, consisting of interrelated functions of planning and organization.
School of human relations in management. Its greatest authorities are M. Follett (England), E. Mayo (USA). Representatives of this school believed that if management increases concern for its employees, then the level of employee satisfaction should increase, which will inevitably lead to an increase in productivity. They recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective action by immediate supervisors, consultation with workers, and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work.
According to the modern management doctrine, 3 significant factors matter in the management system: people, finances and technology, and the first place is occupied by the "people" factor. Among the dominant goals of management (relationships between people and the fulfillment of tasks), the human factor prevails. It is this management system, where the focus is on the human factor, that is the most optimal in the market.
Management is a psychologically rich management system, the main functions of which are directly related to psychology. Therefore, for the effective implementation of these functions, a manager needs to master the psychological components of managerial skills: to be able to interact with people, speak to an audience, convince, etc.
In the harsh conditions of market competition, only the ability to communicate with people ensures success in business. Well-known Japanese, European and American managers achieve enviable success in the production of goods precisely because of the careful attitude to the staff.
The school of behavioral sciences has departed significantly from the school of human relations. According to this approach, the worker should be assisted to a greater extent in understanding his own capabilities through the application of the concepts of the behavioral sciences to the management of organizations. The main goal of this school was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of the use of human resources, creating all the necessary conditions for the realization of the creative abilities of each employee, for realizing their own importance in managing the organization.
The main postulate of the school: the correct application of the science of behavior should always increase the efficiency of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole.
It is of great importance for managers to study the various behavioral approaches that general management recommends and to explore the possibility of their application in the process of analyzing the organization. It must be remembered that a person is the most important element in the management system. A well-chosen team of like-minded people and partners who are able to understand and implement the ideas of their leader is the most important condition for economic success.
The school of management science, or the quantitative method, is based on the use of hard science data in management - mathematics, statistics, engineering sciences - and involves the widespread use of the results of operations research and situation models. In addition, the use of quantitative measurements in decision making. However, before the Second World War, quantitative methods were not used enough in management.
A very strong impetus to the application of these methods in management was the development of computer technology and management information systems. This allowed the construction of mathematical models of increasing complexity, which are closest to reality and, therefore, are more accurate.
situational approach. The development of this approach has made a great contribution to the theory of management, since it became possible to directly apply science to specific situations and conditions. The main point of the situational approach is the situation, i.e. specific circumstances that have a significant impact on the organization at this particular time. Since there are many such factors, both within the organization itself and in the environment, there is no single “best” way to manage an organization's performance. The most effective method of management is the one that best suits the current situation.
M. Follett back in the 20s. spoke of the "law of the situation." However, this approach was developed properly only in the late 1960s.
The situational approach is not a simple set of prescribed recommendations, but rather a way of thinking about organizational problems and their solutions. Using it, managers can better understand which techniques are most conducive to achieving the goals of the organization in a particular situation.
The situational approach retains the concept of the management process applicable to all organizations. However, according to this approach, the specific techniques that managers must use to effectively achieve the goals of the organization can vary significantly. Therefore, it is necessary to link specific techniques and concepts to specific situations in order to most effectively achieve the goals of the organization.
The situational approach focuses on situational differences between and within organizations. In this regard, it is necessary to determine the significant variables of the situation and their impact on the performance of the organization.
Systems approach. Application of systems theory in management in the late 50s. was the most important contribution to the management of the school of management science and, in particular, the American scientist J. Paul Getty. A system is a kind of integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. Because this approach is relatively recent, it is currently impossible to fully appreciate the true impact of this school on management theory and practice. Nevertheless, its influence is already great and will continue to grow in the future. On a systematic basis, it will probably be possible to synthesize new knowledge and theories that will be developed in the future.
The definition of variables and their impact on the effectiveness of the organization is the main contribution to the management of the systems approach, which is a logical continuation of systems theory.
The system approach allows a comprehensive assessment of the activities of any management system at the level of specific characteristics. This helps to analyze any situation within a single system, to identify the nature of input, process and output problems. The application of a systematic approach allows the best way to organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system.
Managers need to know organization variables as systems in order to apply systems theory to the management process. They must view the organization as a set of interdependent elements such as people, structure, tasks and technology that are oriented towards achieving different goals in a changing environment.
Process approach. This approach is widely used today. It was first proposed by representatives of the school of administrative management, who tried to describe the functions of a manager. The initial development of this concept is attributed to A. Fayol.
The process approach to management reflects the desire of management theorists and practitioners to integrate all types of activities to solve management problems into a single chain, broken as a result of "excessive enthusiasm" for the functional approach, in which each of the functions is considered out of touch with others.
According to this approach, management is considered as a process of continuous interrelated actions (functions), each of which, in turn, also consists of several interrelated actions. They are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision making. At the same time, management (leadership) is considered as an independent activity. It involves the possibility of influencing employees in such a way that they work towards achieving goals.
From a brief overview of the approaches, it can be seen that management thought has been constantly evolving, which contributed to the emergence of new ideas about the effective management of the organization.
Representatives of each approach or school believed that they managed to find the key to the most effective achievement of the goals of the organization. However, later studies and management practice have shown that these studies concerned only certain aspects of the management process, and the results obtained were true only for certain situations. In addition, the practice of management has always turned out to be more complex, deeper and more diverse than the corresponding theoretical thought. From time to time, researchers discovered new, previously unknown aspects of the management process and overthrew the truths that seemed unshakable from the pedestal. Despite this, it should be recognized that representatives of each approach or school have made their own, invaluable contribution to the development of management science.
It should also be noted that the presence of a significant number of scientific schools and approaches, each of which offers its own principles and models, is an important feature of management, its difference from other sciences.
The School of Scientific Management (1885-1920) laid the foundation for the emergence of management science and the emergence of management in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The emergence of the school is associated with the works of Frederick Taylor, Lily Gilbreth and Henry Gantt. In 1911, F. Taylor, generalizing the practice of managing industrial enterprises, published the book "Principles of Scientific Management". Since that time, the theory and practice of management has developed under the influence of ongoing changes in the world economic system, the constant improvement of the rationality of production and the need to take into account changing socio-economic factors.
The School of Scientific Management was a major turning point, thanks to which management began to be recognized as an independent field of activity and scientific research. For the first time, it has been proven that management can significantly improve the efficiency of an organization.
Representatives of this school:
research was carried out on the content of the work and its main elements;
measurements of the time spent on the implementation of labor methods (timekeeping) were carried out;
labor movements were studied, unproductive ones were identified;
rational methods of labor were developed; proposals for improving the organization of production;
a system of labor incentives was proposed in order to interest workers in increasing labor productivity and production volume;
the need to provide workers with rest and inevitable breaks in work was substantiated;
production standards were set, for the excess of which additional payment was offered;
recognized the importance of selecting people to do the job and the need for training;
managerial functions were allocated to a separate area of professional activity.
To disadvantages This school should be attributed to the underestimation of the human factor. In addition, this school did not explore the social aspects of human behavior. Motivation and stimulation of labor, although they were considered as a factor in the effectiveness of management, however, the idea of them was primitive and was reduced only to satisfying the utilitarian needs of workers (i.e., physiological)
The School of Scientific Management advocated separating the managerial functions of thinking and planning from actually doing the work.
8. Administrative school in management.
French manager Henri Fayol is considered the founder of this school.
Fayol considered management (in his terminology - administration) as a set of principles, rules, techniques aimed at carrying out entrepreneurial activities most efficiently, using the resources and capabilities of the company optimally.
The goal of the school was to create universal principles of management which will undoubtedly lead the organization to success. These principles were related to two aspects. One of them was the development of a rational organization management system. By defining the core functions of a business as finance, manufacturing, and marketing, the Classics were confident that they could determine the best way to divide an organization into divisions or groups.
Fayol reduced the functioning of any organization to the following main activities:
Technical, i.e., the implementation of the production process;
Commercial (purchase of everything necessary for the creation of goods and services and marketing of finished products);
Financial (attraction, preservation and effective use of funds);
Accounting (statistical observations, inventory, balance sheets);
Administrative (influencing employees);
Functions to protect the life, person and property of people.
A. Fayol formulated 14 principles of management :
division of labor. The purpose of division is to produce work that is larger in volume and better in quality for the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and efforts must be directed;
powers and responsibilities. Authority gives the right to give an order, responsibility is its opposite;
discipline. Assumes obedience and respect for the agreements reached between the organization and its employees. Discipline provides for the fair application of sanctions;
unity of command. An employee should receive orders from only one immediate superior;
unity of direction. Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader;
subordination of personal interests to common ones. The interests of one employee should not prevail over the interests of the company;
staff remuneration. In order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must receive a fair salary;
centralization. It is necessary to ensure the most correct balance between centralization and decentralization, depending on specific conditions;
a scalar chain, that is, a series of people in leadership positions, starting from the person occupying the highest position, down to the bottom manager. One should not abandon the hierarchical system unnecessarily, but maintaining a hierarchy is harmful when it is detrimental to business;
order. A place for everything, and everything in its place;
justice - a combination of kindness and justice;
job stability for staff. High staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization;
initiative. Means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation;
corporate spirit. Union is strength, and it is the result of staff harmony.
