About the bacchanalia of idle talk. Problems of objectivity in the coverage of Russian history in the second half of the 15th-17th centuries Borisov Alexander Yurievich

Relevance of the research topic. Questions of scientific coverage of the most important pages of the past of our country have always been and are at the forefront of the struggle for the minds and souls of people. Speaking about the huge role of historical consciousness in the modern development of the Russian state and society, the President of the Russian Federation D.A. Medvedev noted: “Society is only able to set and solve large-scale national tasks when it has a common system of moral guidelines. When the country keeps respect for the native language, for original cultural values, for the memory of their ancestors, for every page of our national history.

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V.I. Zhukov quite rightly asserts: "Human existence, enclosed" in the narrow framework of today, is meaningless if it takes place in isolation from the historical past and is not directed to the future "2. As you know, the scientific understanding of the past, its truthful coverage allows us to perceive and use the best at the present stage, to become more aware of mistakes and avoid them in the future.

The criterion for a positive or negative assessment, according to our contemporary, the famous Russian scientist and thinker O.A. Platonov, - there can be only national interests of Russia. The first question that historical science must honestly answer is to what extent this or that event or private act meets the interests of the country and people. Weighing on the Scales of Russia's National Interests Creates an Absolute Standard of Truth and Authenticity

2 Zhukov V.I. Social Philosophy of K. Jaspers and Modern Perception of Globalization // Philosophy and Psychopathology: Scientific Heritage of K. Jaspers. - M., 2006 - S. 10. historical work "3.

The task of national history at the present stage is the search and evaluation of historical sources, the study and analysis of the entire set of facts and phenomena of social and everyday life4, with the aim of recreating an objective and complete history of the Fatherland.

One of the most significant historical layers5 "allowing a deeper understanding of all the diversity and inconsistency of the historical path traversed by our country are the testimonies of foreigners who have ever visited Russia. The notes and treatises compiled by them are of interest not only as a rich source study material, but, above all, as a historical cultural phenomena that have great social and social significance.

In view of the foregoing and on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of the process of describing Russian reality by foreigners who visited Russia, from the standpoint of modern domestic historical science, the dissertation believes that the relevance of the study lies in the fact that:

Firstly, it is caused by the need for new approaches to the study of the historical past of our country using an expanded information base. It is the combination of domestic research and published documentary evidence of eyewitnesses from among foreigners who came to Russia that helps to eliminate one-sidedness in assessing the most important events and phenomena of Russian history, to form a "panoramic view" of Russian history, to enrich its study with new factual material.

3 Platonov O.A. History of the Russian people in the XX century. - M.: Algorithm, 2009. - S. 11.

4 See: Passport of scientific specialty 07.00.02.

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Secondly, rethinking the history of Russia is an urgent task of modern domestic historical science. Today, in the context of growing mutual knowledge of Russia and the West, there is a growing need to master and rethink the widest range of foreigners' ideas about the customs and traditions of the Russian people. In the historiography of recent decades, many of them are recognized as important, often unique sources on the history of Russia.

Thirdly, the judgments of Europeans about the Russian mentality, their sociocultural issues still remain a little studied and little known area of ​​Russian historical science. At the same time, it was precisely these views of Western European civilization that were the first experience of a concrete historical analysis of Russia, which qualitatively influenced not only the development of social thought in Russia6, but also became the basis for the formation of a distorted picture of Russian life in the eyes of Europe. As a result, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “until the 18th century, a strange alienation existed between Europe and Russia, caused by a negative idea of ​​the country in general and its people in particular.”7. In this regard, the study of the memories of foreigners about our country will help to better understand the reasons for the ideas formed in Western countries about modern Russia. Without this, myths about the centuries-old pathological propensity of Russian people for drunkenness, theft, lies, about their almost genetic habit of laziness, natural cruelty, will roam from work to work, and the Russian history of the period under consideration, in many respects complex and critical, will be presented as continuous a bloody nightmare of terror, lawlessness, savagery and ignorance of the lower classes.

Fourth, the study of the specific features of perception

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7 Klyuchevsky V. O. Legends of foreigners about the Moscow state. - M., 1916. - S. 5.

The Russian state in the West during the 11th-19th centuries is especially necessary today. As you know, it is not enough to study and fully understand the sustainable conception of peoples in relation to each other in its modern interpretation. It is important to identify the factors that influenced the understanding of the peoples of foreign countries of Russian history and the Russian people during the period under review. After all, the totality of the prevailing stereotypes affects the peculiarities of interethnic perception and often harms international relations.

Fifth, bias in the statements of foreigners about Russia is one of the main reasons why the descriptions they have compiled have not yet been appreciated by Russian historical science9. At the same time, the use of the entire set of surviving sources with the maximum completeness and their new reading will undoubtedly provide an increase in historical knowledge in the area under consideration.

Sixthly, this study is within the framework of one of the new and actively developing areas in modern historical science - imageology. Its tasks are to identify the mechanisms of formation, functioning and dynamics of foreign policy ideas and stereotypes. The new direction is closely connected with the desire of Western ideologists to determine the place of each nation and nationality on the civilizational scale and, accordingly, indicate its role on a global scale. Therefore, in the era of globalization, it becomes important for every nation to present its contribution to world culture as especially significant and its participation in world history as the most significant.

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Thus, the disclosure of this topic on the basis of a wide source base, as well as the theoretical generalization of the results of the study, their use in the educational process can provide a solution to a scientific problem that is of great practical importance for domestic historical science and the formation of historical knowledge. All of the above, according to the author, testifies to the relevance and significance of the study.

The chronological framework of the study covers the period from the second half of the 15th century to the 17th century. It was during this period that regular diplomatic, trade, economic and military-political relations of Muscovy with European states were established, which were reflected in numerous notes of foreigners about medieval Russia. The unification of the Russian lands in a single centralized state led to the fact that the new power took an important place in the system of international relations in the central part of the Eurasian continent, and the political horizons of the Moscow ruling circles became different.

Consideration of the above period in historical sequence makes it possible on a scientific basis to analyze the process of forming ideas that interfere with the adequate perception of the Russian state by foreigners, allows us to draw the necessary historical lessons and draw scientific and practical conclusions aimed at approving new approaches to the study of the path traveled by the country.

The degree of scientific development of the problem. The analysis of historical materials carried out by the author showed that in published works devoted to the analysis of foreign sources about Russia10, only certain stages of the period under study are revealed.

10 Zamyslovsky EE Herberstein and his historical and geographical news about Russia. or part of the issues under consideration. There are no objective approaches to assessing the completeness and reliability of information, as well as a generalizing study devoted to the analysis of the perception by Western peoples of a holistic picture of Moscow reality in the 16th-17th centuries. Therefore, in order to fully cover the problem under consideration, a deeper and more comprehensive study of materials containing eyewitness accounts, and often participants in the events described, and their comparison with Russian documentary sources relating to specific events and facts within the period under review, was required. This study aims to show what influenced the formation of ideas and stereotyped perceptions of Russian reality by foreigners before their personal encounter with it; what imperatives determined the evolution of the perception of us by Europeans on the way to the formation of the cultural and historical field of Europe and Russia; what factors influenced the nature of foreigners' perception of Moscow society; to what extent the information of foreigners about the daily life of the Moscow state is reliable.

The relevance of the problem, its socio-political significance, public demand, the need for a new approach to rethinking the history of our Fatherland, scientific and historical

St. Petersburg, 1884, Messages from Western foreigners of the 16th-18th centuries. on the celebration of the sacraments in the Russian Church. - Kazan, 1900; Bochkarev VN The Moscow State of the 18th-17th centuries according to the legends of contemporaries-foreigners. - St. Petersburg, 1914, Second ed. - M., 2000; Morozov A.L. Brief news about Muscovy at the beginning of the 17th century. - M., 1937; Levipson N.R. Ayrman's Notes on the Baltic States and Muscovy // Historical Notes. 1945. No. 17; Skrzhiiskaya V.Ch. Barbaro and Contarini about Russia. - L., 1971; Sevastyanova A.A. Notes by Jerome Horsey on Russia // Questions of historiography and source studies: Proceedings of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. IN AND. Lenin. - M., 1974; Limonov Yu.A. Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. Notes of Captain Marzharet. - M., 1982; Rogoeyin N.M. Foreign diplomats about Russia in the 16th-17th centuries // Driving through Muscovy (Russia in the 16th-17th centuries through the eyes of diplomats). - M., 1991; Russia in the first half of the 16th century: a view from Europe. - M., 1997; Russia and the world through each other's eyes: from the history of mutual perception. Issue. 1-3. - M., 2000, 2002, 2006. interest in the testimonies and assessments of foreign authors became the motive for choosing her for scientific research.

The object of research is the history of the Russian state in the second half of the 15th - 17th centuries.

The subject of the study is the problem of objectivity in the coverage of Russian history by foreigners in the period under review.

The purpose of the study is to analyze the socio-cultural and socio-economic aspects of the perception of the Moscow state in the testimonies of foreigners. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the scientific problem, which consists in summarizing foreign materials concerning the most important aspects of Russian history in the second half of the 15th - 17th centuries and the argumentation of evidence for their objectivity.

To reveal the designated scientific problem, it seems necessary to solve the following research tasks:

Conduct a detailed analysis of the historiography of the problem, taking into account new scientific research and consider the sources of studying the topic, substantiate theoretical and methodological approaches; identify the characteristic features and characteristics of foreign publications on Russia and its history; to formulate the concept of the perception of the Muscovite state of the second half of the 15th - 17th centuries by foreigners from the standpoint of modern historical science;

To reveal the general and particular in the perception of the life and customs of Moscow society by foreign authors, the correlation of their personal assessments and expectations with Russian reality, the ways and reasons for the formation of the author's images of Russia and its people;

On the basis of a thorough study of numerous testimonies of foreigners, to reveal the mechanism for the formation of certain stereotypes in the perception of the Russian state by Europeans in the second half of the 15th - 17th centuries;

To analyze the main trends in the development of the process of describing important aspects of the life of Moscow society by immigrants from European countries, to determine the degree of social and political significance of the testimonies of foreigners;

Based on the results of the study, draw scientifically based conclusions, draw historical lessons arising from them, formulate conceptually formalized recommendations for using the accumulated experience in the area under consideration to formulate and solve some historical and cultural problems.

The methodological basis of the study was a comparative historical analysis11, which allowed the author to compare the same signs in comparison (increase or disappearance, narrowing), to identify and compare the levels in the development of the object under study, the main trends and features of the process of describing Russian reality by foreign authors, to trace the connection of history and modernity, the cyclical repetition of a number of characteristics of the perception of the Moscow state in the testimonies of foreigners.

The study of the problem was carried out with the help of general scientific principles. First of all, the author was guided by the principle of scientific character12 as the main principle of general scientific analysis and historical and theoretical research of the dissertation topic. The principle of science

11 Comparative historical analysis makes it possible, by means of comparison, to reveal the general and particular in historical phenomena, to achieve knowledge of the various historical stages in the development of one and the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena. Comparative historical analysis makes it possible to identify and compare the levels in the development of the object under study, the changes that have occurred, and to determine development trends.

12 Principle of scientific character - description, explanation and prediction of processes and phenomena of reality (historical events) on the basis of discovered scientific laws. -Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary: in 2 books. - M.: BRE, 2001 - S. 1027; Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. - 3rd ed., M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1984. - S. 863. The author's opinion is a description, explanation and prediction of historical events based on the identified scientific laws. The criteria for this principle were such components as objectivity, comprehensiveness, independence in assessment and criticism.

Of great importance is the implementation of the principle of historicism)3. The dissertation student, guided by the principle of historicism, understands it as an orientation towards studying the internal laws of the socio-historical problem under study, identifying the main stages and features at different stages of its development, considering a historical event in continuous unity with other events, each of which can be understood only in correlation not only with the past, but also with the future, taking into account the trends of their further change.

The principle of historicism is a guarantee of scientific objectivity14 of research, which implies a dialectical approach in historiography when analyzing the concepts of historians, identifying both positive and negative aspects of their historical constructions.

Undertaking a historiographical analysis, the author proceeded from the fact that the problems of reliability and objectivity in the coverage of Russian history in the second half of the 15th - 17th centuries were revealed by researchers at each historical stage in different ways, depending on the specific historical situation, the level of professional training of researchers, the source base and

13 The principle of historicism is an approach to reality (nature, society, culture, history) as becoming (changing) and developing in time. - Russian encyclopedic dictionary: in 2 books. - M.: BRE, 2001 - S. 599; Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. - 3rd ed., M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1984. - S. 510.

14 Objective - that which belongs to the object itself, objective, independent of subjective opinion and interests (from the subject, exists outside and independently of human consciousness). Impartiality, impartiality, conformity with objective reality. - Russian encyclopedic dictionary: in 2 books. - M.: BRE, 2001 -S. 1098; Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. - 3rd ed., M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1984.-S. 911. other objective and subjective factors influencing research practice.

Considering the methodology not only as a set of certain principles, but also as a system of appropriate methods and approaches in the study of the scientific problem posed, the author applied a number of them in this study.

Among them, first of all, such methods as logical15, synchronous, problematic, classification, historical-psychological, prosographies16, comparative-comparative, as well as the method of actualization, representativeness, problem-chronological and comparative approaches, set out and substantiated in the works of domestic scientists on theory and methodology of historical science17.

One of the important methods for analyzing historical sources on a problem is the classification (systematization) method.

15 Logical research method - a method of scientific reproduction of the development of a complex object (system) by means of theoretical analysis. Aimed at the analysis of a certain (as a rule, higher) historical state of an object, the logical method includes the reconstruction of the object under study precisely as a system (i.e., in all its complexity and in all the diversity of its structural-functional connections and dependencies) and as a system precisely historical (i.e., in all the complexity and diversity of its historical connections and dependencies). - New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. //Edited by B.C. Stepin. - M.: Thought, 2001.

16 The method of prosography is - a) a method of comprehensive study of sources; b) a method in source studies that allows you to study the phenomenon as a whole by studying the history of one surname; c) the method of understanding and interpreting acts.

See: Zhukov E.M. Essays on the methodology of history. - 2nd ed., corrected. // Answer. ed. Yu.V. Bromley. - M., 1987; Ivanov V.V. Methodological foundations of historical knowledge. -Kazan, 1991; Kovalchenko I.D. Methodology of historical research. - M., 2004; Santsevich A.B. Methods of historical research. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional // Answer. ed. F.P. Shevchenko. - Kyiv, 1990, etc.

8 Classification (from Latin classis - category, group and facere - to do) as a systematization -1) a system of subordinate concepts (classes, objects) of any field of knowledge or human activity, used as a means to establish links between these concepts or classes of objects ; 2) a general scientific and general methodological concept, meaning such a form of systematization of knowledge, when the entire area of ​​the studied objects is presented as a system of classes or groups, according to which these areas are distributed based on their similarity in certain properties. - Russian encyclopedic

Classification is used as a means for establishing links (systems) between subordinate concepts in the activity under study, as well as for precise orientation in the variety of concepts or relevant facts. The classification method fixes regular connections between identical events in order to determine the place of a certain event in the system, which indicates its properties.

The classification method allowed the author to classify historical sources according to their direction, to trace the degree of scientific development of the problem, to collect and systematize archival documents. Using the method of representativeness, the author determined the proportions in the selection of sources in accordance with the range of problems under study and made a selection of documents and materials.

The synchronous method19 made it possible to discover a close relationship between the appearance of works by foreigners and the events that took place in Europe and Russia. At the same time, it turned out that most of the notes were written by the authors, as a rule, by order of the ruling circles. The method of historical and psychological observations made it possible to understand why some foreigners had an extremely negative attitude towards the mores and traditions of Moscow society. With the help of the comparative method20, it was possible to find out a close dictionary: in 2 books. - M.: BRE, 2001 - S. 688; New Philosophical Encyclopedia. - M.: Thought, 2001. - T. 2. - S. 255.

19 The synchronous (that is, simultaneous) method aims to reveal the properties of historical reality that are unchanged in a certain chronological period.

20 The comparative method reveals the nature of heterogeneous objects. To compare or compare means to put objects side by side and see if they are equal (the same) according to some criteria or not. Many historical phenomena are identical or similar in their inner essence and differ only in the spatial or temporal variation of forms. On the other hand, the same or similar forms can express different content. Some historical phenomena can be fundamentally different from each other, both in form and in content. In the process, the relationship of a number of works by foreigners belonging to different periods, with each other. This gave grounds to assert that the Europeans were able to create not only unique historical monuments that give the most complete and comprehensive picture of the life of the Russian people, the appearance of Russian cities in the 11th-18th centuries, but also form distorted stereotypes that interfere with an adequate perception of the image of Muscovy in the second half of the 15th - XVII centuries. The method of actualization of the problem under study made it possible to more clearly determine the significance of the experience of analyzing the evidence of foreigners about the essence of Russian civilization for understanding the reasons for the formed modern image of Russia in the West. The comparative (comparative) approach made it possible to compare the objective knowledge accumulated on the research problem within the framework of various scientific areas and concepts of Russian historiography and to identify similarities and differences in the interpretations of processes, events, and phenomena21.

In the course of historical research, a problem-chronological approach was consistently applied. The problematic nature of the study, as a comparison, opens up the possibility for explaining the facts under consideration, revealing the essence of the phenomena being studied.

21 The task of historical comparative studies (from the English compare - comparison) is not only to draw parallels and identify similarities, but also to find contrasts and differences with no less accuracy. - See for more details: Barg M.A. Category "civilization" as a method of comparative historical research. (Human Dimension) // History of the USSR. 1991. No. 5. - S. 70-86; Gubman B.L. The Meaning of History (Essays on Modern Western Concepts). - M., 1991, etc.

Problem-chronological approach - involves the division of broad topics into a number of narrow problems, each of which is considered in chronological order. Problem (from the Greek. problema - task) - everything that needs to be studied and solved; problematic - containing a problem dedicated to the study, resolution of a problem, 2) an objectively emerging set of issues, the solution of which is of significant practical or theoretical interest; problematic approach - in scientific knowledge, methods of solving problems that coincide with the general methods and techniques of research. Chronology (from chrono. and.logy) - 1) the sequence of historical events in time, 2) an auxiliary historical discipline aimed at studying various systems of chronology in order to more accurately establish the dates of old events and time. This approach is used both in the study of maurial (at the first stage of analysis, together with the methods of systematization and the dissertation believes, it is a technique for studying historical events through the contradiction between the available knowledge about the results of their development and possible ways to implement the available facts of history. To display historical events in development it is necessary to use chronology, which, according to the author, is a procedure for considering historical events in time sequence, in motion and change.

The use of the problem-chronological approach in the course of the study made it possible to single out both the general and the distinctive, special in the historical events taking place simultaneously.

The dissertation is built mainly using a problem-chronological approach to the presentation of the material, which made it possible to trace the origin and development of the process of forming ideas about the image of Russia by foreign travelers, diplomats, merchants, missionaries, to analyze the content of memoirs, travel notes and studies written by them and devoted to history and culture of Russia.

All these principles, methods and approaches, of course, do not cover the entire methodology, but express in their essence only the research strategy that guided the author.

To identify objective patterns that determined the goals and content of the functioning of the system of perception of various aspects of Russian life by various representatives of European peoples;

To consider each historical fact in relation to others, to identify a causal relationship between historical classifications), and in its layout and presentation within the text of a work on history. - New Philosophical Encyclopedia. - M.: Thought, 2001. - T. 2. - S. 356; The latest encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: AST, 2004. - S. 1339. phenomena, analyzing their totality;

When conducting research, rely on specific facts and historical events in their true content and significance, without distorting the meaning of the events, without tearing them out of the context of historical documents, without adjusting them from opportunistic considerations to a previously developed concept;

To study all aspects of the problem, taking into account the specific historical situation and the socio-political situation in medieval Russia;

Explore the problem comprehensively.

Based on the analysis of the material on the research topic, the author formulates the concept of the dissertation problem, which consists in the fact that Europeans who came to Russia initially had some ideas about the country, life and customs of the Russian people, its culture, religiosity and, in general, about medieval Russian society, which were formed in advance before the collision with Russian reality. Due to the psychological characteristics of human perception, they sought and found confirmation of their ready-made ideas, as a result of which they focused their attention only on some “everyday phenomena”, passing by on the whole by the “everyday situation of life”2*. Their perception of Moscow life "overgrown" with new stereotypical personal impressions, under the influence of which they either revised their initial ideas or confirmed them. In turn, the treatises and writings written by them became for their followers a ready basis for the concept (from the Latin sopserio - understanding, system), a certain way of understanding, interpreting an object, phenomenon, process, the main point of view on the subject, the guiding idea for their systematic coverage. The term "concept" is also used to denote the leading idea, a constructive principle in scientific and other activities. - Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary. - 3rd ed., M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1984. - S. 624.

24 Klyuchevsky V.O. Legends of foreigners about the Muscovite state. - M., 1916. - S. 8. Formation of their ideas about Russia. Thus, over the course of several centuries, foreigners formed the image of our country, which largely became the basis for negative assessments.

Russia abroad.

The scientific novelty of the study is as follows.

Firstly, for the first time in Russian historical science, a comprehensive, systematic study was carried out and a holistic idea was formed about the perception and assessment of the general picture of the everyday life of Moscow society by Europeans who visited our country in the second half of the 15th-17th centuries;

Secondly, on the basis of a specific historical approach, the positive and negative experience of analyzing the testimonies of foreigners telling about the Russian people is considered, the main trends, characteristic features and lessons of experience are identified;

Thirdly, the mechanisms of formation of stereotypes in the perception of the Russian state by Europeans in the second half of the 15th - 17th centuries are investigated and described;

Fourthly, criteria have been developed for assessing the degree of socio-political significance of the testimonies of foreigners;

Fifth, in the light of modern requirements for historical science, a definition of the level of scientific development of the research topic is given, a scientifically based periodization of the historiography of the problem is presented, taking into account the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the published literature;

Sixth, based on the results of the study, the author developed scientific and practical recommendations that allow a fresh look at the prospects for interstate interactions to attract "foreign" materials on scientific research practice.

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Russia, which will significantly enrich its study. four

Thus, the author has developed a scientific problem and conducted a historical study of foreign materials containing eyewitness accounts of specific events and facts of Russian history within the period under review. This allows us to formulate, on the basis of the results obtained, answers to a set of theoretical questions and determine ways to solve practical problems that are of current importance in the field under study today.

The following are submitted for defense:

The results of a comprehensive analysis of foreign materials containing foreigners' value judgments about the medieval Russian state in the second half of the 15th - 17th centuries;

Assessments of the general state of Russian historiography and the source base of the problem, final judgments about their characteristic features, features and development trends;

Problem concept; as well as the reconstruction of the biographies of foreign authors, data on the circumstances of their visits to our country, the purpose of writing their essays; consideration of testimonies of foreigners as a cultural and historical phenomenon;

The main trends in the development of the process of describing important spheres of life in the Moscow state by immigrants from European countries;

The theoretical and practical significance of the study lies in the fact that the diverse analytical material presented in it, scientific conclusions and generalizations can, to a certain extent, have a positive impact both on highlighting the problems of developing the source base of historical research, and on the further development of national history as a whole.

The conducted research, significantly supplementing the existing works on this issue, expands the scope of scientific understanding of memories, travel notes and studies written by foreign authors and dedicated to Russia. The dissertation proposals can be taken into account in the process of developing interstate cultural ties aimed at expanding traditional approaches to the study of the history of Russia.

The structure of the dissertation is determined by the purpose and main objectives of the study and shows which main problems the author has focused on. It includes: an introduction, five sections and a conclusion. There is also a list of sources and literature, applications.

Approbation of the dissertation. The main ideas of the dissertation were tested, received a positive assessment from the teaching staff of the Department of the History of the Fatherland of the Russian State Social University. The conclusions and provisions of the study were repeatedly stated by the author in scientific reports and reports at scientific and practical conferences, round tables on the problems of combating falsifications of national history, in speeches at meetings of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.

The main provisions of the dissertation research, generalizations and conclusions were published in monographs:

1. Medinsky V.R. The problem of objectivity in European coverage of Russian history in the second half of the 15th - 17th centuries. Monograph. - M.: RGSU, 2010. - 380 p.

2. Medinsky V.R. Scoundrels and geniuses P11 from Rurik to Ivan III the Terrible. Monograph. - St. Petersburg - Moscow - Nizhny Novgorod - Voronezh: Peter, 2009. - 316 p. (1000 years of the Russian RY).

3. Medinsky V.R. Myths about Russia: In 3 volumes. Monograph - V.1. About Russian drunkenness, laziness and cruelty. - M., 2010. - 576 e.; T.2. About Russian democracy, dirt and the “prison of peoples”. - M., 2010. - 624 e.; T.Z. About Russian theft, soul and patience. - M., 2010. - 522 p.

They are also reflected in periodicals, including journals approved by the VAK list:

1. Medinsky V.R. "Notes on Muscovy" by Sigismund Herberstein as a historical source // Social policy and sociology. 2011. No. 2. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 73-82.

2. Medinsky V.R. "Notes on Muscovy" by Sigismund Herberstein as a source on the political history of the first half of the 16th century // Uchenye zapiski RGSU. 2011. No. 2. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 57-61.

3. Medinsky V.R. On the origins of the myth of the age-old Russian drunkenness // Uchenye zapiski RGSU. 2011. No. 1. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 56-59.

4. Medinsky V.R. The Russian State of the 16th Century in the Writings of the British // Uchenye zapiski RGSU. 2010. No. 11. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 56-65.

5. Medinsky V.R. Two images of Basil 111 in the writings of Paul Jovius // Uchenye zapiski RGSU. 2011. No. 3. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 65-71.

6. Medinsky V.R. Why Was Matvey Mekhovsky's "Treatise on Two Sarmatians" Created // Social Policy and Sociology. 2011. No. 1. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 74-83.

7. Medinsky V.R. View of Europeans on the events of the Time of Troubles in Russia // Social Policy and Sociology. 2010. No. 10. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 80-84.

8. Medinsky V.R. Foreigners about the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible // Social policy and sociology. 2010. No. 11. (The publication is included in

List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 76-84.

9. Medinsky V.R. The writings of Margeret, Paerle and the Polish version of the events of the Time of Troubles // Social Policy and Sociology. 2011. No. 3. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 72-80.

10. Medinsky V.R. The writings of Barbaro and Contarini on the Russian state in the second half of the 15th century // Social policy and sociology. 2011. No. 4. (The publication is included in the List of leading peer-reviewed scientific journals and publications of the Higher Attestation Commission). - S. 80-83.

11. Medinsky V.R. Did God offend or are they to blame? // Strategy of Russia. 2006. No. 3. - S. 34-36.

12. Medinsky V.R. Spiritual component // Strategy of Russia. 2006. No. 5. - S. 18-19.

13. Medinsky V.R. What mythology do we need // Science and religion. 2008. No. 2. - S. 2-7.

14. Medinsky V.R. The disease is severe, but curable // Science and religion. 2008. No. 4. - S. 8-11.

15. Medinsky V.R. Far from Moscow, or Russia without myths // Science and Religion. 2009. No. 4. - S. 11-12.

The total volume of publications on the topic is more than 140 pp.

The results of the study - factual material, conclusions and recommendations of the author can be used in the preparation of dissertations, as well as new publications - monographs, magazine and newspaper articles, textbooks devoted to the problems of objective coverage of Russian history.

The conducted research, significantly supplementing the existing works on this issue, expands the scope of scientific understanding of memories, travel notes and studies written by foreigners and dedicated to Russia.

At the same time, taking into account the negative aspects of the practice of the past will help to avoid repeating many mistakes in this area.

Thus, the study of the chosen problem, as well as the conclusions, lessons and practical recommendations presented based on its results, testify both to the significant positive experience accumulated by historical science in objective coverage of the most important events and phenomena of Russian history, and to serious shortcomings in this area. And most importantly - they talk about the need for further improvement of interstate historical and cultural interactions in the conduct of scientific research. This will ensure the creation of appropriate conditions for the further development of Russia and an adequate perception of its history in the West.

CONCLUSION

The study made it possible to reconsider several opinions that have been established in historical science about the significance of the legends of foreigners in the study of the history of the Russian state, the 16th-17th centuries.

1. As the study shows, the writings of foreigners are not objective evidence of eyewitnesses and contemporaries of what is being described. In the course of a comparative analysis of the contents of these monuments among themselves and with sources of documentary origin, it was possible to prove that a number of factors influenced the authors' perception of Russian reality, including the individual features of the author himself, the general level of his culture, worldview, etc. This was clearly manifested in the study of the works of I. Barbaro and A. Contarini.

2. Works by foreigners are not individual monuments, but represent a single, interconnected complex. Therefore, the study of each work in isolation from others is a methodological error and leads to incorrect conclusions regarding the reliability of the information reported in it and their value as historical sources.

3. When clarifying the circumstances of the creation of a particular work by a foreigner, it was possible to prove that almost all authors who wrote about Russia carried out the order of certain political circles. Their writings were not the objective impressions of individuals visiting a new country. Their purpose was to give readers only that information that was beneficial to the customers, and accordingly set the European public in relation to the Russian state in the direction necessary for the customers. This can be seen especially clearly in the works commissioned by the Polish kings in the 16th century: M. Mechovsky's Treatise on the Two Sarmatians, the notes of Schlichting, Taube and Kruse and others.

4. A comparative analysis showed that diplomats, merchants and travelers who visited Russia, when writing notes about a new country, actively used the works of their predecessors and wrote out from them the information that interested them and which they themselves, obviously, could not obtain or learn. At the same time, they did not at all doubt the reliability of the facts set forth in earlier works about Muscovy. As a result, in many works of foreigners written at different times, there were repeatedly repeated and in many respects similar data about Russia and Russian people.

5. It turned out that most actively foreign authors borrowed from each other negative information about Russian people. As a result, it became a source for the stereotyped negative opinions of Europeans about the Russian state and its people not only in the 16th century, but also in the 17th century, when Europeanization began to cover many aspects of life in the country.

The most characteristic example is the story of the "black myth" about drunkenness. Its creator was the Venetian diplomat A. Contarini, who happened to be in Moscow on his way from Persia to Venice at the end of the 15th century. Being an arrogant, touchy and swaggering person, in all new countries he noted only negative phenomena. In addition, he did not like alcoholic beverages, so he condemned any feasts with their use. As a result, he regarded the traditional Russian hospitality and the desire to adequately treat the overseas guest as the tendency of Russian people to drunkenness. On this occasion, he wrote the following in his essay on Muscovy: “Muscovites, both men and women, are generally beautiful in appearance, but very rude and ignorant. Their main drawback is drunkenness, which, however, they boast of and despise those who do not follows their lead."

This characteristic, given by Contarini to the Russian people back in the 15th century, became a textbook for many foreigners and began to be repeated with new details and. details in their own writings during not only the entire 16th century, but also the 17th century.

I Even such foreigners as A. Kampensky, P. Joviy, A. Gvagnini, who did not visit the Russian state at all, wrote about the propensity of Russian people to abuse alcohol.

The topic of drunkenness was also touched upon by S. Herberstein, who presented even Ivan III, whom he had never met, and his courtiers as an incredible drunkard. Herberstein's general conclusion about the Russian people is this: "As far as they are abstemious in food, they indulge in drunkenness just as immoderately 1303 wherever there is a chance"

As a result, the English diplomat J. Fletcher painted an even larger picture of drunkenness in the Russian state. He said that in every Russian city there were taverns in which many people drank away all their possessions, including clothes. Such unrestrained drunkenness, according to Fletcher, leads to the fact that “the people (capable of enduring all kinds of labor) indulge in laziness and drunkenness. Getting drunk every day of the week is quite common among them.

The authors of the 17th century also wrote about Russian drunkenness, who reported that “everyone, both men and women, girls and children, immeasurably indulge in this vicious drunkenness; clergy just as much or even more so than others”1305. “The vice of drunkenness is so widespread among this people in all classes, both among clergy and secular persons, among high and low, men and women, young and old, that if on

1303 Herberstein Sigismund. Notes on Muscovy. - M., 1988. - S. 68,103,121.

1304 Ibid. - S. 64,68,146.

1305 Russia began the 11th century. Notes of Captain Marzharet. - M., 1982. - S. 147. In the streets you see drunk people lying there and wallowing in the mud, you do not pay attention; before that, all this is ordinary.

Thus, A. Contarini's opinion, expressed back in the 15th century, about the tendency of Russian people to drunkenness began to be repeated in the writings of foreigners both in the 16th and 17th centuries. At the same time, each author exaggerated more and more, contributing to the formation, among Europeans, of a stable opinion about the Russian people as inveterate and unrestrained drunkards. But in fact the Russian people, in comparison with the foreigners, were real teetotalers. After all, they were allowed to drink alcohol only a few days a year, on four major church holidays. Foreigners also drank soundly and daily.

6. In the course of the study, it was possible to prove that most of the legends of foreigners about the Russian state were closely connected with international politics. While Rus' was under the rule of the Golden Horde, the rulers of European states were not interested in this country and did not send embassies to it. But at the end of the 15th century, Ivan III threw off the Horde yoke and boldly entered the international arena. His son Vasily III entered the struggle for the "Kiev heritage" with the Polish-Lithuanian state and Livonia. His victorious campaigns led to the fact that a flood of negative information about Russia, spread by the Polish kings and rulers of Livonia, literally fell upon Europe.

In the "Treatise on the Two Sarmatians" by M. Mekhovsky, it was proved that the inhabitants of Muscovy were not actually Russian people, but were Muscovites, a people related to the Tatars and Turks. Therefore, their rulers had no rights to the former territory

1306 Olearius Adam. Description of travel to Muscovy. - Smolensk. 2003. - S. 137, 177178. I

Old Russian state, which was part of Lithuania and Poland. The author of this work tried to convince the Europeans that Ivan III and Vasily III were aggressive invaders who illegally seized four huge regions from the Polish king: Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk and Mozhaisk1307.

In Europe, this unreliable information* was perceived as the truth in the latest information and then repeated in many writings about Russia, not only in the 16th, but also in the 17th centuries. It became the basis for the stereotypical idea of ​​Russian sovereigns as cruel warriors, seizing the territories of neighboring countries and robbing and oppressing their population. In the eyes of Europeans, they looked like Turkish sultans, who posed a great threat to European states in the 15th-17th centuries.

The influence of Mechowski's work on other authors is clearly evidenced by Albert Kampensky's letter to the pope. He completely repeated the Pole's information about the geographical position of the Russian state and its composition, about the inclination of the Muscovites to slavery and their complete subordination to the sovereign.

In the Notes of the diplomat S. Herberstein, who in the 1620s sought to persuade Russia to peace with Poland in the interests of the Polish crown, the myth of the despotism of Russian sovereigns and the slavish obedience of their subjects was further developed and supplemented with new examples. According to the author, Grand Duke Ivan III “was so formidable towards women that if any of them accidentally caught his eye, then at the sight of him she just did not lose her life. For the poor, oppressed by the more powerful and offended by them, access to it was barred”1308. The Austrian wrote about the Russian people:

1307 Olearius Adam. Decree. op. - S. 47, 97.

1308 Herberstein Sigismuyd Notes on Muscovy. - M., 1988. - S. 68.

They all call themselves serfs, i.e. the sovereign's slaves. This people finds more pleasure in slavery than in freedom.

Herberstein also developed the theme raised by Mekhovsky about the special aggressiveness of Russian sovereigns in relation to neighboring countries, and supplemented the statement of the Italian Pavel Jovius about the lack of education of Russian people, the rudeness of their domestic life and the slavish position of women even in rich and noble families. Characteristically, neither Jovius nor Herberstein were able to prove the veracity of this information with concrete examples, except for the absurd assertion that Russian women love beatings.

Thus, the study proved that even S. Herberstein, who is most often quoted in historical works, was by no means striving for a truthful description of the Russian state. In the interests of the Polish king, who became a relative of the Austrian emperors, he tried to give a negative characterization to both the Russian sovereigns and the Russian people.

In the course of the study, it was possible to find out that Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible, who made a number of successful campaigns in Livonia and Lithuania at the beginning of the Livonian War of 1558-1583, was subjected to the greatest attacks by foreigners. After the capture of Polotsk by the king in 1563, the Polish king Sigismund II organized the persecution of the Russian monarch, using several fakes written by bribed German mercenaries and traitor prince A.M. Kurbsky.

As a result, the work concluded that the revision of the traditional idea of ​​the significance of Schlichting's works,

1309 Herberstein Sigismund Decree. op. - S. 112.

Taube, Kruse and Staden as sources on the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible makes it possible to take a different look at this phenomenon and at the personality of the tsar himself.

The study also showed that the English diplomat J. Fletcher, who wrote his essay at the end of the 16th century after an unsuccessful diplomatic mission to Russia, completely repeated all the negative information about the country found in the writings of his predecessors. At the same time, he added new details and details to it. So, he directly concluded that the form of government of the Russian sovereigns was similar to the Turkish one: “Their form of government is very similar to the Turkish one, which they apparently try to imitate, as far as possible, according to the position of their country and according to their abilities in political affairs. Their government is purely tyrannical: all its actions tend to benefit and benefit one king and, moreover, in the most obvious and barbaric way.

After the fakes of the German mercenaries, even such obviously fictitious information seemed to the Europeans true. As a result, the stereotypical idea of ​​Ivan IV Vasilievich as a bloodthirsty villain was entrenched in European countries. This is clearly seen in the "Description of a Journey to Muscovy" by A. Olearius, who wrote his work in the first half of the 17th century. About Tsar Ivan, he reported the following: “Tyrant Ivan Vasilyevich,. both against Christians, even against his own subjects, and against Turks, Tatars, pagans, he raged and tyrannized terribly, inhumanly, not to say - not in a Christian way.

Fletcher did not find a single positive trait in the properties of the Russian people: “They are lethargic and inactive. The image of their upbringing

1310 Russia of the 16th century. Memories of foreigners. - Smolensk. 2003. - S. 35.

1311 Olearius Adam. Decree. op. - S. 209. alien to any solid education and citizenship) is recognized by their authorities as the best for their state. Seeing the rude and cruel actions of all the main officials and other bosses with them, they also act inhumanly with each other, especially with “their subordinates?

In the essay of the English diplomat "On the Russian State" all the negative characteristics relating to the Russian people were repeated once again. This was done not because such were the real impressions of Fletcher himself, but because he needed to justify the abuses in Russia of his compatriots, a member of the Moscow Trading Company. This conclusion was reached during the study.

Thus, the study of the writings of foreigners about the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century showed that they were greatly influenced by the version of events in the Russian state created by the Polish king Sigismund III. Having organized an open intervention against the Russian state, the king sought to justify his actions. Therefore, he denigrated many Russian sovereigns and only called himself the only legitimate heir to the Moscow throne. In addition, he declared the Russian people schismatics and enemies of the Christian faith, against whom supposedly a crusade should be launched.

This version of events, inspired by the king of the European public, had a great influence on the writings not only of the authors of the 16th century, but of the 17th century: J. Margeret, K. Bussov, P. Petreus, A. Olearius, G. Korba. In their works, many negative, stereotypical, characteristics of Russian people were repeated. This is clearly seen from the statement of the imperial diplomat G. Korba, who visited Moscow at the very end of the 17th century: “Not one nation in the world is not famous for external signs of piety and a plausible guise of honesty, like this nation. Meanwhile, with their pretense, deceit, deceit and the most brutal audacity for all sorts of crimes, they easily surpass all nations. A people deprived of education has no desire to comprehend virtues. This is a people - born for slavery and fiercely related to any manifestation of freedom. Vice itself has with them the glory of virtue. Due to ignorance and pride, they are uneducated and have a dull and dull mind.

It is characteristic that both Olearius and Korb unwittingly noticed and recorded in their writings many new moments in the life of Russian people. This is education, piety and versatility of interests of Russian tsars and representatives of the nobility, and comfort in their life, and completely European entertainment (music, dance, theater, fireworks, recreation in country estates), and religious tolerance, and a benevolent attitude towards foreigners and their customs , and much more. However, this did not affect their stereotypical negative ideas about the Russian state and Russian people.

As a result, over time, all the incredibly tenacious negative characteristics of the Russian people, created in the writings of foreigners in the 11th-17th centuries, turned into "black myths" about the whole people. This is, first of all, the myth of Russian drunkenness, laziness and cruelty, the myth of Russian slavish obedience, dirt and Russia - the "prison of peoples", the myth of Russian theft, deceit, deceit and long-suffering. All of them still exist both in the public consciousness of the Russian people themselves and in the works of Western political scientists.

The conclusions drawn above allow us to present the following historical lessons:

13.2 Korb KG. Diary of a trip to Muscovy. - St. Petersburg. 1906. - S. 231,237-238.

The first lesson is that the use of the works of foreigners by the classics of Russian historical science was mainly of a purely utilitarian nature: extracting facts and confirmations of their hypotheses and filling in “blank spots” where there were no domestic sources or they were fragmentary1313.

The second lesson is that the image of Russia in the West was formed largely thanks to the works written by foreign contemporaries. It was they who described the everyday life of Russian people at a time when official domestic sources often did not record many interesting events that seemed insignificant for a Russian person, and therefore did not leave any data about them. At the same time, a subjective approach prevailed among foreigners in assessing Russian people. As a result, with a few exceptions, they wrote at random, according to rumors, drawing general conclusions from random phenomena.

Lesson three - historical sources show that the image of a foreigner in Russian perception is ambiguous and has many historical shades. The reason for this was the isolation of Russia from Western Europe until the era of Peter I, who "cut a window to Europe" and thereby enabled the Russian people to join the single family of European peoples. Prior to this, there was a pronounced alienation of Europeans in relation to the inhabitants of the Russian state. The Russian people became an alien people for Europeans after the negative influence of the 300-year-old Golden Horde yoke on them. The differences between the Christian and Catholic churches gave rise to a certain misunderstanding and distrust of each other. Catholics considered Orthodoxy to be heresy and delusion. Differences in national characters and customs often took the form of rejection

13.3 See electronic resource: nauka-shop.com > toc1/ $bop/pros1us1:Sh/54541/ each other, which, sometimes, could develop into open hostility

Lesson four - the transition to a new level of using foreign sources about our country, as a means for studying the interaction between the peoples of Russia and European countries, was largely carried out by Western science, which, before domestic, realized the need for different approaches "in the use of these valuable sources1315.

Lesson five - historical experience teaches that the accumulation of factual material in itself does not add anything to understanding the past without explaining it. According to P.Ya. Chaadaev, no matter how many facts accumulate, they “will never lead to complete certainty, which can only be given to us by a method of grouping, understanding and distribution”1316.

The main scientific and practical recommendations proposed in the thesis are as follows:

First, noting the interest that the study of the complex of legends of foreigners about the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries is of interest to domestic science, it should be emphasized that, on the one hand, they were rarely used by Soviet researchers as sources when studying various aspects of the history of the Russian state in question. period, due to the bias, or rather, the criticality of the judgments of foreigners about Russia1317.

On the other hand, it is typical for modern historiography to use the notes of foreigners without any scientific criticism. Many scholars are sure that the writings of foreigners are a completely reliable source, since they came out from the pen

1314 Kartashev V. Essays on the history of the Russian Church. - Paris, 1959. T. I. - S. 263-266.

1315 See electronic resource: nauka-shop.com > mod/shop/productID/54541/

1316 Chaadaev LA. Articles and letters. - M., 1989. - S. 104.

1317 See electronic resource: nauka-shop.com > mod/shop/productID/54541/ contemporaries-witnesses. At the same time, they do not think about the fact that real facts could be deliberately distorted in these writings, since the authors created them with a specific goal: to justify the failure of a diplomatic mission or their own impartial behavior in a foreign country. The writers could also carry out a specific political order of the opponents of Russia.

In this regard, the author considers it expedient, from the standpoint of modern historical science, to summarize the array of documentary evidence of eyewitnesses from among foreigners who came to Russia, accumulated to date, and to create on this basis, using modern achievements of historical thought, a number of fundamental scientific works devoted to the study of various aspects formation of stereotypes of foreigners' perception of Russian history. It is also necessary to expand the scope and improve the scientific basis of publications on this topic. Among the most pressing problems for development at the dissertation level, could be:

Analysis of the works of foreigners of the 18th century from the standpoint of comparing the cultural and informational space of the West and Russia;

The influence of the ideas of foreigners on the development of Russian social and political thought in the 19th century;

A study of the testimonies of foreigners about the essence of Russia and its historical path in key socio-cultural aspects.

All this, according to the author of the dissertation, will make it possible to develop new approaches to the problem, to make certain adjustments to the prevailing ideas in the West about Russia.

Secondly, the author of the dissertation research believes that since the reports of foreigners telling about Russian history are characterized by a variety of content and ambiguous interpretations, various aspects of Russian life and many local features are considered by different eyewitnesses who visited Russia, subjectively, depending on their personal worldview , there is a need to develop, based on the latest achievements of domestic and foreign historical thought, common approaches and criteria for determining the degree and reliability of the information contained in them.

In this regard, the development of a new scientifically based concept of the search for objectivity in the coverage of Russian history is an urgent task for Russian science.

Such a concept will make it possible to create a science-based state policy that meets the requirements of our days for the formation of the historical consciousness of Russian citizens in the period of building a state of law and creating a civil society in the Russian Federation.

In this regard, it seems appropriate to support the practice of holding the annual All-Russian scientific and practical conference of historians and teachers on the basis of the Russian State Social University "Historical education in modern Russia: development prospects" with the invitation of representatives of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Communications and mass communications of the Russian Federation, as well as with the invitation of representatives of the State Duma Committee on Education and Science.

It also seems relevant to create a professional organization (society) of historians, which at the civil level would represent the interests of both historical science and the country as a whole. Defending the prestige of the profession of a historian and the value of historical knowledge for society, this organization must demonstrate a responsible approach, characteristic of the best representatives of the national historical science. According to the author of the dissertation research, this organization should enjoy the support of state bodies and work in close cooperation with them, in< частности, с Министерством образования РФ, Комитетами по образованию и культуре Государственной ДумььРФ и др.

Thirdly. The mass media should purposefully cover little-known and little-studied pages of Russian history, using the method of “humanizing” the events of the past, that is, showing them through the actions of specific individuals; to promote the process of a new understanding of the entire Russian historical path. To accomplish this task, it is necessary to scientifically search for the most modern information and communication technologies that would provide wide access to the funds of state archives, make information about specific events and the life of Russian society more transparent and accessible.

Fourth. The author of the dissertation believes that, despite the preparation and publication of a fairly large number of versions of history textbooks, their authors are very far from using the modern methodology of historical knowledge.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that while academic science was scrupulously looking for “new approaches” to the study of history, political journalism succeeded in all kinds of reassessments of historical phenomena, events and facts, historical figures, discrediting some events and personalities, undeservedly raising others, struggling with some myths. by creating others. All these "rewriting" and re-evaluation of history had not harmless consequences. As sociological studies have shown, the publication in the media of many similar materials on historical topics has reduced the number of students who are proud of the historical past of their Fatherland.

To solve this problem, according to the dissertation student, it is necessary to create such an information base that would be capable of "serving not only to improve the methodological culture of history teachers, but also to significantly improve the quality of teaching students and graduate students, the formation of a correct historical consciousness in them, and hence education conscious patriots of Russia.

To this end, in 2011 the dissertator will publish a mass edition of a popular series of essays by foreigners about Russia, provided with a commentary based on this dissertation research.

Fifth. An important direction of the modern state policy of the Russian Federation is the formation of high civic qualities among young people and the population as a whole. A major event in such a case could be, in the opinion of the author of the study, the widespread promotion in our country of the high cultural heritage of the multinational Russian society.

To solve this problem, as well as to resist attempts to falsify history, it is necessary, according to the author, firstly, to preserve the volume of historical disciplines in the curricula of universities, and for the humanities - to expand it. Secondly, we need a separate state historical and propaganda organization. It should deal with the study and preservation of historical heritage, issues of historical memory and historical propaganda. The dissertator believes that this organization should solve counter-propaganda tasks.

The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that the diverse analytical material presented in it, scientific conclusions and generalizations can, to a certain extent, have a positive impact both on highlighting the problems of developing the source base of historical research, and on the further development of national history as a whole.

The conclusions, lessons and practical recommendations contained in the dissertation can be used in the development of evidence-based forms and methods of combating prejudice and bias in the coverage of Russian history, in overcoming one-sidedness in assessing many important aspects of the life of the Russian state, striving for objectivity and balance in the coverage of materials containing testimonies of foreigners, in the process of implementing various educational programs and projects, in the course of scientific and methodological research on the problems of national history, in the implementation of training and professional retraining of specialists in the field of teaching history.

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