General characteristics of ancient Russian literature. Lecture material specifics of Old Russian literature

1. Ancient literature is filled with deep patriotic content, heroic pathos of service to the Russian land, state, and homeland.
2. The main theme of ancient Russian literature is world history and the meaning of human life.
3. Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian man, who is capable of sacrificing the most precious thing for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep belief in strength, the ultimate triumph of good, and the ability of man to elevate his spirit and conquer evil.
4. A characteristic feature of ancient Russian literature is historicism. The heroes are mostly historical figures. The literature strictly follows the fact.
5. A feature of the artistic creativity of the ancient Russian writer is the so-called "literary etiquette". This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what should be depicted and how.
6. Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state, writing, and is based on Christian book culture and developed forms of oral poetry. At this time, literature and folklore were closely connected. Literature often perceived plots, artistic images, visual means of folk art.
7. The originality of ancient Russian literature in the image of the hero depends on the style and genre of the work. In relation to styles and genres, the hero is reproduced in the monuments of ancient literature, ideals are formed and created.
8. In ancient Russian literature, a system of genres was defined, within which the development of original Russian literature began. The main thing in their definition was the "use" of the genre, the "practical purpose" for which this or that work was intended.
9. The traditions of ancient Russian literature are found in the work of Russian writers of the 18th-20th centuries.

CONTROL QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. As academician D.S. Likhachev ancient Russian literature? Why does he call it “one grandiose whole, one colossal work”?
2. To what does Likhachev compare ancient literature, and why?
3. What are the main virtues of ancient literature?
4. Why would the artistic discoveries of the literature of subsequent centuries be impossible without the works of ancient literature? (Think about what qualities of ancient literature were assimilated by Russian literature of modern times. Give examples from the works of Russian classics known to you.)
5. What did Russian poets and prose writers appreciate and what did they perceive from ancient literature? What did A.S. write about her? Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, A.I. Herzen, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.N. Mom-Siberian?
6. What does ancient literature say about the benefits of books? Give examples of "praise to books" known in ancient Russian literature.
7. Why were there high ideas about the power of the word in ancient literature? What were they connected with, what did they rely on?
8. What is said about the word in the Gospel?
9. What do writers compare books to and why? Why are books rivers, sources of wisdom, and what do the words mean: “If you diligently seek wisdom in books, you will find great benefit for your soul”?
10. Name the monuments of ancient Russian literature known to you and the names of their scribes.
11. Tell us about the way of writing and the nature of ancient manuscripts.
12. What are the historical prerequisites for the emergence of ancient Russian literature and its specific features, in contrast to the literature of modern times.
13. What is the role of folklore in the formation of ancient literature?
14. Using vocabulary and reference material, briefly retell the history of the study of ancient monuments, write down the names of scientists involved in their study, and the stages of study.
15. What is the image of the world and man in the view of Russian scribes?
16. Tell us about the image of a person in ancient Russian literature.
17. Name the topics of ancient literature, using vocabulary and reference material, describe its genres.
18. List the main stages in the development of ancient literature.

Read also the articles in the section "National originality of ancient literature, its emergence and development."

Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. At the same time, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, writers of books, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author's texts have not come down to us, but their later lists have been preserved. Often scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the rewritten work, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of Old Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing different editions, variants of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Such sciences as textology and paleography can come to the rescue (studies the external signs of handwritten monuments - handwriting, lettering, the nature of the writing material).

In the 11th - the first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, words in a line were not separated, and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with a red capital letter. Often used well-known words were written in abbreviated form, under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. The handwriting with the correct almost square lettering was called the charter.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

In the 14th century, parchment was replaced by paper. The statutory letter is replaced by a more rounded one.

The issue of periodization of Old Russian literature has not yet been finally resolved. Undoubtedly, the stages of development of Old Russian literature are closely connected with the stages of development of the Old Russian nationality and state. Taking into account the originality of ideas, original and translated works, main genres and styles, four periods can be distinguished in the history of the development of ancient Russian literature (in addition to the initial one):

- Literature of Kievan Rus (11th - first third of the 12th century). Associated with the intensive development of ancient Russian writing. Ancient Rus' gets acquainted with a large number of monuments of translated literature, both canonical, ecclesiastical, and apocryphal, didactic, historical and narrative. During this period, the original Old Russian literature was born and developed. The most important genres are being formed - life, didactic and solemn sermon, teaching, description of travels, chronicle, historical and military story, legend. The literature of this period is imbued with patriotic, civil pathos of love for the great Russian land.

- Literature of the period of feudal fragmentation (the second third of the 12th - the middle of the 13th century). Russia breaks up into a number of independent feudal semi-states, the development of literature takes on a regional character. Literary schools were created: Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Kiev-Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk-Smolensk, Turovo-Pinskaya. In these regional centers, local chronicles, hagiography, genres of travel, historical stories, solemn oratorical eloquence are developing (“words” by Kirill of Turovsky, Kliment Smolyatich; “Kiev-Pechersk Paterik”, “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, “Daniil Zatochnik's Prayer”).

- Literature of the period of struggle against foreign invaders and the unification of northeastern Rus' (mid-13th - early 14th century). The heroic struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders is vividly reflected. "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", "The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Land". In the literature of this time, the main topics are the fight against foreign enslavers - the Mongol-Tatars - and the strengthening of the Russian state, the glorification of the military and moral feats of the Russian people.

During this period, Epiphanius the Wise was revived and raised to a new stage of artistic perfection in an emotionally expressive style. The style of historical narrative is further developed, the political theory “Moscow is the third Rome” (“The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople”) is being strengthened.

In the 15th century, Novgorod literature, as well as the literature of Tver, reached its peak. Afanasy Nikitin's "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" is connected with democratic urban culture.

The literature of this period reflected the main character traits of the emerging Great Russian people: steadfastness, heroism, the ability to endure hardships and difficulties, the will to fight and win. There is a growing interest in the psychological states of the human soul.

- Literature of the period of strengthening the Russian centralized state (16th - 17th centuries). In the 16th century, the process of merging regional literatures into one common one took place. Two tendencies are strictly traced: one is the observance of strict rules and canons of writing, church ritual, everyday life, the other is the violation of these rules. The latter begins to appear not only in journalism, but also in hagiography and historical narrative. Literature, in connection with historical changes (Bolotnikov's peasant war, the struggle against intervention) expands the scope of reality, changes the genre system, begins to free itself from faith in divine predestination. The principles of the artistic method of medieval literature are destroyed - symbolism, etiquette. Life turns into an everyday biography. Vivid evidence of this is "The Life of Yuliana Lazarevskaya" and "The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks in 1641". In the second half of the 17th century, the process of secularization of literature, its release from the tutelage of the church, the process of its democratization, accelerated. The traditional genres of ecclesiastical and business writing become objects of literary parody (Kazanskaya Petition and The Tale of Yersh Yershovich). Folklore rushes into literature in a broad wave. The genres of folk satirical tales, epic, song lyrics are organically included in literary works.

The process of self-awareness of the individual is reflected in a new genre - everyday story, in which a new hero appears - a merchant's son or a rootless nobleman. Together, syllabic poetry, court and school theater appear, which testifies to the triumph of new beginnings, which prepared the appearance of classicism in Russian literature.

The historical significance of the Battle of Kulikovo and its reflection in the literature of the late 14th - 15th centuries. the chronicle story "Zadonshchina", "The Tale of the Life and Repose of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich", "The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev"

The meaning of the victory is comprehended in the cycle of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo that was taking shape at the end of the 14th - the middle of the 15th century. This cycle includes the chronicle story "The Massacre of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich on the Don with Mamai", the lyric-epic story "Zadonshchina" and "The Legend of the Battle of Mamai". All these works are clear evidence of the growth of national self-consciousness. They are imbued with patriotic pathos of glorifying the great victory over foreign enslavers, glorifying the feat of the Russian people and the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich and his cousin Vladimir Andreevich, Prince Serpukhov and Borovsky. The stories about the Battle of Kulikovo emphasize that the victory was won at the cost of huge sacrifices of the Russian people and that it was the result of the unity and rallying of the main forces of Rus' under the banner of Moscow. The events of 1380 are given in a broad historical perspective: the Battle of Kulikovo is compared with the Battle of Kalka, Mamai is compared with Batu, and the fight against the Golden Horde is seen as a continuation of the centuries-old struggle of Rus' with the sedate nomads - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians.

ZADONSHINA. The poetic story about the Battle of Kulikovo - "Zadonshchina", which has come down to us in six lists and two editions, was written at the end of the 14th century. The author of this work was usually named Zephanius, the Bryansk boyar, who later became a priest. But according to Dmitrieva's observations, it turns out that Zephanius owned another work that has not come down to us, which was used by an unknown author when writing Zadonshchina. An unknown author set himself the goal of glorifying the victory won in 1380, taking as a model the "Lay of Igor's Campaign". He created a song of glory to the victors and with a sorrowful cry honored those who fell on the battlefield.

In Zadonshchina, the course of historical events is not described in detail. The main attention is paid to their meaning, evaluation. It is noteworthy that the author of Zadonshchina saw the inseparable connection of times and events and helped his contemporaries to understand this. According to the author's correct idea, the Battle of Kulikovo is a continuation of the centuries-old struggle that the "brave Russians" had to wage with the steppe nomads. If Igor's defeat on Kayala (in the WORD) is the result of feudal strife, the lack of unity of action, then the victory on Kulikovo Field is the result of overcoming strife, the result of the unity of Russian forces led by the great Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich. Under the banner of Moscow, all Russian wars go into battle "for the Russian land, for the Christian faith." This refrain runs through the whole ZADONSHCHINA,

Zadonshchina consists of two parts: "pity" and "praise". Zadonshchina begins with a short introduction. It not only sets the readers - listeners in a high, solemn mood, but also determines the main theme of the work - to glorify Dmitry Ivanovich, his brother Vladimir Andreevich and bring sadness to the eastern country. Thus, in the Zadonshchina, a genealogical connection of the first Kyiv princes is immediately established. And Moscow, the new political center of the Russian land, is declared the heir to Kyiv and its culture.

The military prowess and courage of the Moscow princes are characterized in ZADONSHCHINA with the help of the same artistic techniques as in the WORD. For example, characterizing Dmitry Ivanovich and his brother Vladimir Andreevich, the author uses several adverbial phrases in one sentence, which gives the narrative a special smoothness, unhurriedness.

The first part of ZADONSHINA - pity, opens with vivid pictures of the gathering of Russian troops, their marching, the beginning of the battle and their defeat. The military valor of the Olgerdovichs - Andrei and Dmitry, who came to the aid of the Moscow prince, is glorified in the same way as the valor of the soldiers of Bui Tur Vsevolod in the WORD. Nature in Zadonshchina is on the side of the Russian troops and portends the defeat of the "nasty". Winged birds fly, crows roar, jackdaws roar, eagles scream, wolves howl. But for Prince Dmitry Ivanovich, the sun is shining brightly in the east.

The central place in ZADONSHCHINA is given to the image of the battle on the Kulikovo field. The first half of the battle ends with the defeat of the Russians. Russian women mourn the fallen soldiers. Their lyrical songs are similar to Yaroslavna's famous lament.

The second part of ZADONSHINA - praise, is devoted to describing the victory won by the Russian troops when the regiment of the voivode Dmitry Bobrok enters the battle. As a result of the victory won, merriment and rejoicing spread over the Russian land, and Russian glory rose above the blasphemy of the filthy.

ZADONSHINA's narration style is joyful, major, excitedly pathetic. The author enlivens the story with direct speech of the characters.

Pagan mythological images are completely absent in ZADONSHINA, but religious and Christian motives are significantly enhanced. The author puts reflections and prayer appeals into the mouths of the Russian princes, elements of religious fiction are introduced into the narrative (Boris and Gleb pray). Everything testifies to the increased role of the church in the life of the Muscovite state.

Techniques and poetic images of folk poetry, song rhythms are widely used in ZADONSHCHINA. So, like eagles, Russian princes flock to the aid of Dmitry Ivanovich. Like falcons and hawks, Russian warriors rush to the enemy herds of geese and swans. Such an artistic logic of parallelisms is based on the impressions associated with hunting, and also gives a visual representation of the superiority of the strength of the Russian troops over the Golden Horde.

In the style of ZADONSHINA, traces of 15th-century business prose are also significant. This is evidenced by chronological clarifications, titles of princes, genealogical formulas, a list of those killed, as well as the uniformity of methods for isolating direct speech. At the same time, ZADONSHCHINA has a strophic structure, which is emphasized by the same beginnings: "And the prince said to them ..", "And Andrey said ...", "And Dmitry said to him." Zadonshchina is an example of a special kind of folk poems of literary content, its author imitated the "Word" not in a book way, but by reproducing by ear and memorization. ZADONSHINA typologically belongs to lyrical-epic works, similar to "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land". The ideological plan of "Zadonshchina" is connected with the poetization of the political role of Moscow and the Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde (apparently, therefore, it deliberately does not talk about the betrayal of the Ryazan prince Oleg). The author directed all his pathos to the promotion of the idea of ​​unity, the unity of all the forces of the Russian land around Moscow, supporting in every possible way that only thanks to unity a historical victory was won, and the princes and Russian wars gained "honor and a glorious name" for themselves.

The legend of the mother's massacre. In the middle of the 15th century, on the basis of the annalistic story about the Battle of Kulikovo, Zadonshchina and oral traditions, the “Legend of the Mamai Battle” was created, which has come down to us in more than a hundred lists, in six editions. In the Tale, there is a tendency to fictionalize the narrative, and its amusingness is enhanced. The author of the Tale, glorifying the pious thoughts of Dmitry Ivanovich and opposing them to the thoughts of Mamai, does not strive for the accuracy of historical facts, often allowing anachronisms, and includes fictitious monologues in the narrative.

In the Tale, you can find many new, sometimes poetic details, for example, in the Tale, Dmitry reports about sending Zakhary Tyutchev as an ambassador to Mamai, about visiting the Trinity Monastery by the Moscow prince.

In the Tale, the steadfastness, courage, and Christian piety of the Russians are contrasted with the boastfulness, arrogance, and wickedness of Mamai and his allies.

In the legends about the Battle of Kulikovo, the moral and aesthetic assessment of the activities of historical figures is based on the folk idea of ​​the unity of the Russian principalities around Moscow. It is significant that in the Tale this idea is interpreted quite broadly and in a peculiar way. It outgrows the boundaries of the actual Russian borders and acquires international significance. According to the author, in the fight against Mamai, the efforts of not only Russian, but also Lithuanian princes should be united.

In the Tale, as in other stories of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo, the prince is portrayed in a new way. Previously, the prince was a brave and hardy warrior, a skilled diplomat, but now these qualities are not decisive. The main thing in the image of the prince is the display of his unifying efforts, overcoming his narrow local interests.

One of the artistic discoveries of the Legend is seen in the fact that the activities of the princes, especially their participation in the Battle of Kulikovo, are presented not only as an all-Russian affair, but also as a family affair. With anxiety and excitement, the Russian princesses escort their husbands to the battle, in such an image the Battle of Kulikovo acquires a special power of emotional impact.

The victory on the Kulikovo field over the hordes of Mamai showed that the Russian people have the strength to decisively fight the enemy, and these forces are able to unite and direct the centralized power of the Grand Duke. The victory strengthened the political authority of Moscow, the center of the emerging state, and the question of the final destruction of the Golden Horde yoke became only a matter of time: a hundred years after the Battle of Kulikovo, in 1480, the yoke was over.

Old Russian literature (DRL) is the foundation of all literature. The main keepers and copyists of books in Ancient Rus', as a rule, were monks, who were least of all interested in storing and copying books of worldly (secular) content. And this largely explains why the vast majority of the works of Old Russian literature that have come down to us are of a church nature. A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is r u k o p i s n y nature of its existence and distribution. At the same time, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections that pursued certain practical goals. “Everything that serves not for the sake of benefit, but for the sake of embellishment, is subject to the charge of vanity.” These words of Basil the Great largely determined the attitude of the ancient Russian society to the works of writing. The value of this or that handwritten book was evaluated in terms of its practical purpose and usefulness. Another feature of our ancient literature is an o n i m o s t, the impersonality of her works. This was a consequence of the religious-Christian attitude of feudal society to man, and in particular to the work of a writer, artist, and architect. At best, we know the names of individual authors, "writers" of books, who modestly put their name either at the end of the manuscript, or in its margins, or (which is much less common) in the title of the work. In most cases, the author of the work prefers to remain unknown, and sometimes even hide behind the authoritative name of one or another "father of the church" - John Chrysostom, Basil the Great. One of the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature is its connection with church and business writing, on the one hand, and oral poetic folk art, on the other. The nature of these connections at each historical stage in the development of literature and in its individual monuments was different. However, the wider and deeper literature used the artistic experience of folklore, the more vividly it reflected the phenomena of reality, the wider was the scope of its ideological and artistic influence. A characteristic feature of ancient Russian literature is and s t o r i z m. Her heroes are predominantly historical figures, she almost does not allow fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about "miracles" - phenomena that seem supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the fiction of an ancient Russian writer, but accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the persons themselves with whom the "miracle" happened. The historicism of Old Russian literature has a specifically medieval character. The course and development of historical events is explained by God's will, the will of providence. The heroes of the works are princes, rulers of the state, standing at the top of the hierarchical ladder of feudal society. The theme is also connected with historicism: the beauty and greatness of Rus', historical events. The DR writer creates within the framework of an established tradition, looks at examples, and does not allow artistic fiction.

In ancient times, numerous tribes with various pagan beliefs and rituals associated with the worship of many gods lived on the territory of modern Russia. The Slavs were among the first to live in this territory. The Slavs carved idols from wood. The heads of these idols were covered with silver, and the beard and mustache were made of gold. They worshiped the god of thunder - Perun. There was a god of the sun - Dazhdbog, Stribog - disposed of the air elements, winds. Idols were placed on a high place, and in order to appease the gods, bloody sacrifices (a bird, an animal) were made. By the 9th century, the tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs formed principalities, which were headed by princes. Each prince had a retinue (the wealthy higher nobility). Relations between the princes were complex, internecine wars often broke out.

In the I X - X centuries. various principalities of the Eastern Slavs united, created a single state, which became known as the Russian land or Rus'. The central city was Kyiv, the head of state was the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Rurik became the founder of the dynasty of Kievan princes. Slavic tribes fought with each other and then decided to call one of the strangers. The Slavs went to the Varangians, who lived on the shores of the Baltic Sea. One of the leaders named Rurik was offered to come to the Slavic lands and rule. Rurik came to Novgorod, where he began to reign. He founded the Rurik dynasty, which ruled in Rus' until the 16th century. The Slavic lands ruled by Rurik increasingly began to be called Rus, and the inhabitants were called Rusichs, and later Russians. In the language of the Varangians, a detachment of rowers, which sailed to Novgorod in a large boat led by Rurik, was called Rus. But the Russians themselves understood the word Rus differently: the bright land. Blonde meant light. The princes who began to rule after Rurik (Igor, Princess Olga, Oleg, Vladimir Svyatoslav, Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh, etc.) sought to stop civil strife within the country, defended the independence of the state, strengthened and expanded its borders.

A significant date in the history of Russia-988. This is the year of the adoption of Christianity. Christianity came to Rus' from Byzantium. With Christianity, writing spread. In the second half of the 9th century, the Slavic alphabet was created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius. Two alphabets were created: Cyrillic (named after Cyril) and Glagolitic (verb-word, speech); the Glagolitic alphabet did not become widespread. The brothers are revered by the Slavic peoples as enlighteners and they are recognized as saints. Writing contributed to the development of ancient Russian literature. The literature of Ancient Rus' has a number of features.

I. Feature - syncretism i.e. compound. This feature is associated with the underdevelopment of genre forms. In one ancient Russian genre, it is possible to distinguish features characteristic of other genres, i.e., elements of several genres are combined in one genre, for example, in the “Journeys” there are descriptions of geographical and historical places, and a sermon, and a lesson. A vivid manifestation of syncretism can be traced in the chronicles, they contain both a military story, and tradition, and samples of contracts, and reflections on religious topics.

II.Feature - monumentality. The scribes of Ancient Rus' showed the greatness of the world, they were interested in the fate of the Motherland. The scribe seeks to portray the eternal; eternal values ​​are determined by the Christian religion. Hence there is no image of appearance, life, because. it's all mortal. The scribe seeks to tell the story of the entire Russian land.

III. Feature - historicism. In ancient Russian monuments, historical persons were described. These are stories about battles, about princely crimes. Heroes were princes, generals, saints. In ancient Russian literature there are no fictional heroes, no works on fictional plots. Fiction was equal to lies, and lies were unacceptable. The writer's right to invent was realized only in the 17th century.

IV. Feature - patriotism. Old Russian literature is marked by high patriotism and citizenship. The authors always grieve over the defeats suffered by the Russian land. The scribes have always tried to put boyars and princes on the true path. The worst princes were condemned, the best were praised.

V. Feature - anonymity. Old Russian literature is mostly anonymous. Very rarely, some authors put their names at the end of the manuscripts, calling themselves “unworthy”, “sinful”, sometimes Old Russian authors signed the names of popular Byzantine writers.

VI.Feature - Old Russian literature was entirely handwritten. And although printing appeared in the middle of the XVI century. even before the 18th century, works were distributed by correspondence. When rewriting, the scribes made their own corrections, changes, shortened or expanded the text. Therefore, the monuments of ancient Russian literature did not have a stable text. From the 11th to the 14th centuries, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves. Parchment from the name of the ancient city (in Greece) Pergamum, where in the II century BC. started making parchment. In Rus', parchment is called "veal" or "haratya". This expensive material was available only to the propertied class. Craftsmen and merchants used birch bark. Recordings were made on birch bark. Wooden boards were fastened together in the form of student notebooks. Famous birch-bark writings are written monuments of the 11th-15th centuries. Birch bark letters are a source on the history of society and everyday life of medieval people, as well as on the history of the East Slavic languages.

They wrote with ink on birch bark or parchment. Ink was made from decoctions of alder or oak bark, from soot. Until the 19th century they used a goose quill, because parchment was expensive, then to save writing material, the words in the line were not separated, everything was written together. The paragraphs in the manuscript were written in red ink - hence the “red line”. Frequently used words were abbreviated - under a special sign - “title” For example, litharge (abbreviated from the verb, i.e. speak) Buka

The parchment was lined with a ruler. Each letter was written out. Texts were rewritten by scribes either in the width of the entire page, or in two columns. There are three types of handwriting: charter, semi-charter, cursive. Charter - handwriting XI - XIII century. This is handwriting with regular, almost square lettering. The letter was solemn, calm, wide, but not high letters were written. The work on the manuscript required painstaking work and great skill. When the scribe completed his hard work, he happily noted this at the end of the book. So, at the end of the Laurentian Chronicle it is written: “Rejoice, book writer, who has reached the end of books.” They wrote slowly. So, “Ostromirovo Evangelie” was created for seven months.

From the second half of the 15th century, paper came into use and the charter gave way to a semi-charter, a more fluent letter. The division of the text into words and the use of punctuation marks are associated with the semi-charter. Straight lines of the charter are replaced by oblique lines. The charter of Russian manuscripts is drawing, calligraphically clear writing. In the semi-charter, a large number of abbreviations of words were allowed, stress was placed. The semi-statutory letter was faster and more convenient than the statutory letter. Since the 16th century, semi-statutory writing has been replaced by cursive writing. “Cursive writing” is a tendency to speed up writing. This is a special type of letter, which differs in its graphics from the charter and semi-charter. This is a simplified version of these two types. Monuments of ancient writing testify to the high level of culture and skill of the ancient Russian scribes, who were entrusted with the correspondence of texts. They tried to give handwritten books a highly artistic and luxurious appearance, decorating them with various types of ornaments and drawings. With the development of the charter, a geometric ornament develops. It is a rectangle, an arch and other geometric shapes, inside which patterns were applied on the sides of the title, in the form of circles, triangles and others. The ornament could be one-color and multi-color. Ornaments depicting plants and animals were also used. They painted capital letters, used miniatures - that is, illustrations for the text. The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards. The boards were covered with leather, and sometimes they were clothed in salaries specially made of silver and gold. A remarkable example of jewelry art is the setting of the Mstislav Gospel (XII). In the middle of the 15th century, printing appeared. Church works were printed, and artistic monuments were rewritten for a long time. The original manuscripts have not come down to us; their later lists of the 15th century have been preserved. So, “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, written in the late 80s of the XII century, was found in the list of the XVI century. Textologists study the monuments, establish the time and place of their writing, determine which list is more consistent with the original author's text. And paleographers, by handwriting, by writing material, miniatures, establish the time of creation of the manuscript. In ancient Rus', the word book in the singular was not used, because the book consisted of several notebooks bound together. Books were treated with care, they believed that mishandling a book could harm a person. On one book, the inscription was preserved: “Whoever spoils books, who steals, let him be damned.”

Monasteries were the centers of book writing, education and culture of Ancient Rus'. In this regard, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery played an important role. Theodosius of the Caves introduced the duty of monks to write books. In his life, Theodosius Pechersky describes the process of creating books. Day and night the monks wrote books in their cells. The monks led an ascetic life, were educated people. They not only copied books, but also translated the Bible, the Psalter (songs of religious content), church prayers from the Greek language, and explained the meaning of church holidays. Several books have come down from the 11th century. They are decorated with great taste. There are books trimmed with gold and pearls. These books were very expensive. In Rus', printing was considered a state affair.

The first printing house was founded by Ivan Fedorov in 1561 in Moscow. He creates a printing press, a font, according to his scheme, they build a Printing Yard near the Kremlin. 1564 - the year of the birth of Russian book printing. Fedorov publishes the first Russian primer, according to which both adults and children were taught to read and write. Books and ancient manuscripts are stored in the libraries of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Yaroslavl, Kostroma. Few parchment manuscripts have survived, many in one copy, but most of them burned down during fires.

The originality of ancient Russian literature:

Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. At the same time, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, writers of books, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author's texts have not come down to us, but their later lists have been preserved. Often scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the rewritten work, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of Old Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing different editions, variants of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Such sciences as textology and paleography can come to the rescue (studies the external signs of handwritten monuments - handwriting, lettering, the nature of the writing material).

A characteristic feature of ancient Russian literature is historicism. Her heroes are predominantly historical figures, she almost does not allow fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about "miracles" - phenomena that seem supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the fiction of an ancient Russian writer, but accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the persons themselves with whom the "miracle" happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state, the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian man, who is capable of giving up the most precious thing for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in the ability of a person to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, "listening to good and evil indifferently." Any genre of ancient literature, be it a historical story or a legend, a life story or a church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Concerning mainly state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of the word, in the power of conviction. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to take care that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that the descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

The literature of Ancient Rus' expressed and defended the interests of the upper classes of feudal society. However, it could not fail to show an acute class struggle, which resulted either in the form of open spontaneous uprisings, or in the forms of typical medieval religious heresies. Literature clearly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groupings within the ruling class, each of which was looking for support among the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected the interests of the whole state, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the folk character of ancient Russian literature.

In the 11th - the first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, words in a line were not separated, and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with a red capital letter. Often used well-known words were written in abbreviated form, under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. The handwriting with the correct almost square lettering was called the charter.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

Artistic Method Problem:

The artistic method of ancient Russian literature is inextricably linked with the nature of the worldview, the worldview of medieval man, which absorbed religious speculative ideas about the world and a specific vision of reality associated with labor practice. In the mind of medieval man, the world existed in two dimensions: real, earthly and heavenly, spiritual. The Christian religion insisted that human life on earth is temporary. The purpose of earthly life is preparation for eternal, imperishable life. These preparations should consist in the moral perfection of the soul, the curbing of sinful passions, and so on.

Two aspects of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature are connected with the dual nature of the worldview of medieval man:

1) reproduction of individual facts in all their concreteness, a purely empirical statement;

2) the consistent transformation of life, that is, the idealization of the facts of real life, the image of not what is, but what should be.

The historicism of Old Russian literature in its medieval understanding is connected with the first side of the artistic method, and its symbolism is associated with the second.

The ancient Russian writer was convinced that symbols are hidden in nature, in man himself. He believed that historical events are also full of symbolic meaning, since he believed that history moves and is directed by the will of a deity. The writer considered symbols as the main means of revealing the truth, discovering the inner meaning of the phenomenon. As the phenomena of the surrounding world are ambiguous, so is the word. Hence the symbolic nature of metaphors, comparisons in ancient Russian literature.

The Old Russian writer, in an effort to convey the image of truth, strictly follows the fact, which he himself witnessed or which he learned about from the words of an eyewitness, a participant in the event. He does not doubt the truth of miracles, supernatural phenomena, believes in their reality.

As a rule, the heroes of the works of ancient Russian literature are historical figures. Only in some cases, the heroes are representatives of the people.

Medieval literature is still alien to any individualization of human character. Old Russian writers create generalized typological images of an ideal ruler, a warrior, on the one hand, and an ideal ascetic, on the other. These images are sharply opposed to the generalized typological image of an evil ruler and the collective image of the demon-devil personifying evil.

In the view of the ancient Russian writer, life is a constant arena of the struggle between good and evil.

The source of goodness, good thoughts and deeds is God. The devil and demons are pushing people to evil. However, the Old Russian literature does not remove responsibility from the person himself. Everyone is free to choose their own path.

In the understanding of the ancient Russian writer, the categories of ethical and aesthetic merged. Good is always great. Evil is associated with darkness.

The writer builds his works on the contrast between good and evil. He leads the reader to the idea that the high moral qualities of a person are the result of hard moral work.

The behavior and actions of the heroes are determined by their social status, their belonging to the princely, boyar, squad, church estates.

Strict observance of the rhythm established by the ancestors of the order is the vital basis of etiquette, ceremoniality of ancient Russian literature. So the chronicler, first of all, sought to put the numbers in a row, that is, to arrange the material he selected in chronological order.

The works of ancient Russian literature were didactic, moralizing in nature. They were designed to help get rid of vices.

So, medieval historicism, symbolism, ritualism and didacticism are the leading principles of artistic representation in the works of ancient Russian literature. In various works, depending on the genre and time of their creation, these features manifested themselves in different ways.

The historical development of ancient Russian literature proceeded through the gradual destruction of the integrity of its method, liberation from Christian symbolism, ritualism and didacticism.