Perception- this is a mental process, which consists in a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena that are currently acting on the senses. Conventionally, perception can be represented as the sum of sensations, memory and thinking.
If we compare the definitions of two , i.e. perception, and then you can notice some features. For example, perception is a more complex process. If sensations reflect individual properties of objects, then perception is a holistic reflection. Thus, the result of perception is a holistic perceptual image of the object, and not its separate property.
Physiological mechanism of perception.
The physiological basis of perception is the processes taking place in the sense organs, nerve fibers and the central nervous system. Under the influence of stimuli in the endings of the nerves present in the sense organs, nervous excitation occurs, which is transmitted along the conductive pathways to the nerve centers, and, ultimately, to the cerebral cortex. Here it enters the sensory areas of the cortex, which are, as it were, the central projection of the nerve endings present in the sense organs. Depending on which organ the sensory zone is associated with, certain sensory information is formed.
Since perception is closely related to sensation, it can be assumed that, like sensation, it is a reflex process. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov showed that conditioned reflexes are the basis of perception, i.e. temporary nerve connections formed in the cerebral cortex when exposed to receptors of objects or phenomena.
Temporary neural connections that provide the process of perception can be of two types:
1. Formed within one analyzer;
2. Interanalyzer.
The first type occurs when the body is exposed to a complex stimulus of one modality (for example, a melody). The second type of neural connections formed under the influence of a complex stimulus are connections within different analyzers, the emergence of which Sechenov explained by the existence of associations. These associations in a person are necessarily accompanied by an auditory image of the word, due to which perception acquires a holistic character.
properties of perception.
1. Objectivity of perception
This is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations unrelated to each other, but in the form of individual objects.
Objectivity is not an innate property of perception. The emergence and improvement of this property occurs in the process of ontogenesis, starting from the first year of a child's life. According to Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, objectivity is formed on the basis of movements that ensure the contact of the child with the object (hand movements; eye movements that trace the contour of the object, etc.). Without the participation of movement, the images of perception would not have the quality of objectivity.
2. Integrity of perception
Perception gives a holistic image of the subject. It is formed on the basis of generalization of information received in the form of various sensations about the individual properties and qualities of the object.
The components of sensation are so strongly interconnected that a single complex image of an object arises even when only individual properties or individual parts of the object directly affect a person. This image arises as a conditioned reflex due to the connection between various sensations.
The integrity of perception is expressed in the fact that even with an incomplete reflection of the individual properties of the perceived object, the received information is mentally completed to a holistic image of a particular object.
3. Structural perception
Structural perception is not just a collection of sensations. It reflects the relationship of various properties and parts, i.e. subject structure.
Perception brings to our consciousness the structure of an object or phenomenon that we encounter in the real world. It can be said that the structure of perception is a reflection of the specifics of the interconnection of the elements of the whole.For example, notes enter the consciousness, and we recognize the melody, we recognize the triangle in the figure, because. we know the ratio of the sides of a given figure, or a certain letter remains the same letter with a different style of writing.
Structurality is associated with another property of perception - integrity.
4. Constancy of perception
Constancy is the relative constancy of the image of an object when the conditions of its perception change (for example, a car seems large to us at any distance from it). To the greatest extent, constancy is observed in the visual perception of the color, size and shape of objects.
Due to the constancy, which is manifested in the ability of the perceptual system (the system of perception, which consists of a set of certain analyzers) to compensate for changes in the conditions of perception, we perceive the objects around us as relatively constant.
A person repeatedly perceives a certain object, and this object is perceived under completely different conditions. This allows the system to maintain the relative constancy of the properties of objects and phenomena. Without the constancy of perception, people would not be able to navigate in the world around them.
5. Apperception
Apperception is the dependence of perception on past experience and personality traits of the perceiver.
A huge role in apperception is played by a person's knowledge, his previous experience. In the process of perception, in order to classify what you perceive, you will put forward and test hypotheses about the object's belonging to one or another category of objects.
Thus, when perceiving, past experience is activated. Therefore, one object can be perceived differently by different people.
The content of perception is determined by the task, motives of activity, interests. A significant place in apperception is occupied by attitudes and emotions, which can easily change the content of perception.
6. Meaningfulness of perception
Meaningfulness of perception is the property of human perception to endow the perceived object with a certain meaning. Perception is not determined simply by a set of stimuli, it is a constant search for the best interpretation of the data received.
We perceive objects that have a certain meaning. Regardless of the ever-changing content, we recognize the same subject. Human perception, being a kind of awareness of objects and phenomena, includes an act of understanding, comprehension.
7. Activity (selectivity) of perception
The selectivity of perception lies in the fact that at any given time we perceive only one object or a specific group of objects, while the rest of the objects of the surrounding world are the background of our perception (they are not reflected in consciousness).
For example, while in a lecture hall, you listen to a lecture without noticing that someone behind you is discussing plans for the evening. Your perception is directed towards the lecture until you yourself are asked about the plans. In this case, you will already be communicating, and not listening to a lecture, i.e. perception will be directed at the interlocutors.
principles of perception.
A group of psychologists, together with Max Wertheimer,German psychologist and about the founder of Gestalt psychology, formulated the laws of perception, which became the theoretical basis of Gestalt psychology.
1. The principle of proximity
Elements that are close to each other in space and time and seem to us united in groups, we perceive together.
2. The principle of continuity
There is a tendency to follow in a direction that allows the observed elements to be connected in a continuous sequence or a certain orientation. In the figure, we see not just separate points, but two intersecting lines.
3. The principle of similarity
Similar elements are perceived by us together, forming closed groups. Due to the color t glasses in the picture we perceive as rows, not columns.
4. Closing principle
There is a tendency to complete unfinished items and fill in empty gaps.
5. The principle of simplicity (the law of content, the principle of good form, the law of pregnancy)
We perceive and interpret composite or complex objects as the simplest form or the union of the simplest forms. In the figure, we see three different simple shapes, not one complex one.
A pregnant gestalt means that in all conditions we strive to see the figures as complete as possible.
We strive to organize our perception in such a way as to see the object (figure) and the background against which it appears. The object is brighter, meaningful, noticeable.
perception factors.
Our perception depends on external and internal factors.
a) External factors:
- the intensity of the stimulus;
- the size of the stimulus;
— stimulus contrast;
- movement of the stimulus;
- recognition of the stimulus.
b) Internal factors:
—
installation of a person;
- needs;
- an experience;
- personal characteristics (self-esteem, left- or right-handedness, optimism-pessimism, etc.);
- effects of perception.
perceptual effects.
Let's single out the main effects (mistakes) of perception:
projection effect- this is the property of people to attribute their advantages to a pleasant person, and their shortcomings to an unpleasant person. Those. the effect suggests that other people have the same qualities as the perceiving person.
halo effect- this is the formation of a specific attitude towards a person through the directed attribution of certain qualities to him; information received about a person is superimposed on the image that was created in advance. Those. the effect is to spread the general opinion to particulars.
The effect of primacy and novelty- this is the tendency of people, with conflicting information about another person, to give more weight to data received at the beginning (if a stranger is perceived) or newer information (if an old acquaintance is perceived).
The effect of physiognomic reduction- this is the property of people to draw conclusions about the character and psychological characteristics of a person, based on the features of his appearance.
Classification of types of perception.
1) Separation by modality:
- visual perception;
—
auditory perception;
—
tactile perception;
- taste perception;
- olfactory perception.
Combinations of different types of perception are possible.
2) Separation according to the object of perception:
- perception of space (includes the perception of size, shape, relative position of objects, their topography, distance and direction);
- perception of time (reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena or events);
- perception of movement (reflection of the direction and speed of the spatial existence of objects);
- perception of speed;
- perception of direction;
- perception of a work of art;
- perception of the main phenomena of human life.
3) Separation by purpose:
- intentional (arbitrary) perception (we are guided by a previously set goal or task);
- unintentional (involuntary) perception (there is no volitional activity and purpose).
4) Separation according to the participation of other psychological formations:
- emotional perception (perception associated with emotions and feelings);
- rational perception (perception, subject to the process of thinking).
Perceptual disturbances.
1) Illusions
- this is an erroneous perception of real objects and phenomena.
They can be auditory, visual, olfactory, etc.
Under certain conditions, they occur in most people and can be caused by physical (perception of a spoon in a glass of tea that seems broken), physiological (doubling of the image of objects, if at the time of perception you press on the side of the eyeball) and psychological reasons (overestimation of vertical lines compared to horizontal) .
Illusions of perception.
a) The Ebbinghaus Illusion
This is an optical illusion of perception relative to size. Two objects of the same size may look different. If one object is placed among smaller objects, then it will appear larger than if the same object is placed among larger objects.
b) Ponzo Illusion
This is an optical illusion of perception. Mario Ponzo suggested that the human brain determines the size of an object from its background. He drew two identical segments against the background of two converging lines, like a railway line stretching into the distance. As a result, horizontal lines are perceived differently.
c) Aristotle's Illusion
This is an illusion of touch. A small object (pencil) is placed between (under) the crossed fingers (it is easier to use the middle and index fingers) so that it touches one finger on the inside and the other finger on the outside. With the movements of the fingers (and the hand) on the subject (back and forth), after a while it seems that the fingers touch 2 objects.
d) Zellner illusion
An optical illusion in which parallel lines crossed by a series of short diagonal lines appear to diverge.
e) Muller-Lyer illusion
An optical illusion that occurs when observing segments framed by arrows. The segment framed by the "points" seems to be shorter than the segment framed by the "tail" arrows.
f) The Poggendorff Illusion
An optical illusion where the red line is an extension of the black line, not the blue one.
2) hallucinations - this is an erroneous perception in the absence of an object.
hallucinations occur in abuse of alcohol (alcoholic delirium), drugs, psychostimulants (LSD, cocaine, etc.), medications (for example, antidepressants), mental illness (schizophrenia, epilepsy), organic brain lesions,with cataracts (Charles-Bonnet hallucinations).
Eidetism is a type of hallucination.
eidetism, or, more simply, photographic memory- this is a special character of memory, mainly for visual impressions, which makes it possible to retain and reproduce an extremely vivid image of a previously perceived object or phenomenon. This image may include saturated images in other modalities of perception (hearing, taste, etc.).
Eidetic images differ from the usual ones in that a person, as it were, continues to perceive the object in his absence. The physiological basis of eidetic images is the residual excitation of the analyzer.
Eidetism means that a person will retain in memory the details of the image after the cessation of perception. In one form or another and degree, eidetism is inherent in every person, especially in childhood and adolescence, but it is rare in its vivid manifestations. Most often, children have a photographic memory; in adulthood, it is rare. It is impossible to develop photographic memory in its original form, but with the help of exercises it is possible to improve visual memory, memorization of information, and its reproduction.
I advise you to read the book by Alexander Romanovich Luria, which is called "A Little Book of Great Memory." Despite its very small volume, which is aptly noted in the title, it is very interestingly written. The book touches upon the issues of memory and eidotechnics.
Some classifications of hallucinations include eidetism as a subspecies. This is due to the fact that people with eidetism perceive objects in their absence, which is also a component of hallucinations. From this point of view, the definition of photographic memory might look like this:
eidetism- this is a perceptual disorder in which the trace of the excitation that has just ended in any analyzer remains in the form of a clear and vivid image.
They saw that their content does not go beyond the elementary forms of reflection. However, the real processes of reflection of the external world go far beyond the most elementary forms. A person does not live in a world of isolated light or color spots, sounds or touches, he lives in a world of things, objects and forms, in a world of complex situations, i.e. no matter what a person perceives, he invariably deals not with individual sensations, but with whole images. The reflection of these images goes beyond isolated sensations, relying on the joint work of the senses, the synthesis of individual sensations into complex complex systems. This synthesis can proceed both within one modality (when looking at a picture, we combine individual visual impressions into a whole image), and within several modalities (perceiving an orange, we actually combine visual, tactile, taste impressions, add to them our knowledge of him). It is only as a result of such a union that isolated sensations turn into holistic perception, move from reflecting individual features to reflecting entire objects or situations.
Perception process
It would be deeply erroneous to think that such a process (from relatively simple sensations to complex perceptions) is a simple summation of individual sensations or, as psychologists have often said, the result of simple associations of individual features. In fact, the perception (this is a reflection) of whole objects or situations is much more complicated. It requires the selection of the main leading features from the whole complex of influencing features (color, shape, tactile properties, weight, taste, etc.) with simultaneous distraction (abstraction) from non-essential ones. It requires combining a group of basic essential features and comparing the perceived set of features with previous knowledge about the subject.
When perceiving familiar objects (a glass, a table), their recognition occurs very quickly - it is enough for a person to combine two or three perceived signs in order to come to the desired decision. When perceiving new or unfamiliar objects, their recognition is much more difficult and proceeds in much more developed forms. The complete perception of such objects arises as a result of complex analytical and synthetic work, highlighting some essential features, inhibiting others, insignificant and combining the perceived details into one meaningful whole.
There are theories about pattern recognition process. In these theories, “the main attention is paid to the question: how are external signals affecting the senses converted into meaningful perceptual impressions? As a rule, we recognize the objects and events around us easily and quickly; therefore, one may get the impression that the operations associated with recognition are simple and straightforward. The experience of engineers shows that such a representation is very far from the truth. There are no machines that would be able to recognize the symbols and sounds common to our environment. The perceptual systems of animals, even the most primitive ones, are far ahead of such machines in terms of their capabilities.
Perception is a very complex and active process that requires significant analytical and synthetic work. This complex, active nature of perception is manifested in a number of features that require special consideration. First of all, the process of information is by no means the result of a simple stimulation of the sense organs and bringing to the cerebral cortex of excitations from peripherally perceiving organs. The process of perception always includes motor components (feeling objects and moving the eyes, highlighting the most informative points; singing or pronouncing the corresponding sounds that play a significant role in determining the most significant features of the sound stream). Therefore, perception is most correctly designated as the perceiving (perceptual) activity of the subject.
It is natural, therefore, that the perceiving activity is almost never limited to the limits of one modality, but develops in the joint work of several sense organs (), the result of which are the representations formed by the subject. Finally, it is also important that the perception of an object is never carried out at the elementary level: it captures the highest levels of mental activity, in particular speech. Perceiving watches and mentally calling them by this name, he is distracted from such insignificant features as their color, size, shape, and singles out the main feature - the function of indicating time. At the same time, he refers the perceived object to a certain category, separates it from other objects that are similar in appearance, but belong to other categories (for example, a barometer). All this once again confirms that the perceiving activity of the subject in its psychological structure can approach visual thinking. The complex and active nature of man's perceiving activity determines a number of his features, equally related to all his forms.
Types of perception
Distinguish perception unintentional (or involuntary) and intentional (arbitrary). At unintended perception we are not guided by a predetermined goal or task - to perceive a given subject. Perception is guided by external circumstances. Intentional Perception, on the contrary, from the very beginning it is regulated by the task - to perceive this or that object or phenomenon, to get acquainted with it. Intentional perception can be included in any activity and carried out in the course of its implementation. But sometimes perception can act as a relatively independent activity.
Perception as an independent activity appears especially clearly in observation, which is a deliberate, planned and more or less prolonged (albeit with intervals in time) perception in order to trace the course of some phenomenon or those changes that occur in the object of perception.
Observation- this is an active form of sensory knowledge of reality by a person. When observing as an independent purposeful reality, a verbal formulation of goals and objectives directing observation to certain objects is assumed from the very beginning.
Prolonged exercises in observation lead to the development of observation, i.e. the ability to notice characteristic, but subtle, at first glance, seemingly unimportant features of objects.
In order to develop observation, one needs such an organization of perception that would correspond to all the necessary conditions for its success: clarity of the task, preliminary preparation, activity of observation, its systematicity, plannedness, etc. Observation is necessary in all areas of human life and activity. The development of observation, accuracy and versatility of perception must be given serious attention already in childhood, especially in the process of playing and learning.
So, perception- this is a visual-figurative reflection of the objects and phenomena of reality acting at the moment on the senses in the aggregate of their various properties and parts.
Perceptual Properties
objectivity
objectivity perception is expressed in the so-called act of objectification, i.e. in referring information received from the outside world to this world. Objectivity, not being an innate quality, performs an orienting and regulating function in practical activity. I. M. Sechenov said that objectivity is formed on the basis of processes that, in the final analysis, are always outwardly moving, providing contact with the object itself. Without the participation of movement, our perceptions would not have the quality of objectivity, i.e. relation to objects in the external world.
Objectivity as a quality of perception plays a special role in the regulation of behavior. Usually we define objects not by their appearance, but according to their practical purpose or their main property.
Integrity
Unlike sensation, which reflects the individual properties of an object, perception gives a holistic image of it. It is formed on the basis of generalization of knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of an object, obtained in the form of various sensations.
The components of sensation are so strongly interconnected that a single complex image of an object arises even when only individual properties or individual parts of the object (velvet, marble) directly affect a person. These impressions arise as a conditioned reflex due to the connection formed in life experience between visual and tactile stimuli.
Structurality
The integrity of perception is also related to its structure. Perception to a large extent does not correspond to our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over a period of time.
If a person listens to a melody, then the previously heard notes still continue to sound in his mind when a new note arrives. Usually the listener understands the piece of music, i.e. perceives its structure as a whole. It is obvious that the last of the heard notes in itself cannot be the basis for such an understanding - the whole structure of the melody with various interconnections of its elements continues to sound in the mind of the listener. The process of perceiving rhythm is similar.
The sources of integrity and structure of perception lie in the features of the reflected objects themselves.
constancy
constancy perception is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when its conditions change. Due to the property of constancy, which consists in the ability of the perceptual system (a set of analyzers that provide a given act of perception) to compensate for these changes, we perceive the objects around us as relatively constant. To the greatest extent, constancy is observed in the visual perception of the color, size and shape of objects.
The constancy of color perception is the relative invariance of the visible color when the lighting changes (a piece of coal on a sunny summer afternoon sends about 8-9 times more light than chalk at dusk). The phenomenon of color constancy is due to the combined action of a number of reasons, among which adaptation to the general level of brightness of the visual field, lightness contrast, as well as ideas about the actual color of objects and their illumination conditions are of great importance.
The constancy of perception of the size of objects is the relative constancy of the apparent size of objects at their different (but not very large) distances. For example, the dimensions of a person from a distance of 3.5 and 10 m are reflected by the retina in the same way, although the image on it changes, its apparent size remains almost unchanged. This is explained by the fact that at relatively small distances of objects, the perception of their size is determined not only by the size of the image on the retina, but also by the action of a number of additional factors, among which the tension of the eye muscles, which adapt to fixing the object at different distances, is of particular importance.
The constancy of the perception of the shape of objects lies in the relative invariance of its perception when their position changes in relation to the line of sight of the observer. With each change in the position of the object relative to the eyes, the shape of its image on the retina changes (looks straight, sideways) due to the movement of the eyes along the contour lines of objects, and the selection of characteristic combinations of contour lines; known to us from past experience.
What is the origin of the constancy of perception? Maybe it's an innate mechanism?
In a study of the perception of people living in a dense forest who did not see objects at a great distance, it was found that they perceive them as small, not as distant. Builders, on the other hand, constantly see objects located below, without distorting their size.
The real source of constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system. Repeated perception of the same objects under different conditions ensures the constancy (invariance - unchanging structure) of the perceptual image in relation to changing conditions, as well as the movements of the receptor apparatus itself. Thus, the property of constancy is explained by the fact that perception is a kind of self-regulating action that has a feedback mechanism and adapts to the characteristics of the perceived object and the conditions of its existence. Without the constancy of perception, a person would not be able to navigate in an infinitely diverse and changeable world.
Meaningfulness of perception
Although perception arises from the direct action of a stimulus on the sense organs, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. Perception in humans is closely related to thinking. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, that is, to attribute it to a certain group, class, to generalize it into a word. Even when we see an unfamiliar object, we try to establish in it a resemblance to familiar ones.
Perception is not determined simply by a set of stimuli affecting the sense organs, but is a constant search for the best interpretation of the available data.
Apperception
Perception depends not only on the stimulus, but also on the subject himself. It is not the eye and the ear that perceive, but a specific living person, and therefore the characteristics of a person’s personality always affect perception. The dependence of perception on the content of a person's mental life, on the characteristics of his personality, is called apperception.
When subjects are presented with unfamiliar figures, already in the first phases of perception, they are looking for standards to which the perceived object could be attributed. In the process of perception, hypotheses about the belonging of an object to a particular category are put forward and tested. Thus, when perceiving, traces of past experience are activated. Therefore, the same object can be perceived differently by different people.
This is the process of reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena of the real world in their integrity, in the aggregate of their various properties and parts, and with their direct impact on the senses.
In the formation of perception, motor components, the life experience of the individual, memory, volitional efforts and attention, interests, goals and the person take part.
Perception arises based on sensations, but it is not reduced to their simple sum (in such cases, the process is said to be non-additive). This is a qualitatively new, more complex mental process compared to sensation. Perception is aimed at recognizing the identification features of the perceived object and building its copy (model) in the mind. The result of perception is a holistic perceptual image of an object, and not its individual properties, information about which is given to a person by sensations. This, however, does not mean that all its small details are perceived together with the integral image of the object.
There are two models of image formation in the process of perception:
- stimulus, "purely", asserting that the appearance of the image of an object is caused only by its reflection in the mind when stimuli are exposed to sensory channels;
- activity, stating that the image that a person perceives is not so much the result of the reaction of the psyche to stimuli, but rather the result of the subject’s continuous construction of perceptual hypotheses that are “counter” to the reflected environment (a person, using his experience, seems to foresee the main properties of the perceived object).
The complexity of studying perception as lies in the fact that of all the influencing signs in the human mind, only the leading ones are reflected, and the insignificant ones remain outside the perception. This is due not only to the features of the object, but also to the fact that it is in the object that is of interest to the individual, for what purpose the individual is involved in the process of perception, what are his preliminary attitudes towards perception.
Recognition of an object as one of the components of perception depends on a person's life experience, his knowledge about this object. For example, a familiar word can be restored (perceived) literally upon presentation of one or two of its constituent letters, while an unfamiliar one will require much more letters for this.
Perception sometimes requires concentration of attention on an object and certain. This is especially true for cases where the interest in the object of the individual is small or there is no awareness of the need to study the object. Of course, the study and recognition of an object through the process of perception cannot take place without the connection of memory and thinking. Indeed, in this case, complex processes of comparing the features of the object with the standards stored in the long-term person, mental analysis and synthesis of the system of these features and decision-making are carried out.
It is important that information for this comes simultaneously from many senses (sight, hearing, smell, etc.). In particular, a significant contribution to the formation of the image of a perceived object is made by motor components through the eyes, pronunciation of sounds, and palpation. The auditory analyzer helps in perception to navigate in the spatial position of the source of information.
Finally, the perceptual process extends to higher levels of mental activity, such as. After all, a person thinks ... in words. Highlighting the leading features of the perceived object, he discusses, designates them with a word.
Thus, perception is an ordered system of active perceptual actions, formed in the course of the life of an individual.
general characteristics. Perception is a reflection in the human mind of integral complexes of properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at a given moment on the senses. Perception differs from sensations in that it reflects the entire set of properties of an object, and forms its integral image. Perception is based on the relationship of the sensory and the individual, is the result of the functioning of the system of analyzers. Primary analysis, which takes place in the receptors, is supplemented by the complex analytical and sensory activity of the brain sections of the analyzers.
Perception is based on two types of neural connections: 1st - formed within the same analyzer; 2nd - interanalyzer.
Thanks to the connections formed between analyzers, we reflect and perceive such properties of objects or phenomena for which there are no specially adapted analyzers (for example, the size of an object, specific gravity, etc.).
A set of analyzers that provide a given act of perception. In this case, one analyzer can be the leading one, and the rest can complement the perception of the object.
Perception and action. Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating its copy. Any perception includes a motor (motor) component that contributes to the isolation of an object from the surrounding background, in the form of palpation of an object, eye movement, and larynx movement. Therefore, the process of perception is considered as a perceptual activity of the subject.
Basic properties of perception. The main ones as a cognitive mental process include: objectivity, which is expressed in the attribution of information received from the outside world: integrity, reflecting the fact that perception is always a holistic image of an object, and not a reflection of its individual properties; structurality, manifested in the fact that a person perceives a generalized structure that is actually abstracted from sensations: the meaningfulness of perception, determined by understanding the essence of an object; constancy of perception - the relative constancy of images of objects, in particular, their shape, color. Values at change of conditions of perception; selectivity is manifested in the predominant selection of individual objects and depends on the interests and attitudes of the PERSON.
Spaces. The perception of space includes the perception of the size, shape, relative position of objects, their topography, distance and direction.
The perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena or events.
The perception of movements is a reflection of the direction and speed of the spatial existence of objects.
Illusions of perception. appear in an inadequate reflection of the perceived object. The most studied are the illusory effects observed in the visual perception of two-dimensional contour images - the so-called "optical-geometric illusions", which consist in an apparent distortion of the relationship between image fragments (equal lines seem unequal, etc.). The phenomenon of brightness contrast belongs to another class of illusions (for example, a gray stripe on a light background seems darker than on a black one).
Perception- this is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena arising from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Perception makes possible a holistic reflection of the world, the creation of an integral picture of reality, in contrast to sensations that reflect individual qualities of reality.
The main properties of perception include the following: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness, apperception, activity.
Objectivity of perception- this is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations that are not related to each other, but in the form of individual objects. For example: So, having heard a sound or smelled, we make certain approximate movements in relation to the source of irritation.
Another property of perception is integrity. Unlike sensation, which reflects the individual properties of an object, perception gives a holistic image of the object.
The integrity of perception is also related to its structure. This property lies in the fact that perception in most cases is not a projection of our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. For example, if a person listens to some melody, then the previously heard notes still continue to sound in his mind when information about the sound of a new note arrives.
The next property of perception is constancy. Constancy is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when the conditions for their perception change. For example, a truck moving in the distance will still be perceived by us as a large object, despite the fact that its image on the retina will be much smaller than its image when we stand near it.
Perception depends not only on the nature of the stimulus, but also on the subject himself. They perceive not the eye and ear, but a concrete living person. Therefore, perception always affects the characteristics of a person's personality. The dependence of perception on the general content of our mental life is called apperception. Perception activates past experience. Therefore, the same object can be perceived differently by different people. So, the mother of a sleeping child may not hear the noise of the street, but instantly reacts to any sound coming from the side of the child.
The next property of perception is its meaningfulness. Although perception arises from the direct action of a stimulus on the sense organs, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. As we have already said, the perception of a person is closely connected with thinking.
Activity(or selectivity) lies in the fact that at any given time we perceive only one object or a specific group of objects, while the rest of the objects of the real world are the background of our perception, i.e. not reflected in our minds. For example, you are listening to a lecture or reading a book and do not pay attention at all to what is happening behind you.
Types of perception
1) Classification according to the leading analyzer in perception
Depending on the analyzers, the following types of perception are distinguished: sight, touch, hearing, smell, taste, kinesthesia. Each of these types of perception involves motor sensations.
2) Classification according to the form of existence reflected in the perception of matter
According to the form of existence reflected in the perception of matter, complex forms of perception are distinguished - the perception of time, movement and space.
Perception of time. This is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena and events. The sense of time is not innate, it develops in the process of accumulation of experience. Time intervals are determined by the rhythmic processes occurring in the human body. Rhythm in the work of the heart, rhythmic breathing, the rhythmic nature of life affect the development of reflexes for time.
Movement perception. This is the perception of space-time movement. Various aspects of movement are perceived: form, direction, speed, scope. The process of motion perception always begins with a general perception of the action being performed, then the complex action is differentiated into individual elements.
Perception of space. Here, the perception of the size, shape, volume, depth or remoteness of objects is distinguished. The perception of the size and shape of objects is due to the joint activity of visual, musculo-motor and tactile sensations.
3) Classification according to the degree of purposefulness of the personality's activity
Perception can be unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (arbitrary). The first type can be caused by the brightness, the unusualness of the surrounding objects, or the correspondence of these objects to the interests of the individual. There is no pre-set goal, no volitional activity. The second type is regulated by the goal, the task, volitional activity.
4) Conscious and subconscious perception
Conscious perception: the signal is strong enough and it reaches consciousness. Subconscious perception: the signal is weak and the message does not reach consciousness. Such signals enter the brain and are processed by the lower centers of the brain (subthreshold perception), not reaching the cerebral cortex and not being realized by a person. But, accumulating, this information is able to influence human behavior.
5) Classification of perceptions by type of activity
Allocate artistic perception, technical, musical and other types.
6) Perception is externally directed and internally directed
Perceptions are externally directed (perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and internally directed (perception of one's own thoughts and feelings).
7) Classification according to the duration of the perceptual process
According to the duration of the perceptual process, perception can be simultaneous - one-time and successive - deployed in time.
Perception- this is a process that forms the image of objects, phenomena from the surrounding world into the structures of the psyche. This display of the qualities and inherent characteristics of the object and phenomenon is integral. This is a kind of twisted thinking. Often it is interpreted not as a process, but as a result, that is, the image of the object itself. Perception is synonymous with perception, therefore the image of an object is formed with the help of perception of primary sensations, certain knowledge, desires, expectations, imagination and mood. The main features of perception are objectivity, constancy, integrity, apperception, structure, meaningfulness, illusion, selectivity.
Perception has many synonyms: apperception, perception, evaluation, understanding, acceptance, contemplation.
Perception in psychology
Perception in psychology is the process of displaying the characteristic properties of objects and phenomena in the psyche, when the sense organs are directly affected. There was a long discussion about sensations and their importance in perception. Associative psychology interpreted sensations as the basic elements of the psyche. Philosophy criticized the idea that perception is built from sensations. In the 20th century, some changes took place in psychology, perception is no longer considered as a set of atomic sensory sensations, but began to be understood as a structural and holistic phenomenon. Psychologist J. Gibson interprets perception as an active process of appropriating information from the world, which includes a real examination of the information that is perceived. Thus, this process shows a person the properties of the surrounding world related to his needs, and shows his possible activity in the actual real situation.
Another psychologist W. Nesser argued that perception in psychology is the process of extracting information from objects of the external world, which is carried out on the basis of schemes of various objects and the whole world that are in the subject. These schemes are obtained through experience, and there are also initial themes, innate. Supporters of cognitive psychology adhered to a similar idea, believing that perception is the process of categorizing perceived information, that is, classifying perceived objects into a certain category of objects. Some categories are innate - this is information about the surrounding nature and the closest objects that the child is able to correlate with some category, and there are categories that include objects, knowledge of which is obtained in experience.
In the human mind, the display occurs through a direct impact on the analyzers.
Perception methods depend on the system to be affected. Through perception, people can be aware of what is happening to them and how the world is affecting them.
This process was previously described as the summation of certain sensations, or as a consequence of elementary associations of individual properties. Nevertheless, there remains a part of psychologists who consider perception as a set of sensations that appear as a result of direct sensory cognition, which are interpreted as subjective experiences of quality, localization, strength and other properties of the impact of stimuli.
Such a definition is incorrect, therefore contemporaries describe this process as a reflection of integral objects or phenomena. It singles out the most basic stimuli from the complex of influencing stimuli (shape, color, weight, taste, and others), while being distracted from non-essential stimuli. It also combines groups of essential features and compares the perceived complex of signs with previously known knowledge about the subject.
During the perception of familiar objects, their recognition occurs very quickly, a person simply combines two or three properties into a whole and comes to the desired solution. When unfamiliar, new objects are perceived, their recognition is much more difficult and occurs in broader forms. As a result of the analytical-synthetic process, essential features are singled out that do not allow others to open up, non-essential and combining perceived elements are linked into a single whole, and a complete perception of the object arises.
Perception process is complex, active, requires significant analytical and synthetic work. This nature of perception is expressed in many features that require special consideration.
The process of perception has motor components, with the help of which the perception of information is realized (eye movement, palpation of objects). Therefore, this process would be more accurately defined as perceptual activity.
The process of perception is never limited to one modality, but has a well-coordinated relationship of several analyzers, as a result of which ideas appear that have been formed in the personality. It is very important that the perception of objects never occurs at the elementary level, but acts at the highest levels of the psyche.
When a person has a clock in front of his eyes, he mentally names this object, not paying attention to insignificant properties (color, shape, size), but highlights the main property - the indication of time. He also classifies this object in the appropriate category, isolates it from other objects that are similar in appearance, but those that belong to a completely different category, for example, in this case, a barometer. This confirms that the process of perceiving a person in terms of psychological structure is close to visual thinking. An active and complex character determines its features, which equally apply to all forms.
Features of perception constitute the main characteristic of perceived objects. They are also the properties of these objects, phenomena and objects.
Features of perception: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, comprehension, apperception.
The objectivity of perception is observed in the attribution of knowledge acquired from the outside world to this world. Performs regulatory and orienting functions in practical activities. It is created on the basis of external motor processes that provide contact with the object. Without movement, perception would not have a relationship with the objects of the world, that is, the property of objectivity. It also plays a role in regulating the behavior of the subject. Usually objects are defined not by their appearance, but according to their practical purpose or main property.
Constancy is defined as the relative constancy of properties in objects, even if their conditions change. With the help of the compensatory property of constancy, the subject is able to perceive objects as relatively stable. For example, constancy in the perception of colors is the relative invariability of the visible color under the influence of lighting. Color constancy is also determined by the action of certain reasons, among them: adaptation to the level of brightness in the visual field, contrast, ideas about natural color and its lighting conditions.
The constancy of size perception is expressed in the relative constancy of the visible dimensions of an object at different distances. If an object is relatively far removed, its perception is determined by the action of additional factors, of particular importance among them is the effort of the eye muscles, which adapt to fixing the object during its removal at different distances.
The perception of the shape of objects, their constancy is expressed in the relative stability of its perception when their positions change relative to the line of sight of the observant subject. During any change in the position of an object in relation to the eyes, its image shape on the retina changes, with the help of eye movements along the contours of objects and the selection of characteristic combinations of contour lines known to the subject from past experience.
Study of the evolution of the origin of the constancy of perception of people leading their way of life in a dense forest, not seeing objects at various distances, only around them. Perceive objects that are far away as small, not remote. For example, builders see objects that are below without distorting their dimensions.
The source of the property of constancy of perception is the actions of the perceptual system of the brain. When a person repeatedly perceives the same objects in different conditions, the stability of the perceptual image of the object is ensured, relative to the changeable conditions and movements of the perceiving receptor apparatus itself. Consequently, the emergence of constancy results from a kind of self-regulating action, which has a feedback mechanism and adapts to the characteristics of the object, the conditions and circumstances of its existence. If a person did not have a constancy of perception, he could not navigate in the constant variability and diversity of the surrounding world.
The integrity of perception gives greater information content, in contrast to sensations, which reflect individual features of the object. Integrity is formed on the basis of general knowledge about its individual properties and characteristics of the object, taken in the form of sensations. The elements of sensation are very strongly interconnected and the only complex image of an object arises when a person is under the direct influence of some properties or parts of the object. Impressions from this arise as a conditioned reflex as a result of the connection between visual and tactile influences, which was formed in life experience.
Perception is not a simple summation of human sensations, and does not respond to them instantly. The subject perceives a generalized structure actually isolated from sensations, which is formed during a certain time. When a person listens to music, the rhythms they heard will continue to sound in their head when a new rhythm arrives. Listening to music, perceives its structure holistically. The last note heard cannot form such an understanding; the whole structure of the melody continues to play in the head with various interrelations of the elements that include it. Integrity and structure lie in the properties of reflected objects.
Human perception has a very close relationship with thinking. Therefore, the feature of meaningfulness of perception will play a very important role. Although the process of perception arises under the influence of direct influence on the sense organs, but perceptual images still always have a semantic meaning.
Conscious perception of objects helps a person mentally name the object, attribute it to the designated category, group. When a person encounters a new object for the first time, he tries to establish some similarity with already familiar objects. Perception is a constant search for the best description of the data available. How an object is perceived by a person depends on the stimulus, its characteristics, and the person himself. Since a living whole person perceives, and not separate organs (eyes, ears), therefore the process of perception is always under the influence of specific personality traits.
The dependence of perception on the influence of the mental characteristics of a person's life, on the properties of the subject's personality itself, is called apperception. If the subjects are presented with unfamiliar objects, then in the first phases of their perception, they will look for standards relative to which the object that is presented can be attributed. During perception, hypotheses are put forward and subject to verification regarding the belonging of an object to a certain category. So, during perception, traces from past experience, knowledge are involved. Therefore, one object can be perceived by different people in different ways.
Types of perception
There are several classifications of types of perception. First, the perception is divided into intentional (arbitrary) or intentional (arbitrary).
Intentional Perception has an orientation, with the help of which it regulates the process of perception - it is to perceive an object or phenomenon and get acquainted with it.
Arbitrary perception can be included in some activity and implemented in the course of its activity.
Unintended Perception does not have such a clear focus, and the subject is not set to perceive a particular object. The direction of perception is influenced by external circumstances.
As an independent phenomenon, perception manifests itself in observation. Observation is a deliberate, planned and long-term perception in some period of time, aimed at tracking the course of some phenomenon or changes occurring in the object of perception.
Observation is an active form of human sensory knowledge of reality. During observation, as an independent purposeful activity, from the very beginning there is a verbal formulation of tasks and goals that orient the observation process towards certain objects. If you practice observation for a long time, you can develop such a property as observational ability - the ability to notice characteristic, subtle features and details of objects that are not immediately evident.
For the development of observation, it is necessary to organize perception, corresponding to the necessary conditions of success, clarity of the task, activity, preliminary preparation, systematic, planned. Observation is necessary in all spheres of human life. Already from childhood, in the process of playing or learning, it is necessary to focus on the development of observation, versatility and accuracy of perception.
There is a classification of perceptions according to: modality (visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile, gustatory) and forms of perception of the existence of matter (spatial, temporal, motor).
visual perception is the process of creating a visual image of the world based on sensory information perceived through the visual system.
auditory perception- This is a process that provides the susceptibility of sounds and orientation to them in the environment, carried out with the help of an auditory analyzer.
tactile perception- based on multimodal information, the leading among which is tactile.
Olfactory perception is the ability to sense and distinguish odorous substances as odors.
Taste perception- the perception of stimuli acting on the receptors of the mouth, characterized by taste sensations (sweet, salty, bitter, sour).
More complex forms of perception are the perception of space, movement and time.
Space is formed by the perception of shape, size, location, and distance.
Visual perception of space is based on the perception of the size and shape of an object, due to the synthesis of visual, muscular, tactile sensations, the perception of volume, the distance of objects, which is carried out by binocular vision.
A person perceives movement because it occurs against a certain background, which allows the retina to display in a certain sequence the resulting changes in positions that are in motion relative to the elements in front of and behind which the object moves. There is an autokinetic effect, when in the dark a luminous fixed point appears to be moving.
Perception of time a little less explored, because there are many difficulties in this process. The difficulty in explaining how a person perceives time is that there is no obvious physical stimulus in the perception. The duration of objective processes, that is, physical time can be measured, but duration itself is not a stimulus in the truest sense of the word. There is no energy in time that would affect a certain time receptor, for example, as is observed in the action of light or sound waves. To date, no mechanism has been discovered that directly or indirectly converts physical time intervals into the corresponding sensory signals.
Perception of information- this is an active, semi-conscious process of the subject's activity in receiving and processing essential knowledge about the world, events and people.
The perception of information is carried out under the influence of certain circumstances. First, the situation in which the information was acquired is important. A favorable situation encourages more favorable perception than the information is worth it, and vice versa, an unfavorable situation will contribute to a negative perception of information than it really is.
Secondly, the depth of understanding of the situation. A person who is well versed in the situation in most cases is calmer about information, related events and people around at that moment. He does not dramatize what is happening, does not exalt and very adequately assesses the situation than a person with a limited outlook.
Thirdly, the perception of information is influenced by the characteristics of the phenomenon, subject or object, which information indicates.
Fourthly, stereotypes (simplified standardized representations of complex phenomena and objects of the surrounding reality) have a great influence. Stereotypes are based on other people's views about those things that a person has not yet met, but can meet and, thus, facilitate his understanding of these things.
Fifthly, perception often becomes more difficult, under the influence of unpredictability or distortion of information, inability to present information correctly.
The perception of man by man
When people meet for the first time, they, perceiving each other, highlight features of appearance that represent their mental and social qualities. Particular attention is paid to posture, gait, gestures, cultural speech, behavioral patterns, habits, manners of behavior. One of the first and most important is professional characteristics, social status, communicative and moral qualities, how angry or cordial a person is, sociable or uncommunicative, and others. Individual facial features are also selectively highlighted.
The characteristics of a person are interpreted by his appearance according to several ways. The emotional way is expressed in the fact that social qualities are attributed to a person, depending on his appearance, aesthetic appeal. If a person is beautiful on the outside, then he is good. Very often people fall for this trick, it is worth remembering that appearances can be deceiving.
The analytical method assumes that each element of appearance is associated with a specific mental property characteristic of this person. For example, furrowed eyebrows, compressed lips, a scowling nose indicate an evil person.
The perceptual-associative method consists in attributing to a person qualities that make him or her seem similar to another person.
The social-associative method assumes that qualities are attributed to a person according to a certain social type in relation to his individual external signs. Such a generalized image of a person has an impact on communication with this person. Often people identify by torn clothes, dirty pants, torn worn shoes, a person without a fixed place of residence and are already trying to keep their distance from him.
The perception of a person by a person lends itself to social stereotypes, standards, standards. The idea of the social status of the individual, the general idea of him, is transferred to other manifestations of this personality, this is the halo effect. The primacy effect suggests that the initial perceived information heard from other people about a person can affect the perception of him when meeting, will be of predominant importance.
The effect of social distance is generated by significant differences in the social status of people who were in communication. The extreme manifestation of this effect can be expressed in a dismissive, hatred attitude towards representatives with a different social status.
Evaluation and feelings of people during their perception of each other are very multifaceted. They can be divided into: conjunctive, that is, unifying and disjunctive, that is, separating feelings. Disjunctive ones are generated by what is condemned in that environment. Conjunctive - favorable.
Development of perception in children
In development, the perception of children has specific features. From birth, he already owns some information. The further development of this process is the result of the child's personal activity. How active he is, how quickly he develops, gets acquainted with various objects and people.
The perception of children in the future can be controlled by parents. The early development of the properties of perception is carried out as the child grows up, it manifests itself in the peculiarity that for the perceiving child the form of the object becomes significant, it gains meaning. In infancy, the development of recognition of people and objects around a person takes place, the number of purposeful conscious body movements grows. Such activity in the development of perception occurs before primary school age.
It is very important that before this time, a study on possible violations of perception takes place. The reason for the anomaly in the development of an understanding of reality may be in the breaks in the connection between the systems of the sense organs and the brain centers into which the signal arrives. This could happen in case of injury or morphological changes in the body.
The perception of children of primary school age is expressed by vagueness and fuzziness. For example, children do not recognize people dressed in costumes at holidays, although their faces may be open. If children see a picture of an unfamiliar object, they single out one element from this image, relying on which they comprehend the object as a whole. Such comprehension is called syncretism, it is inherent in children's perception.
In the middle preschool age, ideas about the ratio of the size of objects appear. The child can judge familiar things as big or small, regardless of their relationship to other objects. This is observed in the child's ability to arrange toys "by height".
Children of older preschool age already have an idea about the dimensions of the size of objects: width, length, height, space. They are able to distinguish the location of objects among themselves (top, bottom, left, right, and so on).
The productive activity of the child lies in his ability to perceive and reproduce the features of objects, their color, size, shape, location. At the same time, the assimilation of sensory standards and also the development of special actions of perception are important.
The perception of works of art by children of senior preschool age expresses the unity of experience and cognition. The child learns to fix the image and perceive the feelings that excite the author.
The peculiarity of the child's perception of the surrounding people is revealed in value judgments. The highest and brightest assessment is attributed to those adults who have a close relationship with the child.
The perception and evaluation of other children depends on the popularity of the child in the group. The higher the position of the child, the higher the rating is attributed to him.
The development of the perception of preschool children is a complex, multifaceted process that helps the child learn to more accurately reflect the world around him, be able to distinguish the features of reality and be able to successfully adapt to it.
