Language is the basis of culture. The language and writing of ancient Greece. 2

Language and Linguistics in Ancient Rome 9

Formation of writing in native languages ​​in the Western European cultural area. 12

Language in Early Medieval Western Europe 17

Language in the Late Middle Ages 18

Byzantine language (4th-15th centuries) 22

EUROPEAN LANGUAGES 16-18 centuries. 24

EUROPEAN LANGUAGES OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY 27

References 31

Language is the basis of culture. The language and writing of ancient Greece.

European culture in its main origins goes back to what was created by the ancient Greeks over a large number of centuries. As Europeans, we owe the Greeks not only our writing systems, but also the philosophy of language, rhetoric, poetics, and style. The grammar created by the Greeks turned out to be the mother of all European grammars.

Proto-Greek tribes, among which the Achaeans and Ionians especially stood out, appear on the territory of present-day Greece (both on the mainland and on the islands) by the end of the 3rd millennium BC, pushing back and partly assimilating the Pelasgians. They create a large number of states, of which the states on the island of Crete achieve the greatest progress (Knoss, Festus, Agia Triada,
Mallia). Here, among the bearers of the Minoan culture, the Cretan writing appears and rapidly (during the 23rd-17th centuries BC) evolves from pictographic to hieroglyphic. It was similar to the Egyptian. Around the 18th century a new system was developed - italic linear writing A of the syllabic type.
It was used, as evidenced by the monuments, in 1700-1550. BC.

The Cretans subjugate a number of islands in the Aegean. They maintain trade and diplomatic relations with Egypt and the states of Western Asia.
But the tectonic catastrophe of 1470 led to the destruction of cities and villages, to the death of the population and the fleet, to the desolation of the island.

On the mainland, where the formation of the Helladic culture takes place, the formation of the Greek states began later, only from the 17th century. BC.
(Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, etc.), and it went more slowly. Only by the middle of the 17th - the end of the 16th centuries, under the rule of the Achaean dynasts, Mycenae reached power. AT
16th-13th centuries mainland Greece reaches its peak. The Mycenaean culture of the Achaeans also influenced neighboring countries, including Egypt.
Achaeans in the 15th-14th centuries. an attempt was made to adapt the Cretan letter to its dialect, culminating in the appearance of the syllabic letter B.

In about 1200, the Achaeans make the campaign sung by Homer against Troy, which they destroy to the ground. From the end of the 13th century there is a rapid decline of the Hellenic states. From the north, the Greek tribes of the Dorians, who stood at a lower level of development, invade. Only Athens was able to maintain its independence, where many of the defeated Achaean states fled.

With the beginning of the economic and cultural growth of city-states, an excess of the urban population began to be felt, it became necessary to create numerous colonies outside of Greece, including in southern Italy,
Sicily, Asia Minor, on the Black Sea coast.

The creation of the Greek alphabet on the basis of the Phoenician script with special signs for vowels (9th or 10th century BC) was decisive for the entire Greek and European civilization. The oldest monuments of him that have come down to us date back to the 8th century. BC. The appearance of writing led to the rapid growth of poetics, rhetoric, philosophy, aroused interest in the problems of language.

Attempts to comprehend the meaning of words are noted, starting with Homer and
Hesiod. Etymology turns out to be the first manifestation of reflection on language in the history of Greek linguo-philosophical thought. Initially, the belief in the presence of an inextricable, natural connection between the word and the object it denotes, rooted in mythological thinking, dominated. In the etymological analysis of the word, thinkers were looking for the key to comprehending the nature of the designated object. The Greeks believed that every object had two names - in the language of the gods and in the language of mortals. In 5th century philosophy BC. statements about a purely conditional connection between an object and its name begin to be put forward. The disputes of the ancient Greeks about the nature of names served as a source for the formation of the oldest philosophy of language in Europe.

There was a high interest in the practical aspects of using the language. In the 5th c. BC. the science of oratory is born - rhetoric. The main method of teaching the language during this period was the reading of classical and already obsolete poetic texts with their commentary. Thus the beginnings of philology are formed. The activity of collecting and explaining glosses begins
(old or other dialect words). In connection with music theory, rhythm and metrics (especially in the Pythagorean school with its deep interest in problems of acoustics), an intensive study of the sound structure of the language is carried out.

Linguistic studies were characterized by isolation on the material of only the Greek language, which was also characteristic of further stages in the development of ancient linguistic thought. For the initial stage of the formation of science, the fragmentation and unsystematization of observations over the language was still characteristic.

The main topic of debate among ancient Greek philosophers is the nature of the connection between the word and the object (between the supporters of the principle of naming physei ‘by nature’ and the principle of nomo ‘by law’ or thesei ‘by establishment’). Heraclitus expressed faith in the truth of speech, Parmenides recognized the speech of people as false from the very beginning, Democritus was a supporter of names by establishment, but opposed the extremes of representatives of this point of view. The Sophist Gorgias asserted a profound difference between words and objects. Prodik preached the indifference of names in themselves, the acquisition of value by them only in the correct use. Antisthenes, a student of Socrates, saw the study of words as the basis of learning.

In the course of these disputes, the first linguistic observations were also formulated.
So, Prodik was the first to deal with the problem of synonyms, and the sophist Protagoras put forward the problem of the language norm and was the first to distinguish between three kinds of names and four types of utterance - a question, an answer, a request and an assignment.

The most valuable contribution to the development of the language and to the theory of language was made by Plato (420-347 BC). He owns the most interesting for the history of linguistic thought dialogue "Cratyl", in which the central place is occupied by the question of the relationship between a thing and its name. In the dialogue, Plato clashes positions
Cratylus (a supporter of the correctness of names from nature) and Hermogenes
(preaching contract and agreement), involving Socrates as a judge
(through which Plato himself speaks, expressing many contradictory judgments and not fully accepting any point of view). Plato recognizes not direct, but distant connections of a word with an object and allows the possibility of using names out of habit and agreement.

He opens the concept of the internal form (motivation) of a word, distinguishing between non-derivative (non-motivated) and derivative (motivated) words. He owns the idea of ​​an association between the individual sounds of a word and the qualities and properties of things (the idea of ​​sound symbolism).

In subsequent works, Plato's skepticism increases regarding the fact that words can serve as sources of knowledge about objects, and, conversely, statements about the identity between the expressed thought and the word become more categorical.

Aristotle was the first to explore the types of connection between meanings within a polysemic word, as well as the polysemy of cases and other grammatical forms. He makes a statement about the correspondence of the meaning of extralinguistic reality.

Aristotle makes a distinction between three “parts of verbal presentation”: the sound of speech, the syllable, and words of different categories. He distinguishes four categories of words
(names, verbs, conjunctions and pronouns along with prepositions). True, morphological and syntactic criteria are mixed in the definition of the name (onoma) and the verb (rhema). For the first time the description of separate classes of verbs is carried out. But the significant parts of the word are not yet singled out.

Aristotle points to cases of discrepancy between sentences (logos) and judgments.
As types of sentences, he distinguishes between affirmations and negations. They recognize the presence of verbless sentences. He has rudimentary ideas about inflection and word formation (distinguishing the name and case as only an indirect form, extending the concept of case to verbal word forms). Aristotle also made numerous statements on stylistics.

A significant contribution to the formation of the foundations of linguistics was made by the philosophers of the Hellenistic period (3-1 centuries BC), especially representatives of the Stoic school (Zeno, Chrysippus, Diogenes of Babylon). The Stoics were predominantly philosophers and logicians, but they developed their teachings on the basis of linguistic material (and especially the phenomena of grammatical semantics). In the structure of the sentence and in the classes of words, they were looking for a reflection of the real world.
Hence the recognition by them of a “natural” connection between a thing and its name and a passion for etymological analysis. The meanings of “secondary” words were explained by connections in the objective world. The Stoics developed the first typology of name transfer in the history of language science (transfer by similarity, contiguity, contrast).

In general, Greek philosophy of the 5th-1st centuries. BC. played a significant role in the formation of the logicist approach to language, which for more than two - two and a half thousand years was characterized by keen attention to the ontological and epistemological aspects of language learning, emphasizing the priority of functional criteria in the selection, definition and systematization of language phenomena, inattention and indifference to changes language in time and to the differences between specific languages, affirming the principle of the universality of the grammar of the human language. Philosophers were looking for harmony between linguistic and logical categories.

The ancient Greek philosophers of this time belonged to the idea of ​​conjugation of the denoting, the signified and the object. For them there is no separate theory of judgment and theory of sentence, they do not distinguish between logical and linguistic knowledge. They are characterized by the syncretism of the term logos, denoting both speech, and thought, and judgment, and sentence. They do not dismember the logical, syntactic and morphological characteristics of speech units (although they can emphasize one of the aspects of the phenomenon taken as a whole in one or another concept).

On the basis of the achievements of philosophers and linguistic practice in the Hellenistic period, philology arose, designed to study, prepare for critical publication and comment on the monuments of classical writing.
The sphere of her interests is the semantic aspect of texts.

In its depths, grammar is being created as an independent discipline that studies mainly the formal aspects of the language (and not its semantic aspects, in contrast to philosophy). It became an independent science thanks to the activities of the Alexandrian Grammar School, which played a gigantic role in laying the foundations of the European linguistic tradition. The grammar of that time is essentially an analogue of modern descriptive linguistics. In the struggle against the supporters of the principle of anomaly (Pergamum Stoic philosophers Crates of Malos and Sextus Empiricus), the Alexandrians actively defend the principle of analogy as the basis of descriptive-classifying and normalizing activity.

The flowering of lexicography is also associated with their activities. At this time, glosses are actively collected and interpreted (obsolete words - glossai and words that are limitedly understandable - lekseis. Prominent lexicographers of the Hellenistic period were Zenodotus of Ephesus, Aristophanes
Byzantine, Apollodorus from Athens, Pamphilus, Diogenian.

The Alexadrians traced linguistic regularities in classical texts, trying to separate the correct forms from the incorrect ones and putting forward the principle of analogy on this basis (Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus of Samothrace, especially authoritative in linguistic problems). They develop in detail the paradigms of declension and conjugation.

The Alexandrian school created the first systematic grammar in European science (Techne grammatike ‘Grammatical art’) by Aristarchus’ student Dionysius Thracian (170-90 BC). This work defines the subject and tasks of grammar, provides information about the rules of reading and stress, about punctuation, classifies consonants and vowels, characterizes syllables, formulates definitions of words and sentences, gives a classification of parts of speech (8 classes, allocated mainly to morphological basis, taking into account only in some cases syntactic and semantic criteria). The author carefully describes the categories of the name and the verb, provides information about the word formation of names and verbs. He distinguishes between the article and the pronoun, distinguishes the preposition and adverb into independent parts of speech, classifies adverbs in detail, including particles, interjections, verbal adjectives.
Most of the concepts are illustrated with examples.

Language and linguistics in ancient Rome

Latin writing appears in the 7th century. BC. most likely under the influence of the Greeks, who had their colonies in Italy for a long time. The Latin alphabet itself took shape in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. Gradually, he improves (the statesman Appius Claudius, the teacher Spurius Carvilius, the poet Quintus Ennius). Handwritten writing was developed (the epigraphic letter was used, varieties of majuscule capital writing: rustic, square, uncial; majuscule was gradually replaced by minuscule - semi-incial, new Roman cursive). Literacy was widespread in Roman society. The Latin script served as a source of writing in many new European languages ​​​​(mainly in countries where the Roman Church was the conductor of the Christian religion).

A special place in Roman linguistics is occupied by the largest scientist Mark
Terence Varro (116-27 BC). He owns the treatises “On the Latin Language”, “On Latin Speech”, “On the Similarity of Words”, “On the Usefulness of Speech”, “On the Origin of the Latin Language”, “On the Antiquity of Letters”, a grammatical volume of the nine-volume encyclopedic work “Science”, linguistic inclusions in works on literature, history, philosophy, and even on agriculture. In his main linguistic work, the treatise “On the Latin Language”, he expresses his conviction in the “tripartite” structure of speech and the need for its consistent description in three sciences - etymology, morphology and syntax. The treatise is devoted to the presentation of the foundations of these sciences.

For the first time, the original form of the name (nominative case) and the original form of the verb (the first person singular of the present tense in the indicative mood of the active voice) are distinguished. There are words inflected (changeable) and indeclinable (invariable).

Based on morphological features, four parts of speech are distinguished: names, verbs, participles, adverbs. Varro makes subtle remarks about anomalists about the relationship between grammatical gender and biological sex, the number of grammatical and the number of objects. He proves the presence of the deferred case (ablativus) in Latin and establishes the role of its indicator in determining the type of declension of nouns and adjectives.
The possibility is emphasized to determine the type of conjugation of the verb by the end of the second person singular of the present tense. Varro insists on the need to correct anomalies in inflection when they are sanctioned in the field of word formation.

In the last century of the Republic, many writers, public and statesmen turn to the problems of language (Lucius Actius, Gaius Lucilius,
Mark Tullius Cicero, Gaius Julius Caesar, Titus Lucretius Car). In the last decades of the Republic and the first decades of the Empire, the literary Latin language (classical Latin) was formed.

At the turn of the 4th and 5th centuries. The treatise of Macrobius “On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verbs” is published. It was the first dedicated work on comparative grammar.

In connection with the collapse of the Roman Empire at the end of the 4th century. the center of linguistic studies moved to Constantinople. Here at the beginning of the 6th c. the most significant Latin grammar of antiquity appeared - “Institutio de arte grammaticae” by Priscian, which consisted of 18 books. The author relies on Apollonius
Discolus and many Roman grammarians, especially Flavius ​​Capra. He describes in detail the name, verb, participle, preposition, conjunction, adverb and interjection, sets out the problems of syntax (mainly in morphological terms).
The name and, together with it, the verb is given a dominant position in the structure of the sentence. Priscian uses exploratory techniques of omission
(elimination) and substitution (substitution). There is no stylistic section.

Priscian's grammar summed up the searches and achievements of ancient linguistics. His course was used in the teaching of Latin in
Western Europe, along with the textbook Donat up to the 14th century. (i.e. for eight centuries).

The teachings about language that developed in Greece and Rome are two interdependent and at the same time completely independent components of a single Mediterranean linguistic tradition, which formed the initial, ancient stage in the formation of a single European linguistic tradition.

But the history of the European tradition - in connection with the split already in the early Middle Ages of the Christian Church, in connection with the presence of a large number of dissimilarity of the historical, economic, political, cultural, ethnopsychological, sociolinguistic nature between the "Latin"
The West and the "Greek-Slavic" East - there is a history of two relatively independent streams of linguistic thought. One and the same ancient linguistic tradition became the basis of traditions different from each other - Western European and Eastern European.

The first of them (Western European) had as sources the works
Donatus and Prisciana, and as a material for research for many centuries the Latin language. In many ways, Western linguistic thought relied on the postulates of Augustism and subsequently Thomism.

Another (Eastern European) tradition drew its ideas mainly from the works of Dionysius Thracian and Apollonius Diskol in their Byzantine interpretation and in the activity of translating primarily from Greek into their native languages ​​or into a closely related literary language (as was the case with the southern and eastern Slavs). Preference was given to Byzantine theological and philosophical authorities. In the European West, interest in Byzantine achievements in linguistics and philosophy was awakened mainly mainly only in the humanistic era. In the East of Europe, interest in the achievements of Western logical and grammatical thought appeared during the period of the Eastern European Pre-Renaissance and the Western reform movement, i.e. and in one, and in another cases at the end of the Middle Ages.

Formation of writing in native languages ​​in the Western European cultural area.

The letter appears among this or that people, in this or that culture, as a rule, in connection with the need to satisfy the needs of its spiritual and cognitive activity and statehood. In relation to the peoples of Europe, the formula, widespread in the history of world culture, completely retains its validity: “The alphabet follows religion”.

In its East, Christianity was adopted from Byzantium in a form that allowed for the possibility of worship in their native language and encouraged the creation of their own alphabet based on Greek and the translation of church texts into their native language. In its West, the conductor of Christianity was Rome, which preached the principle of "trilingualism" (Hebrew, Greek and Latin, sanctified by the authority of the Bible and the Christian Church). Here, in religious everyday life, only Latin was mainly used (often in a regional variety) and, if necessary, their own script was created (at first for auxiliary purposes), based on a gradual, initially purely spontaneous adaptation of the Latin alphabet to the native language, the phonological system of which differs significantly from Latin.

All European writing systems arose on the basis of borrowing
(author's or spontaneous) not so much the forms of letters, but the ways of constructing the alphabet and the graphic system that have developed in Greek or Latin writing. Here one can clearly trace the universal principle of development of writing systems formulated by general grammar in the direction of their phonetization (and phonemization - for languages ​​of the phonemic system), i.e. movement from ideography to phonography (phonemography). European writing systems are alphabetic, and such writing is known to be the most perfect sound writing system for phonemic languages. It is based on a one-to-one correspondence between graphemes and phonemes, i.e. strives to realize the ideal formula of the graphics system. Nevertheless, deviations from the ideal are often observed, consisting of: a) the presence of many graphemes (“algraphs” or “graphemic series”) to designate one phoneme; b) in the use of different graphemes to convey obligatory and optional allophones of one phoneme; c) in the use of one grapheme to denote different phonemes - often taking into account the position in the word; d) there are a number of positional variants of one grapheme. The optimal solution to the problem of graphics is to build, if not exhaustive, then quite sufficient and at the same time an economical set of rules for fixing phonemically significant sound differences for a given language.
(phonological differential features).

The formation of scripts based on the Latin alphabet was a long and controversial process of spontaneous adaptation of Latin characters to other kinds of phoneme systems, which proceeded in the absence at the initial stage of a preliminary understanding of the principles for selecting the available graphemes and giving them other functions, if necessary, in the absence of a pre-compiled set of graphics rules, regulating the correspondence between graphemes and phonemes, and even more so in the absence of spelling that unifies the spelling of specific words. Between cultural centers (as a rule, monasteries) and schools of scribes there was a sharp competitive struggle associated with the upholding of certain graphic techniques.

The creation of a written language based on the Latin alphabet went through the following main stages: writing down proper names (toponyms and anthroponyms) and other words in local scripts in Latin texts; writing in the margins or between the lines of Latin texts translations into the native language of individual words (gloss), phrases and whole sentences; translations of religious (and later secular) texts into the native language; creation of original texts of various genres in the native language.

The earliest writing originated in Ireland. Here in the 3rd-5th centuries. (before the adoption of Christianity), the Ogham script was used (it consisted in applying a certain number and size of notches located at a certain angle to the edge of the stone). The close to ideal phonographic character of this writing system testifies to the genius of its creators. In the 5th c. The Irish accept Christianity and at the beginning of the 6th century. create their own letter on a Latin basis, used by monks to record religious works and epics. Here, in a culture with no sharp confrontation between Christianity and paganism, the idea of ​​a “fourth” language is preached. By the 8th c. Ogham writing is completely supplanted. In addition to the Latin letters of the Classical period, digraphs are used to indicate diphthongs and to fix fricative consonants that have arisen as a result of recent sound transitions. Doubled spellings are adopted to denote deaf stop consonants in the middle and end of words. Methods are being invented to convey the softness of consonants after back vowels and the hardness of consonants after front vowels by a combination of letters.

Irish missionaries were active in Scandinavia, Germany,
France, Belgium, Italy, Pannonia and Moravia, seriously influencing the establishment of certain graphic canons in these countries and the awareness of these peoples of the right to widely use writing in their native language.
They had a particularly serious influence on the formation of writing among the Anglo-Saxons. At the same time, traces of influence on the development of Irish graphics by missionaries from Celtic Britain can be found.

Comparatively late, writing appeared in Romance-speaking countries, which is apparently explained by the widespread ability to read and understand texts in dead language by the 5th century BC. Latin. In the Romance language area (Romania), there were serious differences in the voicing of the same church text in accordance with the characteristics of the local folk-spoken language. Attention is drawn to the reform of Charlemagne, who sought to bring the pronunciation into agreement with the Latin spelling.

The need for their own written language is recognized in connection with the large gap between canonical Latin and the spoken language that hinders the understanding of written texts. Its own written language was formed in France in the 9th century, in
Provence in the 11th century, in Spain, Portugal, Italy and Catalonia in the 12th-13th centuries. At the same time, there were frequent and significant coincidences - due to the commonality of the Romanesque speech of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages as the source material and some general trends in sound development - in the arsenal of the graphic techniques used. So, the quality of vowels is usually inconsistently indicated, but the quality of consonants is quite informatively conveyed through various letter combinations, for example, the designation of middle language lateral and nasal sonants. These new phonemes are recorded as the result of a change in the occlusive back-lingual consonants. It is typical for scribes to strive not to break away from Latin prototypes by creating etymological spellings. Quite late (16th century) the Latin letters Uu and Vv, Ii and Jj began to be demarcated, which had a pan-European character. The grapheme Ww (from the double uu/vv) is formed on Germanic soil.

The first Czech monuments in Latin appear in the 13th century, although the Latin alphabet penetrated to the Western Slavs earlier than the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets (until the unsuccessful Moravian mission of Constantine the Philosopher and Methodius with their students in the 9th century). Czech writing is created in monasteries by monks who studied with the Germans. Therefore, the influence of examples of Latin and German graphics is so tangible. Subsequently, competing digraphs appear to denote numerous Czech consonants and diacritics to convey their hardness and softness. The creation of an ideal phonographic Czech graphics is possible only as a result of the reform of J. Hus in 1412.

Language in Early Medieval Western Europe

Differences in development paths during the Middle Ages of the European West
(Romano-Germanic cultural area - Romania and Germania) and the European East (Greek-Slavic cultural area) were the result of not only economic, political and geographical factors that divided the Roman Empire into two separate empires, and then Christianity into Western and Eastern, but and, apparently, the result of the impact of ethnopsychological factors, namely the initial dissimilarity of the mentalities of the Greeks and Romans - the two great peoples of ancient
Europe, which laid the foundation of European civilization.

The history of the Western European languages ​​of the early Middle Ages is primarily the history of the study and teaching of classical Latin (based on the canonized manuals of Donatus and Priscian and numerous commentaries on them, as well as a number of Roman authors of the classical and late Roman era). The living conditions of society and the conditions for the existence of the already dead Latin language have changed significantly, which, nevertheless, continued to be actively used in the church, office, science, education, international relations and, accordingly, evolve in the process of its widespread use in different ethnic groups. Serious differences from the classical Latin language have accumulated in medieval everyday colloquial Latin. Carried out in the 5th-6th centuries. the Latin translation of the Bible (Vulgata) reflected the new state of that language.
The language of translation was sanctified in the eyes of the churchmen by the authority of Scripture,
They treated the “pagan” authors of ancient times and classical Latin with disdain.

In maintaining and affirming the priority of the Latin language and in promoting Latin grammar to the role of the most important discipline in the system of medieval education, the “teacher of the West”, the Roman philosopher, theologian and poet Anicius, who was in the civil service of the Ostrogoths, played an important role.
Manlius Severinus Boethius (circa 480-524), who introduced the West (as a translator and commentator) to some of the philosophical and logical works of Aristotle and the Neoplatonist Porphyry, who anticipated the provisions of mature scholasticism in his writings and laid the foundations for teaching
"seven free arts" (united in two cycles - trivium and quadrivium).

In the 9th-10th centuries. medieval scholars begin to turn to their native language and literature. There are experiments in the written fixation of the monuments of the Old English epic (the poem "Beowulf").

The art of translation into the native language is developing. Known are the translations of the writings of Pope Gregory made by King Alfred and the scholars of his entourage,
Boethius, Orosia, Augustine. The most important figure in the art of translation was Elfric. He translated the Book of Genesis, and then the entire Pentateuch, the writings of the Church Fathers, and two books of sermons. The prefaces to the translations indicated that they were aimed at readers who knew only their native language.

Language in the Late Middle Ages

The Late Middle Ages is an era of fundamental changes in the socio-economic and spiritual life of Western European society, major achievements in science and culture, the formation of a fundamentally new education system that meets the needs of the development of natural sciences, medicine, engineering, etc. and gradually replacing the former system of teaching the “seven free arts”. However, Latin is still used as the language of religious texts, theology, philosophy, science, education and international communication in Western Europe, as well as a subject of teaching and study.

Logic, and then metaphysics, is promoted to the role of the new queen of sciences (instead of grammar). In the 12th-14th centuries. there is a large number of universities (Bologna,
Salerno, Padua, Cambridge, Oxford, Paris, Montpellier, Salamanca, Lisbon,
Krakow, Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg, Erfurt). The role of the main educational and scientific institutions passes to them from the monastic schools. New ideas that determine spiritual progress are now being formed mainly in universities. An intensive exchange of ideas and results of intellectual work between new scientific centers arises and intensifies.
Western Europe.

The system of views of Occam, one of the last representatives of the scholasticism of the Middle Ages and its sharpest critic, was the forerunner of the ideology of the Renaissance, which as a whole did not accept scholasticism.

Scholastic logic experienced an upsurge in the 12th and 13th centuries. thanks to the activities of professors at the University of Paris, who contributed to the dissemination and approval of the ideas of Aristotle. A more complete acquaintance with the works of Aristotle
Europe was indebted to the work of Arab scholars and especially the Spanish-Arab philosopher Abul-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmed ibn Rushd (in the Latinized form Averroes, 1126-1198). Aristotelianism in a new form came to Europe in the form of Averroism.

Thomas Aquinas, who stood on the position of synthesis of realism and nominalism, distinguished three types of universals: in re ‘inside the thing’, post re ‘after the thing’ and ante re ‘before the thing’. It understood the meaning of the sentence as the meanings of the subject and the predicate combined by a bundle. He differentiated the primary meaning of the word and its use in speech. The distinction between a noun and an adjective was served by a logical-semantic criterion
(expression of the main concept and attribution of a sign to it). He also introduced into logic and grammar the notion of supposing ‘to have in mind’.

The late Middle Ages are characterized by an increased interest in the scientific study of native languages ​​and the use of these languages ​​for their own description (under the then prevailing bilingualism with a predominance of Latin in the official sphere of communication).

In the 13th century four grammatical theoretical treatises were created, which were written in Icelandic and devoted to the Icelandic language. They were meant to be textbooks for skalds. They discussed the creation of the Icelandic alphabet based on the Latin script, the classification of letters, the Icelandic parts of speech, the rules of versification, including metrics. This fact is remarkable in the light of the fact that the first grammars of native languages ​​and in native languages ​​appear in France in the 16th century, in Germany in the 15th-16th centuries, in
England in the 16th and 17th centuries. The explanation can be sought in the specifics of the history of Iceland, where the introduction of Christianity was an act of the Althing as an organ of democracy in the absence of a state, and where pagan priests (years) automatically became Christian priests, and at the same time the keepers of traditional Icelandic culture.

The beginning of writing in Iceland in Latin dates back to the 7th century. An own alphabet based on the Latin alphabet was created in the 12th century. And in the very first of the treatises, a purely theoretical one, the right of every nation to have its own alphabet is defended, the principles of its construction are outlined, starting with vowels. One can note the strict (at the level of the requirements of the 20th century) adherence to the phonemic principle. The treatise formulates the concept of a distinctive sound feature (difference). In the third treatise, a relatively complete description of the morphological structure of the Icelandic language is given, and Icelandic terms (usually calques from Latin) are introduced for parts of speech.

In the Western Romanesque cultural area (especially in Italy, Catalonia and
Spain) initially showed an active interest in Occitan
(Provencal) language, which was created and distributed in the 11-12 centuries. troubadour songs. Accordingly, there is a need for manuals on the closely related language and art of Provençal poetry.

In the 12th century the work of the Catalan Raymond Vidal “Principles of versification” appears, containing a rather detailed and peculiar analysis of the linguistic side of Provençal poetic texts. The traditional eight parts of speech are listed here. The class of “nouns” includes all words denoting a substance (proper nouns, personal and possessive pronouns, and even the verbs eser and estar), and the class
“adjectives” - proper adjectives, participles of the active voice and other verbs. Both classes are divided into three genera. Opened in the 12th century is taken into account. differentiation of verbs into predicative and non-predicative. The author gives a description of the two-case declension and considers some aspects of the verb conjugation paradigm. The treatise was very popular in Catalonia and Italy, numerous imitations of it appeared.

Byzantine language (4th-15th centuries)

The Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantine culture as a whole played a gigantic, not yet fully appreciated role in the preservation and transmission of the Greco-Roman philosophical and scientific heritage (including in the field of philosophy and the theory of language) to representatives of the ideology and science of modern times.
It is to the Byzantine culture that Europe owes its achievements in the creative synthesis of the pagan ancient tradition (mainly in the late Hellenistic form) and the Christian worldview. And it remains only to regret that in the history of linguistics, insufficient attention is still paid to the contribution of Byzantine scientists to the formation of medieval linguistic teachings in Europe and the Middle East.

When characterizing the culture and science (in particular, linguistics) of Byzantium, one must take into account the specifics of the state, political, economic, cultural, and religious life in this powerful Mediterranean state that existed for more than a thousand years during the period of continuous redrawing of the political map of Europe, the appearance and disappearance of many
"barbarian" states.

Culturally, the Byzantines were superior to the Europeans. In many ways, they retained the late antique way of life for a long time. They were characterized by the active interest of a wide range of people in the problems of philosophy, logic, literature and language. Byzantium had a powerful cultural impact on the peoples of neighboring countries. And at the same time, until the 11th century. the Byzantines protected their culture from foreign influences and only later borrowed the achievements of Arabic medicine, mathematics, etc.

In 1453 the Byzantine Empire finally fell under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks. A mass exodus of Greek scientists, writers, artists, philosophers, religious figures, theologians began to other countries, including the Muscovite state. Many of them continued their activities as professors at Western European universities, humanist mentors, translators, spiritual leaders, and so on. Byzantium had a responsible historical mission to save the values ​​of the great ancient civilization during the period of steep breaks, and this mission successfully ended with their transfer to the Italian humanists in the Pre-Renaissance period.

The ethnic composition of the population of the empire was very diverse from the very beginning and changed during the history of the state. Many of the inhabitants of the empire were originally Hellenized or Romanized. The Byzantines had to maintain constant contacts with speakers of a wide variety of languages ​​- Germanic, Slavic, Iranian, Armenian, Syriac, and then Arabic, Turkic, etc. Many of them were familiar with written Hebrew as the language of the Bible, which did not prevent them from often expressing an extremely puristic attitude, contrary to church dogmas, to borrowings from it. In the 11th-12th centuries. - after the invasion and settlement of numerous Slavic tribes on the territory of Byzantium and before the formation of independent states by them - Byzantium was in fact a Greek-Slavic state.

Much attention was paid to rhetoric, which goes back to the ideas of ancient authors.
Hermogenes, Menander of Laodicea, Aphtonius and further developed by the Byzantines
Psellos and especially famous in the West George of Trebizond. Rhetoric was the basis of higher education. Its content was the doctrine of tropes and figures of speech. Rhetoric retained the orientation towards the speaker, characteristic of antiquity, while philology was oriented towards the perceiver of artistic speech. The Byzantine experience of studying the cultural side of speech in the development of poetics, stylistics and hermeneutics has retained its significance in the Middle Ages and in our time.

The Byzantines achieved significant success in the practice and theory of translation.
They carried out translations of Western theologians and philosophers, intensifying this activity after the conquest of Constantinople by the crusaders. appeared
“Greek Donuts” (Greek interlinear to the Latin text), which initially helped the study of the Latin language, and then served as manuals for the Italian humanists to study the Greek language).
Outstanding translators were the Byzantines Demetrius Kydonis, Gennady
Scholarius, Planud, Venetians Jacob from Venice, immigrants from Southern Italy
Henryk Aristippus and Leontius Pilate of Catania.

EUROPEAN LANGUAGES 16-18 centuries.

Already at the end of the Middle Ages, fundamental shifts began to occur in the economic, social, political and spiritual conditions of the life of European society, which took a number of subsequent centuries. They were due to the struggle between the old (feudal) and new (capitalist) economic structures.
There was an intensive process of the formation of nations and the consolidation of states, contradictions between strict church dogmas and a new freedom-loving worldview were growing, popular movements for the reformation of the church were expanding. The values ​​of the ancient world were rediscovered and rethought.

Figures of history, literature, art, philosophy, science began to move from studia divina to studia humaniora, to the ideology of humanism (in the Renaissance), and then rationalism (in the Enlightenment), which was replaced by irrational romanticism. The printing press was acquired.
Great geographical discoveries were made in different parts of the world.

The range of tasks facing linguists of the 16th-18th centuries expanded significantly.
The study and description required a huge variety of specific languages ​​- both dead (in continuation of the tradition inherited from the Middle Ages) and living ones. The objects of study were the languages ​​of both their own people and other peoples of Europe, as well as the languages ​​of the peoples of exotic countries; written-literary and folk-spoken languages. There was a growing need to create grammars of individual languages, empirical in method and normalizing in goals, and universal grammars, that is, grammars of the human language in general, which are theoretical and deductive in nature.

For some time, the Latin language in Western Europe retained its main positions in science, education, and worship. But at the same time, the positions of native languages ​​were strengthened. They acquired new social functions and a higher status. Next to the dead literary languages ​​(Latin in the West and Old Church Slavonic in the East), their own literary languages ​​were formed. In 1304-1307. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) publishes in Latin his treatise On Popular Speech, in which he points to
"natural", "natural", "noble" character of their language and
"artificiality" of the Latin language.

In the 16-18 centuries. often there was an appeal to the communication systems existing next to natural languages: Francis Bacon (1561-1626) emphasized the non-uniqueness of language as a means of human communication. G.V. Leibniz put forward a project to create an artificial international language on a logical-mathematical basis.

The survivability of this idea is evidenced by the creation in the 17-20 centuries. about 1000 projects for artificial languages ​​both a priori and a posteriori (i.e. either independently of specific languages ​​or using their material), of which very few have received recognition: volapük, developed in 1879 by Johann Martin Schleyer ( 1842-1912); Esperanto, created in 1887 by Ludwik Lazar Zamenhof (1859-1917); continuing in the form of a modification of Esperanto ido, proposed in 1907 by L. Beaufron; latino-blue-flexione, created in 1903 by the mathematician Peano; occidental proposed in 1921-1922 Edgar de. Val; novial as a result of the synthesis of Ido and Occidental carried out in 1928 by Otto Jespersen; Interlingua as a fruit of collective creativity, which arose in 1951.

Thus, the foundations of interlinguistics were laid as a discipline that studies the principles of linguistic design and the processes of functioning of artificially created languages.

In the 16-18 centuries. questions of the nature and essence of language, its origin, etc. were actively developed, and this was done exclusively in the works of philosophers. Thus, the representative of philosophical grammar F. Bacon (1561-1626) opposed it in terms of goals and objectives to “literal” grammar, that is, practical. Giambattista Vico (1668-1744), who put forward the idea of ​​the objective nature of the historical process, which goes through three epochs in its development - divine, heroic and human, as well as concretizing the same general direction and the same change of epochs, the idea of ​​​​the development of languages. René Descartes (1596-1650) was the first to put forward the idea of ​​an artificial language. John Locke
(1632-1704) associated the study of meanings with the knowledge of the essence of language. G.V.
Leibniz (1646-1716) advocated an onomatopoeic theory of the origin of language, as did Voltaire/François Marie Arouet (1694-1778). M.V. Lomonosov
(1711-1765) associated language with thinking and saw its purpose in the transmission of thoughts. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) acted as the author of the theory of two ways of the origin of the language - on the basis of a social contract and from emotional manifestations (from interjections). Denis Diderot (1713-1784) looked for the origins of the language in the commonality for a certain nation of the skills to express thoughts in a voice that were inherent in people by God. Much attention was paid to the problems of the philosophy of language by Immanuel
Kant (1724-1804).

Particularly well-known are "Studies on the Origin of Language" by Johann
Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), who was a contemporary of the greatest representatives of the philosophy of history, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(1770-1831) and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775-1854) and had a significant influence on them.

EUROPEAN LANGUAGES OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

In the 10-20s. 19th century ends a long (about two and a half millennia) period of development of European languages.

It would be incorrect to evaluate the entire previous stage as pre-scientific.
It should be borne in mind that there is no complete coincidence of the semantic content that is invested today in terms such as science, discipline, teaching, theory, research, knowledge, and the interpretation that they were given in different historical periods of the development of human research activity and in different cultural areas. Already in antiquity, people often talked about science, meaning classes on describing linguistic facts, their classification and systematization, their explanation (cf. the ancient Indian interpretation of cabdacastra as having no limit of teaching, science, theory, a special scientific discipline about words and sounds; the late antique period of the Greek word grammatikos and the Latin word grammaticus to designate, first, any educated person, knowledgeable in language and literature, able to interpret the texts of ancient writers, and only then a professional grammarian, linguist and scientist in general; nomination by medieval scholars who concentrated their efforts on solving purely professional linguistic problems, contrasting the old, descriptive-normative grammar as an art and the new, explanatory, theoretical grammar as a science).

European "traditional" linguistics was the product of a long development of research thought and served as a very solid foundation for a new linguistics. It is towards the end of the 18th century. has achieved serious results in many respects: the continuation of the rich ancient linguistic tradition; the presence of a categorical apparatus formed in the Middle Ages within the framework of practical and theoretical grammar (in the process of compiling numerous treatises-commentaries on the classical manuals of Donatus and Priscian), with the help of which they subsequently described their native languages, and then “exotic” languages ​​for European scientists; a fairly clear distinction between phonetics, morphology and syntax; development of the nomenclature of parts of speech and sentence members; detailed studies of morphological categories (“accidents”) of parts of speech and their expression through grammatical meanings (primarily in the school of modists); significant progress in the description of the formal and logical-semantic structure of the sentence (especially in the universal grammars developed on a logical basis, which include the famous
“Grammaire generale et raisonnee” by A. Arno and C. Lanslo); the first attempts to distinguish between categories common to all languages ​​and those specific to individual languages; laying the foundations of linguistic universology (the theory of linguistic universals); the development of the doctrine of the linguistic sign; accumulation of knowledge about the types of lexical meanings, about synonyms, about the ways of word formation and word-formation links between lexical units; lexicographic activity that has reached a high level of perfection; etymological research that has almost never stopped since antiquity; folding in the main extant traditional linguistic terminology.

Even before the advent of the 19th century. the fact of the plurality of languages ​​and their infinite diversity was recognized, which served as an incentive for the development of methods for comparing languages ​​and their classification, for the formation of the principles of linguistic comparativeism, which deals with sets of related languages. Attempts have been made to apply the conceptual apparatus of a universal grammar to a comparative description of different languages ​​and even to prove family ties between languages ​​(S.Sh. Dumarce, I. Bose,
E.B. de Condillac, C. de Gabelin, I. Ludolf, J. Harris, J. Bittney, J.
Burnet / Lord Monboddo, J. Priestley and others). There were experiments not only of their geographical, but also genealogical classification, either within separate groups of languages ​​- primarily Germanic and Slavic (J. Hicks, L. ten Kate,
A.L. von Schlozer, I.E. Tunman, I. Dobrovsky), or also covering the languages ​​spoken in the vast territories of Eurasia (I.Yu. Skaliger, G.V.
Leibniz, M.V. Lomonosov).

At the end of the 19th century there was a growing understanding of the need for another fundamental turn in the views on the language, its nature and essence, which would adequately meet the latest achievements in physics, mathematics, logic, semiotics, anthropology, ethnology, ethnography, cultural studies, sociology, experimental psychology, Gestalt psychology, physiology of higher nervous activity, general theory of systems, general theory of activity, analytical philosophy and other sciences that study not so much the formation and development of the objects under study as their structural-systemic organization and their functioning in a certain environment.

20th century brought other problems to the center of attention of linguists. The priority of the synchronic approach to the language began to be asserted (especially since its current state is of interest to a native speaker, first of all), which was the result of a scientific feat accomplished by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N.V.
Krushevsky, F.F. Fortunatov, F. de Saussure, L.V. Shcherboy, E.D.
Polivanov, N.S. Trubetskoy, R.O. Jacobson, W. Mathesius, K. Buhler, L.
Elmslev, A. Martin, L. Bloomfield, E. Sapir, J. Furs, as well as their students and numerous successors. The replacement of diachronism by synchronicity as the leading principle marked the boundary between linguistics
19th century and linguistics of the 20th century.

Bibliography

(brief essay). M., 1966.
2. Berezin, F.M. History of linguistic doctrines. M., 1975
3. Berezin, F.M. History of Russian linguistics. M., 1979. XX century.
4. Zvegintsev, V.A. History of Linguistics of the 19th-20th Centuries in Essays and Extracts. M., 1964. Part 1; M., 1965. Part 2.
5. History of linguistic teachings: the ancient world. L., 1980.

Most European languages ​​use various variants of the Latin alphabet. Naturally, together with the Latin language, the Romanesque peoples adopted it, with the adoption of Christianity, the Germanic peoples. The church split into the so-called Western and Eastern churches partially suspended the expansion of the Latin alphabet - many Orthodox peoples were gifted with an alphabet specially designed for them by Byzantine missionaries - the so-called Cyrillic alphabet. Currently, Cyrillic variants are used by many South Slavic and all East Slavic peoples. Orthodox Greeks remained with their original alphabet.

Further, the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets continued to spread among peoples who had not previously had their own written language, as well as among Muslim peoples who spoke Turkic languages. Previously, they used the Arabic script, which was poorly suited for the transmission of Turkic phonetics, but was preserved due to religious tradition.

It is curious that in the Soviet Union until 1939, when the Turkic languages ​​were translated into Cyrillic, they (Uzbek, Turkmen, etc.) used the Latin script, as in Turkey at that time (since 1928), and this did not at all embarrassed. However, when a few years ago the government of Tatarstan made a timid attempt to translate the Tatar language into the Latin script, this caused a uniform hysteria in the State Duma, which regarded this as a manifestation of separatism. The Russian language would also do well to acquire parallel Latin graphics, as, for example, in Serbo-Croatian.

All European alphabets based on the Latin alphabet can be divided into two groups: the “old” alphabets, which have evolved over the centuries and uncontrollably, and the “young” alphabets, which have developed in a short time, often not without the participation of professional linguists-enlighteners. The first group includes the languages ​​of the culturally "old" peoples who have long had their own state formations (not necessarily nationwide). These are French, English, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish and some others. Their orthography changed gradually, in the most whimsical way, partly (but only partly) following changes in the sound structure of the language.

"Young" alphabets were formed in the era of national self-awareness of peoples who did not previously have statehood (Finns, Lithuanians, etc.) or lost it for a long time (such as Serbs or Czechs). This process proceeded mainly during the 19th century. "Young" alphabets, unlike most of the "old" ones, are more regular in the transmission of the sounds of the corresponding language and thus easier to learn.

Next, we will consider individual letters of alphabets based on Latin, conditionally dividing them into three groups: “good” - those that in most alphabets are read as in Latin, “bad” - having many pronunciation options, and “additional” - letters equipped with additional icons that were not originally in the Latin alphabet.

"Good" letters

"Good" we will call those letters of the Latin alphabet, which in most European languages ​​are always read, moreover, in the same way, and in the same way as in Latin. Of course, we won’t mention the English language at all, since there are very few “good” letters in the writing of this language, that is, they always read the same way: b, d, f, j, n, v, z, and among denoting vowels they are not at all. That's the whole list for English.

The following are letters that can be considered "good" in the range of European languages ​​with a stretch. In French, however, most word-final consonants are unreadable. With this fact in mind, we will not mention it every time.

aa The sound [a] in European languages ​​forms a great variety, which is poorly distinguishable for the Russian ear.

bb Problems arise in Spanish - pronounced close to Russian [v] between vowels.

Dd A reliable letter, although the corresponding sound is not always as sonorous as in Russian.

ee Close to Russian [e]. In French, without diacritics, it is usually not readable.

FF It shows commendable constancy, it is read in all languages, and it is read in the same way, as commanded by the Latin tradition.

II In Turkish, it denotes a sound close to Russian [s].

Kk Constant. In Romance languages, it is usually found in borrowed words - a tradition coming from Latin.

Ll In the vast majority of European languages, it is pronounced as the average softness between Russian [l] and [l].

mm Commendable persistence.

Nn The same can be said about the sound denoted by this letter.

Oh Pronunciation in many languages ​​is quite different from Russian [o], which, however, is difficult for the Russian ear to perceive.

pp Differences in pronunciation for the Russian ear are subtle.

Rr The pronunciation is also quite diverse in different languages, but for a Russian person it sounds like Russian [r].

Uu Always [y], except French, where it denotes a different sound.

vv Always [in], except for German, in which it displays the sound [f] in non-borrowed, that is, native German words.

"Bad" letters

“Bad”, unreliable letters we will conditionally call those Latin letters (without diacritics, additional signs) that are read differently in different languages, and in addition, within the same language, they can have different readings, or even not read at all. There are many such letters. They complicate the mastery of the written language of the language, in particular, creating confusion by the fact that in different languages ​​they are read differently. However, some not quite distinct patterns in their reading can still be caught. Some of these patterns continue the tradition of Latin orthography. It is these not quite distinct patterns that facilitate acquaintance with unfamiliar writing systems that we will now deal with.

Letters k, x, y, z were introduced into the Latin alphabet to convey Greek words, that is, initially they were, as it were, optional. We observe echoes of this (although, of course, not in full measure and in a transformed form) in many European languages, especially in Romance languages, where the letter k redundant and is used only in loanwords.

Xx This is generally a misunderstanding, without which many alphabets do very well.

Yy For her, each language is looking for something different, the spread here is quite large, although most of these sounds are more or less close to [and]. This letter is often used to transcribe foreign sounds similar to [and], for example, Russian s .

Zz Often denotes the sound [z], although not in all languages.

CC As you remember, in Latin this letter is read as [ц] before vowels i, e, y(as well as ae and oh) and as [to] before the rest, including before all consonants. The letter c can be read differently in different languages, but the pattern set by Latin is preserved, at least in the Romano-Germanic languages: before e, y, i, as [c] (German), [s] (French and English), [h] (Italian) or a hollow fricative sound (Spanish). In other positions, only as [k]. In West Slavic languages With- a good letter, because it is always read as [ts]. The letter c is readily used in almost all European languages ​​in letter combinations for sounds that were absent in Latin. However, it was the Latins who laid the foundation for this, introducing the combination of letters ch specifically to denote the Greek [x].

gg In Latin, there was one reading option - [r]. However, in the languages ​​that developed on its basis, this letter acquired two reading options, and according to the same rule that we had in the case of the letter With. Namely, before the same letters e, y, i it is read unusually: [f] (French and Portuguese), [x] (Spanish), [dzh] (Italian and English), [th] (Swedish) in all other cases - honest [g].

jj In the classical Latin alphabet, this letter was completely absent. Its reading in various European languages ​​follows a curious rule. If letter g has two variants of pronunciation in this language, then j always pronounced as the "wrong" option g: always [x] in Spanish, [x] in English, [g] in French and Portuguese. If g has only one reading option [g] in the language (many Germanic and Slavic languages), then the letter j pronounced like Russian [й] or before a vowel indicates its iotation (see p. 64 [Yotation is discussed in the chapter "Russian language"]). Here is one of the certain patterns.

hh This letter in the Romance languages ​​has an unfortunate fate - it is simply never read, but is used as a service to change the reading of the main letter. For example, in Portuguese h denotes the softness of the pronunciation of the letter n: nh- [n], and in Italian it allows you to read from before i and e like [to]: che[ke]. But in Germanic and some Slavic, using Latin graphics, it denotes the same sound as in Latin - aspirated [x] (close to Ukrainian or South Russian [r]), which students of German or English shamelessly pronounce like ordinary Russian [ x]: [hev], [haben], is one of the hard-to-remove elements of the Russian accent.

1. According to M. Weber, the subject of sociology should be SOCIAL ACTION

2. Ethnomethodology studies the ways in which people of social reality(s) GIVE MEANING

4. According to E. Durkheim, the most important function of the division of labor is to MAINTAIN SOCIAL SOLIDARITY

5. In the theory of structuring, E. Giddens tries to overcome the opposition of social structure and ACTION

Topic 2. Quantitative methods of sociological research. Types of surveys and the concept of sampling

1. When studying the elements of public opinion or individual consciousness, a SURVEY is used

2. The random sample is a CLOSED sample.

3. It is methodologically wrong to include MULTIPLE-MENANT AND AMBULAR questions in the questionnaire.

4. To study standard and mass forms of behavior, the QUESTIONNAIRE method is effective.

Topic 3 . Social control and deviation

1. According to T. PARSONS, the function of social control is to minimize the discrepancies between social expectations and the actual behavior of individuals.

2. The behavior of the individual, controlled by the pressure of the group for the sake of maintaining its integrity, is called CONFORMITY

3. Social traditions and mores are a type of SOCIAL NORMS

4. Passive acceptance by an individual of group norms and opinions is called CONFORMISM

5. Punishment and encouragement in the system of social control are called SANCTIONS

Topic 4. The concept of society and its main characteristics

1. Society as the interaction of people who are the product of social, that is, focused on other actions, was determined by M. WEBER

2. Changes that occur as society acquires new technology, G. Lenski called SOCIO-CULTURAL EVOLUTION

3. A society characterized by a dynamic social structure, high mobility, the ability to innovate and the absence of a state ideology is called OPEN

4. A wide social group, characterized by a certain geographical location, political sovereignty and original culture, is called SOCIETY

5. Society has such features as territorial certainty and the presence of a COMMON CULTURE

Topic 5. Social institution. social organization

1. The Institute of POLITICS provides governance in various areas of society, security and social order.

2. Transitional periods in the development of society, associated with the disorganization of traditional institutions, E. Durkheim called ANOMY

3. A social institution in which the scope of functions, means and methods of action are regulated by the prescriptions of laws or other legal acts is called FORMAL

1. The individual satisfies the needs and emotional ties with other people in the PRIMARY group.

2. The predominance of impersonal or indirect contacts between members of a social group is a sign of a SECONDARY group.

3. A set of people who have a common social attribute and are united by joint activities is called a SOCIAL GROUP

4. The concept of "primary group" was introduced into sociology by C. COOLEY

5. The group with which the individual does not identify himself and to which he does not belong is called EXTERNAL

Topic13. The concept and forms of existence of culture

1. Shared beliefs in society regarding the goals to which people should strive, and the main means of achieving them, are called VALUES

2. Culture concentrates the best social experience of many generations of people and performs a REGULATION function.

3. Musicals and blockbusters in the fantasy and detective genres are an example of MASS culture.

4. Values-means that indicate the priority for an individual of certain types of behavior are called INSTRUMENTAL

5. The totality of methods and techniques of human activity, objectified in subject, material carriers and transmitted to subsequent generations, is called CULTURE

Topic 14. Culture as a social phenomenon

1. An important cultural factor in social change in modern society is IDEOLOGY

2. Cultural factors of social change are (are) DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS

3. In the evolutionary model of W. Ogborn, the main source of social change is innovation in MATERIAL CULTURE

4. The readiness of the individual for positive socio-cultural contacts defines the concept of TOLERANCE

5. The formation of alphabets of European languages ​​based on the Latin alphabet is an example of cultural DIFFUSION

Topic15. Sociology as a science

1. Theoretical assumptions of functionalism in sociology include the following provisions THE STABILITY OF SOCIAL SYSTEMS IS PROVIDED BY A SYSTEM OF SOCIAL CONTROL and SOCIAL INTEGRATION IS BASED ON SHARED VALUES

2. The sociological concept of O. Comte is based on the principles of SYSTEMICITY and EMPIRISM

Topic 16.Sociology as a science

1. According to the concept of Z. Gostkovsky, a low degree of reliability of information is provided by the answers of respondents to questions about the PRIORITIES OF STATE POLICY and IDEOLOGICAL BELIEFS

2. "Message of the President to the State Duma" is an OFFICIAL and PRIMARY document

Topic 17. Society as a system

1. E. Durkheim's classification of types of societies includes a society with MECHANICAL and ORGANIC solidarity.

2. The systemic characteristics of society are the MULTIPLE SOCIAL RELATIONS and the HIERARCHY OF ELEMENTS

Topic18. Society as a system

1. According to the theory of M. Weber, the bureaucratic organization is characterized by: DEPERSONALIZATION and UNIVERSAL SELECTION CRITERIA

2. Traditional society is dominated by the CLAN and the EXTENDED FAMILY

Topic19. Social stratification and mobility

1. In a traditional society, the main statuses of an individual are SEX and AGE

2. People from the HIGHEST LAYER and PROFESSIONAL LAYER more often inherit the occupation of their parents

Topic20. Social stratification and mobility

1. According to the concept of W. Warner, the lower middle class includes: HIGHLY SKILLED WORKERS and SERVICE WORKERS

2. The cultural foundations of social inequality are Confessional affiliation and LEVEL OF EDUCATION

Topic21. Social change and globalization

1. The demographic situation in African countries is characterized by such processes as REDUCING THE SHARE OF THE POPULATION OF WORKING AGE and INCREASING THE SHARE OF THE POPULATION OF CHILDREN

2. Manifestations of acculturation of Russian and Western culture are DISTRIBUTION OF FAST FOOD RESTAURANTS and RECOGNITION OF HUMAN VALUES

Topic22. Social change and globalization

1. Evolutionary concepts of social change were developed by: G. SPENCER and T. PARSONS

2. The classic hippie youth subculture is characterized by NONCONFORMISM and SEXUAL FREEDOM

Cases

1. In the middle of the 20th century, an American sociologist ...

2) BUREAUCRACY AND ANOMIES

3) Alienation and group cohesion

2. According to the ideas of sociologists ....

2) GROWTH OF SUICIDE AND INCONSISTENCY OF THE ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

3) DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL CONSCIOUSNESS AND DEEPENING OF STRUCTURAL DIVISION OF LABOR

3. An American sociologist believed that people ...

3) PLAY ROLES, TAKE THE ROLES OF OTHERS

4. The division of social labor is ...

1) DURKHEIM

2) MECHANICAL and ORGANIC

3) SYSTEM OF SPECIALIZED DIVISION OF LABOR AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL CONSCIOUSNESS

5. An outstanding representative of Russian and American sociology...

1) SOROKIN

2) RELIGIOUS and SENSUAL

3) INDIVIDUALISM and WELL-BEING

1. Wide application in sociological.....

1) STABILITY

2) ADAPTIVE (WHAT THE FUCK WHAT ARE YOU!!!?!?!?!)

1) 1-ADAPTATION, 2 - MAINTENANCE, 3 - SUPPRESSION

2. A source of information about phenomena and processes ...

1) PILOTAGE

2) REPEATED

3) 1 - TREND, 2 - COHORT, 3 - CROSS-CULTURAL

3. An outstanding German sociologist ....

2) RATIONALITY

3) 1 - EMOTIONS, 2 - HABITS, 3 - MORALITY

4. The family is one of the main institutions of society...

1) NUCLEAR

2) REPRODUCTIVE

3) 1 - MARRIAGE, 2 - EXOGAMIA, 3 - CLAN

5. Western sociology has established ...

1) POST-INDUSTRIAL

2) OPEN

3) 1 - TRADITIONAL, 2 - INDUSTRIAL, 3 - POST-INDUSTRIAL

1. As industrial society develops...

1) STATUS GROUPS

2) PRESTIGE and POWER

3) 1 - H C, 2 - C C, 3 - H B

2. Poverty exists in all societies.

1) WOMEN

2) DEPENDENCE AND LOW INQUIRY

3) 1 - RELATIVE POVERTY, 2 - UNDERCLASS, 3 - "NEW POOR"

3. Historically, stratification systems were the first ....

1) PRESCRIBED

2) CAST AND SLAVE

3) 1 - SLAVERY, 2 - CAST SYSTEM, 3 - ESTATE SYSTEM

4. Industrial society is dominated by...

1) OWNERSHIP OF THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION

2) ARTIFACTS and PEASANTS

3) 1 - GROUP Descent, 2 - GROUP ASCENDING, 3 - INDIVIDUAL ASCENDING

Creation of European writing

In 1904–1906, the so-called Sinai inscriptions dating back to the 13th-14th centuries BC (Fig. 1.8). The signs of these inscriptions in many ways resembled Egyptian hieroglyphs, but their system represented a complete alphabet.

The creators of this most ancient alphabet were Hyksos- semi-nomadic pro-Semitic people. The Hyksos conquered Egypt and dominated there for several centuries until they were expelled by the strengthened Egyptians. The Hyksos adopted the high Egyptian culture and, on the basis of Egyptian hieroglyphs, already sufficiently prepared for this, created their own script, the basis of which was the alphabet.

Rice. 1.8. Sinai script, 13th-14th centuries BC.

Phoenicians, conducting extensive trade with many countries, significantly improved the ancient Semitic writing, making it exclusively phonetic.

Greeks got acquainted with Semitic writing as early as the second millennium BC and around the 10th century BC created their own alphabet based on the Phoenician. They introduced vowel symbols that were not in the Phoenician alphabet.

The origin of the Greek alphabet from the ancient Semitic is confirmed by the preserved names of many letters. For example, the Greek letter "alpha" (α) in the Semitic alphabet corresponds to the letter "aleph"; the letter "beta" (β) - "bet", "gamma" ( γ ) - "gimel", etc.

Greek writing was at first leftist, as is the case in Semitic writing. The Greek colonies in Italy transferred their script there, on the basis of which various versions of the Latin alphabet were created.

Latin script- alphabetic writing used by the ancient Romans. It was preserved among the majority of the peoples of Western Europe, formed the basis of the writings of many languages ​​​​of the world. Latin writing goes back to Greek writing.

Proper Latin alphabet (Latin) developed in the IV-V centuries. BC e., the direction of writing from left to right from the II century. BC.

After the unification of Italy by Rome in the first century BC, a single Latin alphabet was introduced, which has survived without any changes to our time. In the new alphabet, additional signs were eliminated that were available in the early Latin alphabets, complicating writing and making it difficult to read. The Latin alphabet began to spread in Western Europe and soon became the main alphabet there.

Glagolitic. As convincingly proved by the latest studies of historians, writing among the Eastern Slavs appeared no later than the middle of the 9th century, that is, long before the adoption of Christianity.

Rice. 1.9. Glagolitic letter

Cyrillic. Following the Glagolitic alphabet, a new alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet, began to spread in Rus'. The oldest monument of the Slavic Kirillovsky The letter is “the inscription of King Samuel” (Fig. 1.10), made on the tombstone. The creators of the new alphabet - Cyrillic - are Greek monks Cyril and Methodius. Initially, this alphabet was compiled for Moravans, one of the West Slavic peoples, but quickly became almost universal in Slavic countries and replaced the less convenient Glagolitic alphabet.

Cyril and Methodius , brothers from Thessalonica (Thessaloniki), Slavic enlighteners, creators of the Slavic alphabet, preachers of Christianity. Cyril (c. 827-869 before becoming a monk in 869 - Constantine the Philosopher), and Methodius (c. 815-885) in 863 were invited from Byzantium by Prince Rostislav to the Great Moravian state to introduce worship in the Slavic language. Instilling a new Slavic alphabet, they translated the main liturgical books from Greek into Old Slavonic.

Rice. 1.10. "Inscription of King Samuel", made on a tombstone

After the death of Methodius, his disciples, who defended the Slavic Liturgy, were expelled from Moravia and found shelter in Bulgaria. Here a new Slavic alphabet was created on the basis of the Greek, to convey the phonetic features of the Slavic language, it was supplemented with letters borrowed from the Glagolitic alphabet. This alphabet, which was widespread among the Eastern and Southern Slavs (Fig. 1.11), was later called "cyrillic"- in honor of Cyril (Konstantin).

Rice. 1.11. New alphabet - Cyrillic

Russian alphabet. Like any alphabet, this is a sequential series of letters that convey the sound composition of Russian speech and create the written and printed form of the Russian language). The Russian alphabet dates back to the Cyrillic alphabet, and has existed in its modern form since 1918.

The Russian alphabet contains 33 letters, 20 of which convey consonants ( b, p, c, f, e, t, h, s, f, w, h, c, u, g, k, x, m, n, l, p), and 10 - vowel sounds (ah, uh, oh, s, and, u) or (in certain positions) combinations j+ vowel ( i, e, yu, yo); letter " th" conveys "and non-syllable" or j; "ъ" and "ь" do not represent separate sounds.

The Russian alphabet serves as the basis for the alphabets of some other languages.

B More than half of European languages ​​use the Latin alphabet for writing. But both language and writing are always the result of the centuries-old work of the people. The Phoenicians own the first alphabet in the history of mankind, which became the progenitor of the Latin alphabet. It was the Phoenician alphabet that gave the traditional letter order. On the basis of the Phoenician alphabet, the Greek alphabet developed, it is in it that vowels first appear, which were borrowed from the Semitic languages. Greek civilization fell under the onslaught of the Roman conquerors, who received the alphabet and writing as trophies. It was the Greek alphabet and the writing system that formed the basis of Latin, the language of the Ancient Roman Empire. For thousands of years, the alphabet has been transformed, for example, initially there were 23 letters in the Latin alphabet, only in the era of classical Latin new letters (J, U) were added, and the alphabet acquired such a familiar look. At the dawn of the birth of Latin writing, they wrote without separating words with spaces, and did not use punctuation marks yet.

In the spread of Latin writing, an important role was also played by the fact that many peoples chose the Latin alphabet to record their native languages, so as not to invent new letters, but to use those already familiar to everyone. In its development, Latin writing has gone through many stages, the font has been transformed, as architectural styles have changed. In various historical periods, minuscule Roman cursive and Roman capital letters, uncial and semi-uncial letters, Merovingian and Visigothic fonts, Old Italic and Gothic, rotunda and Swabian writing appear.

There is, in general, little evidence of how Latin was spoken and written before our era, in order to be heard by ear, as one ancient inhabitant of the “Italian boot” said something to another. The ancient Romans did not suffer from the lack of humor and the rejection of a strong word. True, the word was loved, though strong, but elegant.

Colloquial form of Latin (sermo cotidiānus) and common form (sermo vulgaris) had a great influence on the formation of the Romance group of languages, which finally separated in the 9th century. Latin belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. When studying Latin, one should remember that it is the key to a number of European languages ​​and to European culture in general.

The comparison of some lexemes demonstrates the relationship of the Indo-European languages ​​in the most obvious way. All Romance languages ​​retain Latin features in their vocabulary and, although to a much lesser extent, in morphology.

Latin in German. Attempts by the Romans to subjugate the Germanic tribes, repeatedly undertaken at the turn of the 1st century BC. e. and 1st century A.D. e., were not successful, but the economic relations of the Romans with the Germans resemble the names of German cities: Cologne (German Köln, from Latin colonia - settlement), Koblenz (German Koblenz, from Latin confluentes - letters flocking , Koblenz is located at the confluence of the Moselle with the Rhine), Regensburg (German Regensburg, from Latin regina castra), Vienna (from Latin vindobona), etc.

Latin in English. In Britain, the most ancient traces of the Latin language are the names of cities with the component - chester, -caster or - castle from lat. castra- military camp castellum- strengthening, foss- from lat. fossa- moat, col(n) from lat. colonia- Settlement: Manchester, Lancaster, Newcastle, Fossbrook, Lincoln, Colchester.

Latin in Spanish."Vulgar Latin" supplanted the language of the original population of Spain, known as the Iberians, whose descendants are the modern Basques. The Iberian language did not remain without influence on the speech of the Latin colonists, and some peculiar features of Spanish phonetics are rightly considered the result of this influence. Latin elements penetrated into the Spanish language from the very beginning of its formation as an independent Romance language, first due to the position of the Latin language as the state, church and language of education, then in the period of the 15th-16th centuries, during the revival of classical antiquity.

Latin in Russian. They don’t go to a foreign monastery with their own charter. The Latin word, like any other foreign language, had to bow to its four guards when entering the territory of the Russian language: Phonetics, Graphics, Grammar, Vocabulary. Some words turned out to be very obedient, and now few people know about their Latin origin ( room͵ moon, mint͵ hack, motor, centre, vienna, author and many other Russified Latinisms). Other words have retained some of their Latin signs ( aquarium, council, forum, quorum, body, radius, degree, status, tone, constitution, nation, intelligentsia, docent, incident, document, fittings, dictatorship, censorship). But there are also stubborn words that, living in Russian speech, flaunt either Latin or Russian attire, are written either in Latin or in Cyrillic. It is easy for them to do this, since they have not changed their pronunciation or their meaning (mostly). How many such proud Latinisms are there in the Russian language? No one will say, because it never occurred to anyone to count them. But we can safely say: against the general vast Russian lexical background, their number is negligible. That’s probably why they don’t find fault with them: it’s clear and so that a foreigner, even in Latin, even in Cyrillic. It is also worth saying that many of these independent stubborn people are venerable elders. So let's take off our hats to them as a sign of respect for their years and proud disposition.

Conclusion. Today, the importance of the Latin language, of course, is not so great, nevertheless, it plays a very important role in the system of liberal education. The Latin language, as already mentioned, is necessary in the study of modern Romance languages, since the history of these languages, many phonetic and grammatical phenomena, and vocabulary features can be understood only on the basis of knowledge of Latin. What has been said, although to a lesser extent, also applies to those who study the Germanic languages ​​(English, German), whose grammatical and, especially, lexical system, the Latin language also had a great influence on. The Latin language will also provide undoubted help to the Russian philologist, because only it allows us to explain the difference in the meaning and spelling of such words as, for example, “company” and “campaign”; spelling of words with so-called "unverifiable" vowels, such as "pessimist", "optimist"; the presence of one root, but in three variants in the words "fact", "defect", "deficit", etc. The Latin language is certainly necessary for a historian, and not only a specialist in ancient history, which goes without saying, but also a student of the Middle Ages, all documents of which are written in Latin. A lawyer cannot do without studying the Latin language, since Roman law formed the basis of modern Western European law and, through Byzantine, influenced the oldest sources of Russian law (Russian treaties with Greeks, Russkaya Pravda). There is no doubt about the extreme importance of studying Latin in medical and veterinary institutes, in the biological and natural faculties of universities. The increased interest in the "living Latin" in recent decades finds vivid expression in the regularly convened international congresses dedicated to it. The organizing center of these congresses is the International Academy for the Promotion of Latin Education (Academia Latinitati inter omn.es gentes foyendae) founded in Rome, whose members include two representatives of our country. The Latin language, along with the ancient Greek, still serves as a source for the formation of international socio-political and scientific terminology. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the study of the Latin language is extremely important for every person who wants to have a genuine education, striving for fruitful communication and self-development.