Descriptive and normative poetics.

Poetics as the name of a discipline - still in Aristotle.

In Aristotle's Poetics:

• - the task of describing the construction of a project
• - the task of prescription (how to achieve the perfection of form, for example, not to depict absolutely worthy and absolutely unworthy people). The prescription criterion is the greatest impact on the reader.

After Aristotle, poetics becomes a school discipline, dependent on rhetoric (poetics is a secondary discipline).

The most famous normative poetics in Europe: N. Boileau. Considers all genres of poetry, style. Points to the ideal patterns in each. Genres. Criteria - moral benefit, didactics. The instructions are addressed directly to the poet. Clarity of style, lack of trifles, digressions ... vernacular ...

In the 2nd book he talks about different features of genres.

The features of Aristotle's poetics are preserved. Description - prescription (dominates).

Purpose: aesthetic effect, artistic.

At the end of the XVIII century. the era of normative poetics is coming to an end.

Romantics mix genres, styles... Destruction of poetics as a science.

In the 19th century literary criticism appears as a science (history of literature and folklore).

MM. Bakhtin "Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics"

• - the author and the position of the author in relation to the hero (heroes do not receive a negative assessment, the dialogue between the author and the hero);
• - ideas of Dostoevsky (characters as heroes-ideologists);
• - plot (form of construction, origins of plots);
• - a word about Dostoevsky (types of verbal constructions).

Features of modern poetics:

• - study of creativity of a particular author;
• - pr-tion is studied by levels;
• - description of a certain genre and consideration of its origin;
• - no prescription.

Poetics is interested in the structure of the text. Philosophy of the author (Dostoevsky: an Orthodox person, a monarchist, a conservative, an imperialist, etc., but Dostoevsky the writer is a completely different figure; the text says more than the author wanted to say).

Poetics - the internal principles of the author's artistic thinking (through the analysis of specific texts).

Poetics is the science of specific artistic means of expression in literature. Poetics? theory of literature (poetics is focused on texts).

Poetics is primarily interested in literary text.

Any project is multifunctional. The function of ancient texts is mnemonic, memorization. Conspiracies or prayers must be remembered very accurately, therefore a poetic form arises. archaic folklore. The period of the Middle Ages is characterized by the fact that thin. functions give way to sacred, political ones, the religious cult is aestheticized, decorated. Functions may change depending on the situation.

Didactic poem - a form of natural science knowledge and philosophy ("On the nature of things").

Hood. biography. Always documentary. XIX-XX centuries - Romanized biography. Composes a biography of a famous person, filling in some gaps in the biography with plausible material. Those. partly documentary text, partly fiction.

Memoirs - informative, journalistic and thin. functions.

Almost any text can be treated as thin. pr-tion.

Poetics studies not only thin. pr-tion (in terms of style ...). Poetics is not just a local discipline. Explores the construction of any text. Methods of poetics are also used in other humanities.

Discourse is a certain type of text (special differences). Poetics is a general theory of discourse.

How does text work?

There is never anything superfluous and random in the text. The text is perceived as a system of interconnected elements. You need to show the role of each element. Dominant - what unites the text into one whole. The essence of each systems are limitations on the whole range of possibilities. Vocabulary, metaphors, etc. are limited.

Each era has its own set of thin. funds.

• - sizes (iambus, trochee ...) were created by the reform of the 18th century.
• - a rigid genre system: ode, tragedy, heroic poem (vocabulary: words that go back to Church Slavonic, and part of neutral words).
• - rhythm. accent.

19th century - non-classical size.

20th century - Mayakovsky's rhyme.

Those. restrictions in formal techniques and in subject matter (ode and elegy have completely different themes). Gradually genres are mixed (novel).

Each era has its own system of thin. means, which is often not understood by writers and poets themselves. Poetics must restore these limitations, separate tradition from innovation. Historical poetics is close to the tasks of linguistics. Linguistics studies the history and evolution of the language, at each stage the language is a system (F. de Saussure - structural linguistics). At each stage, the language is a closed complete system. Speech is its realization. The task of linguistics is the study of language as a system (phonetics - phoneme, morphology - morpheme, vocabulary - lexeme, grammar - gramme; there are rules by which these units are combined). Each language has its own rules that change over time. This idea influenced poetics. The text began to be presented also as a system in which the elements are connected according to the rules.

The goal of general poetics is to restore these systems.

General poetics:

SOUND, WORD, IMAGE.

The sound and rhythmic side of a literary text, mostly poetic (POETRY).

Sounds and their combinations, features of sounding specific to poetic speech. Rhyme - repetitions of sounds, consonance (exact - inaccurate, terminal, etc.). Assonance. Alliteration.

Speech is constructed in such a way that these repetitions, which perform a specific function, are noticeable.

rhythm

Learns different types of rhythms. Non-classical sizes, individual characteristics of poets. Rhythm in prose (sometimes the author deliberately writes in some kind of rhythm).

strophic

Rhyming order. A stanza is a formal unity (a meaningful unity).

Melodika

Intonation (in addition to the possibilities of speech, there are possibilities of intonation in the poem itself). Spoken and sung verse.

Word (STYLISTICS).

Vocabulary

Style. Obsolete words, archaisms, historicisms (may be related to the Bible), the words of the Holy Books - Slavicisms - the effect of high style. Colloquialisms, vulgarisms, neologisms (a sign of an individual style) are a low style. Functions of words in art. text.

Changing the basic meaning of the word - a metaphor: obsolete (erased), author's, individual. A sign of the style of a certain era or the individual style of the writer.

Rhetoric - classification of tropes..

Rep. synth. figures (anaphora…), omissions, inversions.

Stylistics - between linguistics and literary criticism. A word in art is not equal to a word in a dictionary.

Image (THEMATIC, TOPIC).

Any literary text can be considered as a text or as a world. An analogy between reality and what is happening inside the pr-tion.

Space and time

Interconnected unity. In any project, there are boundaries of the depicted world. The artist in each era is limited by the knowledge and characteristics of the literary trends of the era. Each genre has its own idea of ​​the passage of time.

Objective world - landscape, interior.

What can be depicted and what cannot. Combination.

Action

An exception is an essay, didactic and descriptive poetry. Motive is the elementary unit of action. Narratology is wherever there is a story.

Character

Any literary hero is a conscious construction of the author. Lit cannot exist without a character. pr-tion. Lit-ra is a way of knowing a person.

Poetics is the reconstruction of artistic means for all literature. Historical poetics is the representation of the literary process as a change in artistic systems.

Poetics(Greek poitiké téchn? - poetic art) is the science of the system of means of expression in literary works, one of the oldest literary disciplines.

In antiquity (from Aristotle (IV century BC) to the theorist of classicism N. Boileau (XVII century), the term “poetics” denoted the doctrine of verbal art in general. This word was synonymous with what is now called “literary theory” .

Currently in extended sense of the word poetics coincides with the theory of literature, in narrowed- with one of the areas of theoretical poetics.

How field of literary theory poetics studies the specifics of literary types and genres, currents and trends, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal connection and correlation of different levels of the artistic whole. Depending on which aspect (and scope of the concept) is put forward in the center of the study, it is customary to talk, for example, about the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of the novel, the poetics of the work of a writer as a whole or of one work.

In Russia, theoretical poetics began to take shape in the 1910s and consolidated in the 1920s. This fact marked a major shift in the understanding of literature. In the 19th century, it was not the works themselves that became the subject of study, but what was embodied and refracted in them (public consciousness, legends and myths, plots and motives as a common heritage of culture; the biography and spiritual experience of the writer): scientists looked, as it were, “through works", rather than focusing on them.

In other words, in the 19th century, scientists were primarily interested in the spiritual, worldview, general cultural prerequisites for artistic creativity. Literary critics were primarily occupied with studying the conditions in which works were created, while much less attention was paid to the analysis of the texts themselves. The formation of theoretical poetics contributed to a change in the situation, the works themselves became the main object, while everything else (psychology, views and biography of the author, the social genesis of literary creativity and the impact of works on the reader) is considered as something auxiliary and secondary.

Since all means of expression in literature ultimately come down to language, poetics can also be defined as the science of the artistic use of language. The verbal (that is, linguistic) text of a work is the only material form of existence of its content, according to which the consciousness of readers and researchers constructs the content of the work, seeking either to recreate the author's intention (“Who was Hamlet for Shakespeare?”) or to fit it into the culture of changing eras (“ What does Hamlet mean to us?"). Both approaches are ultimately based on the verbal text studied by poetics. Hence the importance of poetics in the system of literary criticism.

The purpose of poetics is to highlight and systematize the elements of the text involved in the formation of the aesthetic impression of the work. All elements of artistic speech are involved in this, but to varying degrees: for example, in lyrical poems plot elements play a small role and rhythm and phonics play a large role, and vice versa in narrative prose. Every culture has its own set of tools that distinguish literary works from the background of non-literary ones: restrictions are imposed on rhythm (verse), vocabulary and syntax (“poetic language”), themes (favorite types of characters and events). Against the background of this system of means, its violations are no less strong aesthetic stimulus: “prosaisms” in poetry, the introduction of new non-traditional themes in prose, etc. A researcher who belongs to the same culture as the work he is studying feels these poetic interruptions better, and the background takes them for granted.

The researcher of a foreign culture, on the contrary, first of all feels the general system of methods (mainly in its differences from what he is accustomed to) and less - the system of its violations. The study of the poetic system "from within" a given culture leads to the construction normative poetics(more conscious, as in the era of classicism, or less conscious, as in European literature of the 19th century), research "from the outside" - to the construction descriptive poetics. Until the 19th century, while regional literatures were closed and traditionalistic, the normative type of poetics dominated. Normative poetics focused on the experience of one of the literary movements and substantiated it. The formation of world literature (beginning with the era of romanticism) puts forward not the first plan the task of creating descriptive poetics.

Usually vary general poetics(theoretical or systematic - "macropoetics") private(or actually descriptive - "micropoetics") and historical.

general poetics, explaining the universal properties of verbal and artistic works, is divided into three areas that study the sound, verbal and figurative structure of the text, respectively.

The purpose of general poetics- compose a complete systematized repertoire of techniques (aesthetically effective elements) covering all these three areas.

In the sound structure of works, one studiesphonics(sound organization of artistic speech) and rhythm , and in relation to the verse - also metrics and stanza(these concepts are usually not differentiated, and if they are, then the metric is understood as a combination of sounds and their combination into stops, under rhythm - a combination of stops into lines).

Since the predominant material for study in this case is provided by poetic texts, this area is often called (too narrowly) poetry.

AT verbal structure features are being studied vocabulary, morphology and syntax works; the corresponding area is called style(the extent to which stylistics as linguistic and literary disciplines coincide with each other, there is no consensus). Features of vocabulary (“selection of words”) and syntax (“combination of words”) have long been studied by poetics and rhetoric, where they were considered as stylistic figures and tropes. Features of morphology ("poetry of grammar") have become a subject of consideration in poetics only recently.

AT figurative system works are studied images(characters and items), motives(actions and deeds) stories(connected sets of actions). This area is called "topics" (the traditional name), "themes" (B. Tomashevsky) or "poetics" in the narrow sense of the word (B. Yarkho). If poetry and stylistics have been considered in poetics since ancient times, then the topic, on the contrary, was developed little, since it was believed that the artistic world of works is no different from the real world; therefore, a generally accepted classification of the material has not yet been developed here.

Private poetics is engaged in the study of literary texts in all of the above aspects, which allows you to create a "model" - an individual system of aesthetically effective properties of the work.

In this case, the word “poetics” defines a certain facet of the literary process, namely, the attitudes and principles of individual writers, as well as artistic movements and entire eras, implemented in the work. Famous domestic scientists own monographs on the poetics of ancient Russian literature, on the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov. At the origins of this terminological tradition is the study of A.N. Veselovsky (1838 - 1906) of V.A. Zhukovsky, where there is a chapter "Zhukovsky's Romantic Poetics".

The main problem of private poetics is composition , that is, the mutual correlation of all aesthetically significant elements of the work (phonic, metric, stylistic, figurative plot and general composition, uniting them) in their functional relationship with the artistic whole.

Here the difference between a small and a large literary form is essential: in a small number of connections between elements, although large, it is not inexhaustible, and the role of each in the system of the whole can be shown comprehensively; this is impossible in a grand form, and a significant part of the internal connections remains unaccounted for as aesthetically imperceptible (for example, the connection between phonics and plot).

The final concepts to which all means of expression can be raised during analysis are the “image of the world” (with its main characteristics, artistic time and artistic space) and the “image of the author”, the interaction of which gives a “point of view” that determines everything that is important in the structure. works. These three concepts emerged in poetics on the basis of the experience of studying the literature of the 19th and 20th centuries; before that, European poetics was content with a simplified distinction between three literary genres: drama (giving the image of the world), lyric (giving the image of the author) and the epic intermediate between them.

The basis of private poetics ("micropoetics") are descriptions of individual works, but more generalized descriptions of groups of works (one cycle, one author, genre, literary movement, historical era) are also possible. Such descriptions can be formalized to a list of initial elements of the model and a list of rules for their connection; as a result of the consistent application of these rules, the process of the gradual creation of a work from thematic and ideological design to the final verbal design (the so-called generative poetics ).

Historical poetics studies the evolution of individual poetic devices and their systems with the help of comparative historical literary criticism, revealing the common features of the poetic systems of different cultures and reducing them either (genetically) to a common source or (typologically) to the universal patterns of human consciousness.

The roots of literary literature go back to oral literature, which is the main material of historical poetics, which sometimes makes it possible to reconstruct the course of development of individual images, stylistic figures and poetic meters from deep (for example, common Indo-European antiquity).

The subject of historical poetics, which exists with the composition of comparative historical literary criticism, is the evolution of verbal and artistic forms (with content), as well as the creative principles of writers: their aesthetic attitudes and artistic worldview.

The main problem of historical poetics is genre in the broadest sense of the word, from fiction as a whole to its varieties such as “European love elegy”, “classic tragedy”, “psychological novel”, etc. - that is, a historically established set of poetic elements of various kinds that cannot be derived from each other , but associated with each other as a result of long coexistence. The boundaries separating literature from non-literature, and the boundaries separating genre from genre, are changeable, and the eras of relative stability of these poetic systems alternate with eras of decanonization and form creation; these changes are studied by historical poetics.

Poetics (from Greek poietike - poetic art)

a term that has two meanings: 1) a set of artistic, aesthetic and stylistic qualities that determine the originality of a particular phenomenon of literature (less often cinema, theater) - its internal structure, a specific system of its components and their interconnections (in this sense, they speak of P. cinema, drama or novel, P. romanticism, A. S. Pushkin, “War and Peace” by L. N. Tolstoy, etc.);

2) one of the disciplines of literary criticism (See Literary criticism) , including: the study of common stable elements, the relationship of which is composed of fiction , literary genera and genres, a separate work of verbal art; determination of the laws of linkage and evolution of these elements, general structural and typological patterns of the movement of literature as a system; description and classification of historically stable literary and artistic forms and formations (including those developing over many socially, culturally and historically dissimilar epochs, such as lyrics, drama, novel, fable); elucidation of the laws of their historical functioning and evolution.

Covering a wide range of problems - from questions of artistic speech (See Artistic Speech) and style (See Style) to questions about the specific laws of the structure and development of the literary genre (See Literary gender) and Genre a , As well as the development of literature as an integral system, poetry as a literary discipline, on the one hand, comes into close contact with stylistics (See Stylistics) and poetry and m (a number of theorists include them in the composition of P.), and on the other hand, with aesthetics (See Stylistics). Aesthetics) and the theory of literature, which determine its initial principles and methodological basis. P. needs constant interaction with the history of literature and literary criticism (See Literary criticism) , on whose data it relies and which, in turn, provides theoretical criteria and guidelines for the classification and analysis of the studied material, as well as for determining its connection with tradition, its originality and artistic value.

P. can be subdivided into general (operating with general patterns and elements of literature as a whole) and private (p. of a particular genre, a certain writer, individual works, etc.). General literature includes theoretical (the doctrine of literature as a system, its elements, and their interrelationships) and historical (the doctrine of the movement and change of literary forms). Since all poetic forms are the product of historical evolution, and all of them are changeable and mobile (although their variability is different, because at some stages of the development of literature it can be in the nature of quantitative changes, and at others it is expressed in significant transformations), the division of poetry into theoretical (synchronic) and historical (diachronic) to a certain extent conditionally; however, its expediency is due to the subject itself and justified from a scientific point of view.

As a result of the development (along with the general) of diverse private writing in recent decades, descriptive (or descriptive-functional) writing is often singled out as a special area, the purpose of which is a detailed description of any aspect of the structure of a literary work, the construction of its conditional “formalized” schema (or theoretical "model" of a particular literary genre). At the same time, a number of literary critics (especially often structuralists) forget that such a scheme (model) does not give an adequate idea of ​​the work as an integral, living organism.

It is possible to conditionally distinguish between “macropoetics”, which operates with the concepts of literature as a system, categories of gender, genre, ideas about composition (See Composition) a narrative or dramatic work (especially a long form - a novel, a drama), and "micropoetics", which studies the elements of artistic speech and verse - the expressive meaning of a certain choice of words or the grammatical structure of a sentence, the role of symmetry, musical beginning, artistic repetitions as a rhythm-forming factor in the structure verse and prose, and other "small" and even "tiniest" phenomena of literary form, especially important in the analysis of poetic genres, as well as lyrical prose.

Historically, writing is an ancient area of ​​literary criticism. With the accumulation of experience, almost every national literature (folklore) in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages created its own "poetics" - a set of its traditional "rules" of poetry, a "catalog" of favorite images, metaphors, genres, poetic forms, ways of deploying a theme, etc. which were used by its ancestors and subsequent masters. Such “poeticians” also constituted a kind of “memory” of national literature, fixing artistic experience and instruction for posterity, a kind of textbook intended for young poets or singers. All of them were of a normative nature, guiding the reader to adhere to stable poetic norms, consecrated by centuries of tradition - poetic canons.

Of the treatises of the European region that have come down to us, the first experience of scientific poetry, which differs significantly from the widespread (before and after) type of normative poetics, is the treatise On the Art of Poetry by Aristotle (See Aristotle) ​​(4th century BC) who made an attempt - in contrast to the unconscious following of tradition - to critically comprehend the experience of the development of ancient Greek literature, especially epic and tragedy, identifying their common, stable elements, the peculiar nature and principles of the internal structure of literary genera and their types. Emphasizing that the basis of the attitude to reality of all arts is (refracted differently by them due to the specific nature of their artistic language) the principle of representation (“mimesis”; see Art. Imitation) , Aristotle first gave a theoretical definition of the three main literary genres (Epos, Lyrics, Drama) , the concept of fabula (See fabula), the classification of tropes (Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche) that has retained its significance to this day, and a number of other means of poetic speech. In contrast to the "poetics" of Aristotle, the poetic treatise of Horace (See Horace) "The Science of Poetry" is a classic example of normative P. Horace's goal was to show Roman literature new ways that could help overcome the old patriarchal traditions and become literature of the "great style" . This provided his treatise with a pan-European influence - along with the treatise of Aristotle - in the Renaissance and especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. Under the direct influence of both, the first European - also normative - "poetics" were written from Yu. Ts. Scaliger (1561) to N. Boileau , whose treatise-poem "Poetic Art" (1674) was the poetic canon Classicism a.

Until the 18th century P. was basically the poetics of poetic and, moreover, "high" genres. Of the prose genres, mainly the genres of solemn, oratorical speech were attracted, for the study of which there was a special scientific discipline - Rhetoric, which accumulated rich material for the classification and description of many phenomena of the literary language, but at the same time had a similar, normative-dogmatic character. Attempts at a theoretical analysis of the nature of artistic prose genres (for example, the novel) initially arise outside the realm of official literature. Only the Enlighteners (G. E. Lessing, D. Diderot), in their struggle against classicism, deal the first blow to the dogmatism of the old literature. Even more significant was the penetration into literature. historical ideas, associated in the West with the names of J. Vico and I. G. Herder, who approved the idea of ​​the relationship between the laws of development of language, folklore and literature and their historical variability in the course of the development of human society, the evolution of its material and spiritual culture. Herder, J. W. Goethe, and then the Romantics (see Romanticism) included the study of folklore and prose genres in the field of poetry, laying the foundation for a broad understanding of poetry as a philosophical doctrine of the universal forms of development and evolution of poetry (literature), which, on the basis of idealistic dialectics, was systematized by G. Hegel (See Hegel) in the 3rd vol. of his Lectures on Aesthetics (1838).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century. the dialectical-idealistic philosophical aesthetics of Hegel was replaced in the West by positivism (W. Scherer), and in the 20th century. - numerous areas of "psychological" (see Psychological school in literary criticism), formalist (O. Walzel; see also "Formal method" in literary criticism), existentialist (E. Steiger), "psychoanalytic" (see Psychoanalysis) , ritual-mythological (see Ritual-mythological school) , “structural” (R. Jacobson, R. Barth; see also Structuralism) and others. P. Each of them has accumulated a significant number of observations and private ideas, but due to the metaphysical, often anti-historical nature of scientific methodology, it could not give a fundamentally correct solution to the main issues P., subordinating it theoretically one-sided conclusions or (especially in the 20th century) the practice of narrow, sometimes modernist art schools and trends.

The oldest surviving treatise on P., known in ancient Rus', is an article by the Byzantine writer Georgy Khirovosk “on images” in the handwritten Izbornik of Svyatoslav (See Svyatoslav’s Izborniks) 1073. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries. in Russia and the Ukraine a number of school “piitiks” appeared for teaching poetry and eloquence (for example, De arte poetica by F. Prokopovich, 1705, published 1786 in Latin). M. V. Lomonosov and V. K. Trediakovsky played a significant role in the development of scientific P. in Russia. - A. Kh. Vostokov. Of great value to P. are judgments about the literature of A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, and other classics, theoretical ideas of N. I. Nadezhdin, V. G. Belinsky (“Division of poetry into genera and types”, 1841), N. A. Dobrolyubov. They paved the way for the emergence in the second half of the 19th century. in Russia, P. as a special scientific discipline, represented by the works of A. A. Potebnya (See Potebnya) and the founder of historical P. - A. N. Veselovsky (See Veselovsky).

After the October Revolution of 1917, a number of problems in poetry, especially the problems of verse, poetic language, and plot composition, were intensively developed on a formalist (OPOYAZ) and linguistic (V. V. Vinogradov) basis; continued to develop psychological P., based on the traditions of Potebnya (A. I. Beletsky) , as well as other directions (V. M. Zhirmunsky , MM. Bakhtin). In the struggle against the "formal method", Marxist theorists (V. M. Friche and others) repeatedly put forward in the 20-30s. the task of creating "sociological sociology". The development of the aesthetic heritage of K. Marx and V. I. Lenin (in the 30s, and then in the 60-70s), the philosophical principles of the theory of reflection, the Marxist doctrine of the relationship between content and form created the necessary prerequisites for further development P. in line with Marxism. A significant impetus was given to him by the creativity and aesthetic judgments of Soviet writers (M. Gorky, V. V. Mayakovsky, and others). On the basis of the philosophical and aesthetic ideas of Marxism, the problems of P. are now also being developed in a number of other socialist countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, and Poland).

The complication of the internal structure of literature in the 20th century, the emergence in it, along with “traditional” ones, of numerous “non-traditional” forms and methods, the entry into the global everyday life of mankind of the literature of different peoples, countries and eras with unequal cultural and historical traditions led to the expansion of the problems of modern literature. The problems of correlation in the narrative of the author’s point of view and the angles of individual characters, the image of the narrator, the analysis of artistic time and space, etc., have become topical. . Likhachev) , N. I. Konrad) , P. literary types and genres, methods and trends, P. modern literature, P. composition, literary language and verse, a separate work of art, etc. A special trend in Soviet P. is the work of scholars who seek to use semiotic and structural methods.

Lit.: Aristotle, On the Art of Poetry, M., 1957; Horace, Epistle to the Pisos, Pol. coll. soch., M. - L., 1936; Boileau N., Poetic art, M., 1957; Hegel, Aesthetics, vol. 3, M., 1971, ch. 3; Belinsky V. G., The division of poetry into genera and types, Poln. coll. soch., v. 5, M. - L., 1954; Veselovsky A. N., Historical poetics, L., 1940; Potebnya A. A., From notes on the theory of literature, Har., 1905; Zhirmunsky V. M., Questions of the theory of literature, L., 1928; Tynyanov Yu. M., The problem of poetic language, M., 1965; Tomashevsky B.V., Theory of Literature. Poetics, 6th ed., M. - L., 1931; Shklovsky B.V., Artistic prose. Reflections and analysis, M., 1961; Khrapchenko M. B., On the development of problems of poetics and stylistics, “Izv. Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Department of Literature and Language, 1961, vol. 20, c. 5; Literary theory, [vol. 1-3], M., 1962-1965; Bakhtin M. M., Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, 3rd ed., M., 1972; Vinogradov V.V., Stylistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics, M., 1963; Likhachev D.S., Poetics of Old Russian Literature, 2nd ed., L., 1971; Lotman Yu. M., Structure of an artistic text, M., 1970; Fridlender G. M., Poetics of Russian realism, L., 1971; Studies in poetics and stylistics, L., 1972; Scherer W., Poetik, B., 1888; Kayser W., Das sprachliche Kunstwerk, 12 Aufl., Bern-Münch, 1967; Staiger E., Grundbegriffe der Poetik, 8 Aufl., Z., 1968; Weliek R., Warren A., Theory of literature, 3 ed., N. Y., 1963; Poetics. Poetika. Poetics, Warsz. - P. - The Haque, 1961; Jakobson R., Questions de poétique, P., 1973; Markwardt B., Geschichte der deutschen Poetik, Bd 1-5, B. - Lpz., 1937-1967; "Poetica", Münch., 1967-; "Poetics", The Hague - P., 1971-; "La poetique", P., 1970-.

G. M. Fridlender.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what "Poetics" is in other dictionaries:

Section of the theory of literature (see), interpreting, on the basis of certain scientifically methodological prerequisites, questions of the specific structure of a literary work, poetic form, technique (means, techniques) of poetic art. The term "P." ... ... Literary Encyclopedia

- (from the Greek poietike poetic art) a section of the theory of literature (see Literary criticism), which studies the system of means of expression in literary works. General poetics systematizes the repertoire of these sound means (see Poetry), ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

The definition of the concept of "poetics" has deep historical roots. At different times, poetics was considered both as a special area of ​​literary criticism and as a separate science. Of the treatises of the European region that have come down to us, the first experience of scientific poetics, which differs significantly from the common type of normative poetics, is the treatise On the Art of Poetry by Aristotle (4th century BC). Prior to the appearance of this work, writers followed the established literary tradition of that time, not realizing the need for change. Aristotle made an attempt to critically comprehend the experience of the development of ancient Greek literature, especially epic and tragedy, defining their common, stable elements, the peculiar nature and principles of the internal structure of literary genera and their types. Emphasizing that the relationship to reality of all arts is based on the principle of representation, he was the first to give a theoretical definition of the three main literary genres (epos, lyrics, drama), the concept of plot, the classification of tropes that has retained its significance to this day (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche) and a number of others. means of poetic speech.

Unlike Aristotle's Poetics, Horace's verse treatise The Science of Poetry is a classic example of normative poetics. Horace's goal was to show Roman literature new paths that could help to overcome the old patriarchal traditions and become the literature of the "great style". This provided his treatise with a pan-European influence - along with the treatise of Aristotle - in the Renaissance and especially in the 17th-18th centuries. Under the direct influence of both, the first European - also normative - "poetics" were written from Yu. Ts. Scaliger (1561) to N. Boileau, whose treatise-poem "Poetic Art" (1674) was the poetic canon of classicism.

Until the 18th century poetics was basically a conditional regulation of poetic and, moreover, "high" genres. Of the prose genres, mainly the genres of solemn, oratorical speech were considered, for the study of which there was a special scientific discipline - rhetoric, which had accumulated rich material for classifying and describing many phenomena of the literary language, but at the same time had a similar, normative-dogmatic character. Attempts at a theoretical analysis of the nature of artistic prose genres (for example, the novel) initially arise outside the realm of official poetics. Only the enlighteners (G. E. Lessing, D. Diderot), in their struggle against classicism, deal the first blow to the dogmatism of the old poetics. Even more significant was the penetration into the poetics of historical ideas, associated in the West with the names of J. Vico and I. G. Herder, who approved the idea of ​​the relationship between the laws of development of language, folklore and literature and their historical variability in the course of the development of human society, the evolution of its material and spiritual culture. Herder, Goethe, and then the Romantics included the study of folklore and prose genres in the field of poetics, laying the foundation for its broad understanding as a philosophical doctrine of the universal forms of development and evolution of poetry (literature), which, on the basis of idealistic dialectics, was systematized by G. Hegel in 3- m volume of his Lectures on Aesthetics (1838).

In the 2nd half of the XIX century. the dialectical-idealistic philosophical aesthetics of Hegel was replaced in the West by the philosophy of positivism (W. Scherer), and in the 20th century. - numerous schools of various directions: "psychological", formalist (O. Waltzel), existentialist (E. Steiger), "psychoanalytic", ritual-mythological, "structural" (R. Jacobson, R. Barth), etc. Each of they accumulated a significant number of observations and private ideas, but due to the metaphysical, often anti-historical nature of scientific methodology, they could not give a fundamentally correct solution to the main issues of poetics, subordinating it theoretically to one-sided conclusions or (especially in the 20th century) to the practice of narrow, sometimes modernist art schools and directions.

The oldest surviving treatise on poetics, known in ancient Rus', is an article by the Byzantine writer Georgy Khirovosk "on images" in the handwritten Izbornik of Svyatoslav (1073). At the end of the XVII - beginning of the XVIII centuries. in Russia and Ukraine, a number of school “piitiks” appeared for teaching poetry and eloquence (for example, the work of F. Prokopovich “De arte poetica” (1705), published in 1786 in Latin). A significant role in the development of scientific poetics in Russia was played by M. V. Lomonosov and V. K. Trediakovsky, and at the beginning of the 19th century. - A. Kh. Vostokov. Of great value for poetics as a field of art science are judgments about literature by A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov and others classics. In addition, the theoretical ideas of N. I. Nadezhdin, V. G. Belinsky (“Division of poetry into genera and types”, 1841), N. A. Dobrolyubov paved the way for the emergence in the 2nd half of the 19th century. in Russia, poetics as a special scientific discipline, represented by the works of A. A. Potebnya and the founder of historical poetics - A. N. Veselovsky.

After the October Revolution of 1917, a number of questions of poetics, especially the problems of verse, poetic language, and plot composition, were intensively developed on a formalist (OPOYAZ) and linguistic (V. V. Vinogradov) basis; psychological poetics continued to develop, based on the traditions of Potebnia (A. I. Beletsky), as well as other areas (V. M. Zhirmunsky, M. M. Bakhtin). In the struggle against the "formal method", Marxist theorists repeatedly put forward in the 20-30s. the task of creating "sociological poetics". The development of the aesthetic heritage of K. Marx and V. I. Lenin (in the 30s and then in the 60s-70s), the philosophical principles of the theory of reflection, the Marxist doctrine of the relationship between content and form created the necessary prerequisites for its further development in line with Marxism. A significant impetus was given to him by the creativity and aesthetic judgments of Soviet writers (M. Gorky, V. V. Mayakovsky, and others).

There are other scientific views on the definitions of poetics. For example, the Encyclopedic Dictionary gives a second definition of poetics: one of the disciplines of literary criticism, which includes the study of common stable elements, the interconnection of which is composed of fiction, literary genera and genres, a separate work of verbal art; determination of the laws of linkage and evolution of these elements, general structural and typological patterns of the movement of literature as a system; description and classification of historically stable literary and artistic forms and formations (including those developing over many socially, culturally and historically dissimilar epochs, such as lyrics, drama, novel, fable); elucidation of the laws of their historical functioning and evolution.

Poetics as a literary discipline, on the one hand, comes into close contact with stylistics and poetry (a number of theorists include them in the composition of poetics), and on the other hand, with aesthetics and literary theory, which determine its initial principles and methodological basis. Poetics requires constant interaction with the history of literature and literary criticism, on whose data it relies and which, in turn, provides theoretical criteria and guidelines for the classification and analysis of the studied material, as well as for determining its connection with tradition, its originality and artistic value. .

The following definition is given in the Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary. “Poetics is the science of the system of means of expression in literary works<...>In the expanded sense of the word, poetics coincides with the theory of literature, in the narrowed sense, with one of the areas of theoretical poetics. As a field of literary theory, poetics studies the specifics of literary types and genres, trends and trends, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal connection and correlation of different levels of the artistic whole.<...>Since all means of expression in literature ultimately come down to language, poetics can also be defined as the science of the artistic use of language. The verbal (i.e. linguistic) text of a work is the only material form of existence of its content<...>The purpose of poetics is to highlight and systematize the elements of the text involved in the formation of the aesthetic impression of the work.<...>Generally, a distinction is made between general (theoretical or systematic), particular (or actually descriptive) and historical poetics.

General poetics is divided into three areas, studying the sound, verbal and figurative structure of the text, respectively; the goal of general poetics is to compile a complete systematized repertoire of devices (aesthetically effective elements) covering all these three areas.<...>Private poetics deals with the description of a literary work in all of the above aspects, which allows you to create a “model” - an individual system of aesthetic effective properties of the work<...>Historical poetics studies the evolution of individual poetic devices and their systems with the help of comparative historical literary criticism, revealing common features of poetic systems of different cultures and reducing them either (genetically) to a common source or (typologically) to the universal patterns of human consciousness. Since all poetic forms are the product of historical evolution and they are all changeable and mobile (although their changeability is different, because at some stages of the development of literature it can be in the nature of quantitative changes, and at others it is expressed in significant transformations), the division of poetics into theoretical and historical to a certain extent conditionally; however, its expediency is due to the subject itself and justified from a scientific point of view.

In addition, as a result of the development of diverse private poetics in recent decades, descriptive (or descriptive-functional) poetics is often singled out as a special area, the purpose of which is a detailed description of any aspect of the structure of a literary work, the construction of its conditional “formalized” scheme (or theoretical "model" of a certain literary genre). At the same time, a number of literary critics (especially often structuralists) forget that such a scheme (model) does not give an adequate idea of ​​the work as an integral, living organism.

Also, the content of the concept of "poetics" can be conditionally divided into "macropoetics", which operates with the concepts of literature as a system, categories of gender, genre, ideas about the composition of a narrative or dramatic work (especially a large form - a novel, drama), and "micropoetics", studying the elements of artistic speech and verse - the expressive meaning of a certain choice of words or the grammatical structure of a sentence, the role of symmetry, musical principles, artistic repetitions as a rhythm-forming factor in the structure of verse and prose, and other "small" and even "tiniest" phenomena of literary form, especially important in the analysis of poetic genres, as well as lyrical prose.

Ivanov Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich in the Concise Literary Encyclopedia writes the following: “Poetics<...>- the science of the structure of literary works and the system of aesthetic means used in them. Consists of general poetics, exploring the artistic means and laws of construction of any work; descriptive poetics, which deals with the description of the structure of specific works of individual authors or entire periods, and historical poetics, which studies the development of literary and artistic means.

General poetics explores the possible ways of artistic embodiment of the writer's intention and the laws of combining different methods depending on the genre, literary type and literary type.<...>Artistic means can be classified according to different levels, located between the idea (which is the highest level) and its final embodiment in the verbal fabric.<...>

Descriptive poetics aims to recreate that path from the idea to the final text, following which the researcher can fully penetrate the author's intention. At the same time, different levels and parts of the work are considered as a whole.<...>Historical poetics studies the development of both individual artistic devices (epithets, metaphors, rhymes, etc.) and categories (artistic time, space, main oppositions of signs), as well as entire systems of such devices and categories characteristic of a particular era.

Poetics, as a part of literary criticism, covers a wide range of literary tasks - from the problem of form and composition to the symbolism of images in the work of a particular writer. Thus, we can say that every literary critic or critic, to one degree or another, deals with issues of poetics.

Summarizing the above, we come to the conclusion that poetics is a certain set of methods and techniques of creativity used by authors at a certain stage in the development of literature. Thus, one can single out ancient poetics, the poetics of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, postmodernism, etc. But it would be incorrect to approach poetics as a part of literary criticism only from the position of chronology. The complication of the internal structure of literature in the 20th century, the emergence in it, along with the “traditional” ones, of numerous “non-traditional” forms and techniques, the entry into the global everyday life of mankind of the literature of different peoples, countries and eras with unequal cultural and historical traditions led to the expansion of the problems of modern poetics. The problems of correlation in the narration of the author's point of view and the angles of individual characters, the image of the narrator, the analysis of artistic time and space, etc., have become topical. I. Konrad), the poetics of literary types and genres, methods and trends, the poetics of modern literature, composition, literary language and verse, a separate work of art, etc.

In the framework of our research, we consider poetics to be the closest definition of poetics as a complex of certain artistic methods and techniques aimed at the implementation in the text of certain narrative types or images in a literary work.

Poetics(Greek poiētiké téchnē - poetic art) - ϶ᴛᴏ the science of the system of means of expression in literary works, one of the oldest literary disciplines.

In antiquity (from Aristotle (4th century BC) to the theorist of classicism N. Boileau (XVII century), the term ʼʼpoeticsʼʼ denoted the doctrine of verbal art in general. This word was synonymous with what is now called ʼʼtheory of literatureʼʼ.

Today at extended sense of the word poetics coincides with the theory of literature, in narrowed- with one of the areas of theoretical poetics.

How field of literary theory poetics studies the specifics of literary types and genres, currents and trends, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal connection and correlation of different levels of the artistic whole. Given the dependence on which aspect (and volume of the concept) is put forward in the center of the study, it is customary to talk, for example, about the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of the novel, the poetics of the work of a writer as a whole or of one work.

In Russia, theoretical poetics began to take shape in the 1910s and consolidated in the 1920s. This fact marked a major shift in the understanding of literature. In the 19th century, the subject of study was mainly not the works themselves, but what was embodied and refracted in them (public consciousness, legends and myths, plots and motives as a common heritage of culture; the biography and spiritual experience of the writer): scientists looked, as it were, ʼʼthrough the worksʼʼ rather than focusing on them. In other words, in the 19th century, scientists were primarily interested in the spiritual, worldview, general cultural prerequisites for artistic creativity. Literary critics were primarily occupied with studying the conditions in which works were created, while much less attention was paid to the analysis of the texts themselves. The formation of theoretical poetics contributed to a change in the situation, the works themselves became the main object, while everything else (psychology, views and biography of the author, the social genesis of literary creativity and the impact of works on the reader) is perceived as something auxiliary and secondary.

Since all means of expression in literature ultimately come down to language, poetics must also be defined as the science of the artistic use of language. The verbal (that is, linguistic) text of a work is the only material form of the existence of its content; according to it, the consciousness of readers and researchers constructs the content of the work, seeking either to recreate the author's intention (ʼʼWho was Hamlet for Shakespeare?ʼʼ) or to fit it into the culture of the changing eras (ʼʼWhat does Hamlet mean to us?ʼʼ). Both approaches are ultimately based on the verbal text studied by poetics. Hence the importance of poetics in the system of literary criticism.

The purpose of poetics is to single out and systematize the elements of the text participating in the formation of the aesthetic impression of the work. All elements of artistic speech are involved in this, but to varying degrees: for example, in lyrical poems plot elements play a small role and rhythm and phonics play a large role, and vice versa in narrative prose. Every culture has its own set of tools that distinguish literary works from non-literary ones: restrictions are imposed on rhythm (verse), vocabulary and syntax (ʼʼpoetic languageʼʼ), themes (favorite types of characters and events). Against the background of this system of means, its violations are no less strong aesthetic stimulus: ʼʼ prosaismsʼʼ in poetry, the introduction of new non-traditional themes in prose, etc.
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The researcher, who belongs to the same culture as the work he is studying, feels these poetic interruptions better, and the background takes them for granted. The researcher of a foreign culture, on the contrary, first of all feels the general system of techniques (mainly in its differences from what he is accustomed to) and less - the system of its violations. The study of the poetic system ʼʼfrom withinʼʼ of a given culture leads to the construction normative poetics(more conscious, as in the era of classicism, or less conscious, as in European literature of the 19th century), research ʼʼfrom outsideʼʼ - to the construction descriptive poetics. Until the 19th century, while regional literatures were closed and traditionalistic, the normative type of poetics dominated. Normative poetics focused on the experience of one of the literary movements and substantiated it. The formation of world literature (beginning with the era of romanticism) puts forward not the first plan the task of creating descriptive poetics.

Usually vary general poetics(theoretical or systematic - ʼʼmacropoeticsʼʼ) private(or actually descriptive - ʼʼmicropoeticsʼʼ) and historical.

General poetics, which explains the universal properties of verbal and artistic works, is divided into three areas, studying respectively sound, verbal and figurative structure of the text.

The purpose of general poetics- compose a complete systematized repertoire of techniques (aesthetically effective elements) covering all of these three areas.

In the sound structure of works, one studiesphonics(sound organization of artistic speech) and rhythm , and in relation to the verse - also metrics and stanza(these concepts are usually not differentiated, and if they are, then it is customary to understand the combination of sounds and their combination into stops under the metrics, and the combination of stops into lines under rhythm).

Since the primary material for study in this case is provided by poetic texts, this area is often called (too narrowly) poetry.

AT verbal structure features are being studied vocabulary, morphology and syntax works; the corresponding area is called style(the extent to which stylistics as linguistic and literary disciplines coincide with each other, there is no consensus). Features of vocabulary (ʼʼselection of wordsʼʼ) and syntax (ʼʼcombination of wordsʼʼ) have long been studied by poetics and rhetoric, where they were considered as stylistic figures and tropes. Features of morphology (ʼʼpoetry of grammarʼʼ) have become the subject of consideration in poetics only recently.

AT figurative system works are studied images(characters and items), motives(actions and deeds) stories(connected sets of actions). This area is usually called ʼʼtopicsʼʼ (traditional name), ʼʼthematicsʼʼ (B. Tomashevsky) or ʼʼpoeticsʼʼ in the narrow sense of the word (B. Yarkho). If poetry and stylistics have been considered in poetics since ancient times, then the topic, on the contrary, was developed little, since it was believed that the artistic world of works is no different from the real world; in this regard, a generally accepted classification of the material has not yet been developed here.

Private poetics is engaged in the study of literary texts in all of the above aspects, which allows you to create an ʼʼmodelʼʼ - an individual system of aesthetically effective properties of a work.

In this case, the word ʼʼpoeticsʼʼ defines a certain facet of the literary process, namely, the attitudes and principles of individual writers, as well as artistic movements and entire eras, implemented in the work. Famous domestic scientists own monographs on the poetics of ancient Russian literature, on the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov. At the origins of this terminological tradition is the study of A.N. Veselovsky (1838 - 1906) of V.A. Zhukovsky, where there is a chapter ʼʼRomantic Poetics of Zhukovskyʼʼ.

The main problem of private poetics is composition , that is, the mutual correlation of all aesthetically significant elements of the work (phonic, metric, stylistic, figurative plot and general composition, uniting them) in their functional relationship with the artistic whole.

Here the difference between a small and a large literary form is essential: in a small form, the number of connections between elements, although large, is not inexhaustible, and the role of each in the system of the whole must be shown comprehensively; this is impossible in a grand form, and a significant part of the internal connections remains unaccounted for as aesthetically imperceptible (for example, the connection between phonics and plot).

The final concepts to which all means of expression are raised in the analysis are the ʼʼimage of the worldʼʼ (with its main characteristics, artistic time and artistic space) and ʼʼthe image of the authorʼʼ, the interaction of which gives the ʼʼpoint of viewʼʼ, which determines everything that is important in the structure of the work. These three concepts were put forward in poetics on the experience of studying the literature of the 19th-20th centuries; before that, European poetics was content with a simplified distinction between three literary genres: drama (giving the image of the world), lyric (giving the image of the author) and the epic intermediate between them.

The basis of private poetics (ʼʼmicropoeticsʼʼ) are descriptions of individual works, but more generalized descriptions of groups of works (one cycle, one author, genre, literary movement, historical era) are also possible. Such descriptions can be formalized to a list of the initial elements of the model and a list of rules for their connection; as a result of the consistent application of these rules, the process of the gradual creation of a work from thematic and ideological design to the final verbal design (the so-called generative poetics ).

Historical poetics studies the evolution of individual poetic devices and their systems with the help of comparative historical literary criticism, revealing the common features of the poetic systems of different cultures and reducing them either (genetically) to a common source or (typologically) to the universal patterns of human consciousness.

The roots of literary literature go back to oral literature, which is the main material of historical poetics, which sometimes makes it possible to reconstruct the course of development of individual images, stylistic figures and poetic meters from deep (for example, common Indo-European antiquity).

The subject of historical poetics, which exists with the composition of comparative historical literary criticism, is the evolution of verbal and artistic forms (with content), as well as the creative principles of writers: their aesthetic attitudes and artistic worldview.

The main problem of historical poetics is genre in the broadest sense of the word, from fiction in general to such varieties as the ʼʼEuropean love elegyʼʼ, ʼʼclassic tragedyʼʼ, ʼʼpsychological novelʼʼ, etc.
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- that is, a historically established set of poetic elements of various kinds, not derived from each other, but associated with each other as a result of a long coexistence. The boundaries separating literature from non-literature, and the boundaries separating genre from genre, are changeable, and the eras of relative stability of these poetic systems alternate with eras of decanonization and form creation; these changes are studied by historical poetics.