Full and part-time employment of resources in the economy. Types of employment

FULL EMPLOYMENT

FULL EMPLOYMENT

(full employment) A situation where every able-bodied person has a job. It is highly unlikely that such a situation could ever arise in real life, even under conditions of a general excess of demand over supply in the labor market. Some forms of unemployment will probably never be completely eliminated. Such forms include, in particular, frictional unemployment, when those who left the sectors of the economy that are experiencing a recession have not yet found a job in steadily developing industries. In addition, job-seeking unemployment can also be included here, that is, people are temporarily unemployed due to the fact that they are looking for work, the pay and conditions of which meet their requirements. If this does not happen, then it may take some time for them to realize the overestimation of their requirements. Finally, there will always be people whose past or present behavior prevents them from getting or keeping a job. When economists talk about full employment, they usually mean virtually full employment, which means that unemployment exists only in the forms mentioned above. There are many doubts about the ability to keep unemployment even at this level if it is below the rate of unemployment, not leading to increased inflation (non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment, NAIRU).

Economy. Dictionary. - M.: "INFRA-M", Publishing house "Ves Mir". J. Black. General editorial staff: Doctor of Economics Osadchaya I.M.. 2000 .

FULL EMPLOYMENT

the presence of a sufficient number of jobs to satisfy the demands for work of the entire working-age population of the country, the practical absence of long-term unemployment, the ability to provide those who wish to work jobs that correspond to their professional orientation, education, and work experience.

Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B.. Modern economic dictionary. - 2nd ed., corrected. Moscow: INFRA-M. 479 p.. 1999 .

Economic dictionary. 2000 .

See what "FULL EMPLOYMENT" is in other dictionaries:

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FULL EMPLOYMENT Professional education. Dictionary

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- This is the part of the population that offers its labor for the production of goods and services.

The economically active population (also called the labor force) includes two categories - employed and unemployed.

Employed persons include persons of both sexes aged 16 years and older, as well as persons of younger ages who, during the period under review:

• performed work for hire for remuneration, money or paid in kind, as well as other work that generates income;
• temporarily absent from work due to: illness or injury; days off; annual leave; various types of vacations, both with pay and without pay, time off; vacations at the initiative of the administration; strikes and other reasons;
• did work without pay in a family business.

When classifying or not classifying a person as employed, the criterion of one hour is used. In Russia, when surveying employment, the number of employed includes persons who worked one hour or more in the surveyed week. The use of this criterion is due to the fact that it is necessary to cover all types of employment that may exist in the country, from permanent to short-term, casual and other types of irregular employment.

The unemployed include persons aged 16 and older who, during the period under review:

• did not have a job (or an income-generating occupation);
• looking for a job;
• were ready to start working.

This definition is in line with the methodology of the International Labor Organization (ILO). When classifying a person as unemployed, all three criteria mentioned above must be taken into account.

This is the population that is not part of the labor force. This includes: pupils and students; pensioners; persons receiving disability pensions; persons engaged in housekeeping; persons who have stopped looking for a job, having exhausted all the possibilities of obtaining it, but who are able and willing to work; other persons who do not need to work regardless of the source of income.

The categories of economic activity of the population considered above do not imply that once having got into any group, a person remains there forever. has a highly dynamic nature, therefore, one should consider not only the size of each group for a certain period of time, but also the movement (flows) of people between different groups. The diagram below illustrates the dynamic model of the labor market.

In the diagram, arrows represent the directions of movement of people from one category to another. The arrows going from the "employed" category show a decrease in this group due to the fact that people for some reason leave their previous job, but cannot instantly find another one (arrow to the "unemployed" category) or stop working altogether, leaving retired, or guided by other reasons (arrow to the category "economically inactive population"). Employment increases if a part of the voluntarily unemployed population gets a job (arrow from the category "economically inactive population"), or if a part of the unemployed finds a job (arrow from the category "unemployed"). Part of the unemployed population may despair of finding a job and leave the labor force (arrow from "unemployed" to "inactive population"), or vice versa, part of the voluntarily unemployed decide to work and start searching (arrow from "inactive population" to "unemployed" ).

In the short run, when the supply of capital is fixed, the volume of national production depends directly on the amount of labor used. Obviously, the more people employed in production, the more volume can be produced. It can be seen from the diagram that not the entire population of the country, but only some part of it, participates in the creation of the national product. The question arises, what is the largest number of workers that can be used in the country's economy so that the volume of national production is maximum. This indicator is called full time.

Full employment is a long-term situation in which the labor market is in equilibrium. This means that all people who want to work are engaged in the production process and it is impossible to increase the number of workers by non-violent methods. Thus, we can also talk about the maximum volume of production, since all the economic resources available at the moment are used to their full capacity.

Full employment was understood as such a state of the economy, when all labor resources were involved in social production. In world economic theory and practice, full employment is considered to be achieved when everyone who wants to work has a job at the current level of wages. Full employment corresponds to a certain level of "natural unemployment" - no more than 3.5-6.5% of the total labor force.

busy

Employed in the economy include persons who in the reporting period performed work for hire for remuneration, as well as income-generating work self-employed, work in a family enterprise without pay, employed in the household in the production of goods and services for sale, for which this work is basic. This also includes persons who were temporarily absent from work for various reasons (annual leave, study leave, illness, weekends and holidays, leave without pay or with partial pay at the initiative of the administration, etc.).

Employment rate

The employment rate shows the ratio of the number of employed people in the economy to the number of economically active population.

• employees of working age
• self-employed people
• family workers (including unpaid work)
• employers
• members of cooperatives
• collective farmers and persons employed in the household
• employees of retirement age
• working persons younger than working age

Unemployed

• did not have a job (another profitable occupation);
• were looking for work in any form;
• were ready to start working.

Retirees, students, students and the disabled are considered unemployed if they were looking for work and were ready to start working. The concept of the unemployed corresponds to the standards of the International Labor Organization (ILO).

Statistics determine the number of unemployed by sex, age, marital status, in urban and rural areas, by level of education, by work experience (whether or not work experience is available), due to job loss (liquidation of an enterprise, expiration of a temporary or seasonal work, voluntarily, for other reasons).

The total number of unemployed separately takes into account the number of unemployed registered with state employment services according to the data of the Ministry of Labor and Social Development of the Russian Federation. At the end of November 2000, out of the total number of unemployed, only 1037 thousand people. (which is 14.8%) was registered with the employment service. Bodies of the State Employment Service maintain statistics on those who applied for employment and the number of employed. Statistics on the number and composition of the unemployed is necessary for the development of social programs to increase the employment of the economically active population, improve and stabilize the state of the Russian labor market.

The information base for calculating employment and unemployment indicators is the current (monthly, quarterly, annual) statistical reporting on the labor of organizations, data from reports of small enterprises, materials from sample surveys of the population on employment issues, reporting from employment services on the number and composition of the unemployed and other information.

unemployment rate

The ratio of the number of unemployed to the number of economically active population.

The sum of the employment rate and the unemployment rate is equal to one.

Indicators of the composition of employed persons in the economy

Russian statistics has extensive experience in studying the composition of employed persons. Statistical annual collections publish information on the distribution of employed persons according to various criteria.

Accounting for employed persons by gender

As of the end of November 2000, 64,686 thousand people were employed in the Russian economy. men accounted for 33,375 thousand people, or 51.6%. By regions, sectors of the economy, these indicators differ significantly.

Distribution of employed persons by age

The average age of employed persons at the end of November 2000 was 40.6 years, among them the average age of men was 39.2; women - 41.8 years. Almost half of all employees (48.9%) are between 20 and 39 years old inclusive; 30.4% are aged 40 to 49 inclusive; over the age of 50 - 19.1% (out of 64,686 thousand employed persons).

Distribution of employees by education

higher professional - 21.7%; incomplete higher professional - 4.5; secondary vocational - 28.7; primary vocational - 11.0; average (complete) general - 23.5; secondary general and primary - 10.7%.

Statistical authorities systematically study distribution of employees by sectors of the economy: for each sector of the economy, the number of employees and the share in the total number of employees are determined. Of the total average annual number of employed persons in 2000 (64,600 thousand people), the following were employed: c - 22.7%; in agriculture - 13.0; in construction - 7.9; in wholesale and retail trade and public catering - 14.6%. Over the years of the market economy, there have been significant changes in the distribution of employees by industry in the Russian labor market. The proportion of those employed in industry (29.6% in 1992) and those employed in construction (11.0% in 1992) decreased. The proportion of employed persons increased in trade and public catering (7.9% in 1992), and in management (from 1.9 to 4.5%).

Statistics studies distribution of employees by type of ownership. During the period from 1992 to 2000, a significant redistribution of employed persons by form of ownership took place in the Russian. The share of employed persons in organizations of state and municipal ownership decreased from 68.9 to 38.1%, and the share of employees in private enterprises increased from 19.5 to 45.0%, mixed Russian ownership increased from 10.5 to 14 ,1%, the property of public and religious organizations has not changed and remained at the level of 0.8%, foreign, joint Russian and foreign increased from 0.3 to 2.0%, but is a very small share.

Activity groups

Depending on the type of work performed or occupation of the employee, his qualifications and in accordance with the All-Russian classifier of occupations (OKZ) employed persons are divided into the following main groups of occupations:

• heads (representatives) of authorities and administration, including heads of organizations, institutions and enterprises;
• top-level specialists in the field of various sciences (natural, engineering, biological, agricultural, etc.);
• mid-level specialists in various types of activities (in the field of education, healthcare, in the field of financial, economic, administrative and social activities, etc.);
• employees involved in the preparation of information, paperwork and accounting;
• service sector employees;
• workers of housing and communal services;
• skilled workers in agricultural production, forestry, hunting, fish farming and fishing, producing products for personal consumption;
• workers in the metal-cutting and machine-building industries;
• professions of transport and communication workers;
• unskilled workers employed in industry, construction, transport, communications, geology and mineral exploration.

The above incomplete list of groups and subgroups of occupations gives an idea of ​​the importance of such a study of employed persons. The All-Russian Classifier of Occupations was developed on the basis of the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO), which makes it possible to use information on the distribution by occupation for international comparisons on the employment of the economically active population.

By employment status

According to the status of employment, the entire employed population is divided into two groups: employed and self-employed.

Employees(employees) are persons whose activities are carried out under the direct control of the employer (or persons authorized by the employer). They conclude an employment agreement (contract) with the head of an organization of any form of ownership or an individual on working conditions and its payment.

Self-employed These are persons employed in their own enterprises. They are responsible for the state of affairs in the enterprise. Their remuneration depends on the financial results of their activities.

• employers (hiring workers on their own or with business partners, it can be a legal entity or an entrepreneur without forming a legal entity, but using the labor of employees);
• self-employed (work independently without the involvement of employees on a permanent basis);
• members of production cooperatives (each member of the cooperative participates on an equal footing in solving production and management issues);
• unpaid family workers (the activities of these persons are headed by a relative living in this household, the degree of their participation in entrepreneurial activities varies in time, participation in solving various issues).

Any society, every economic agent strives to use resources efficiently. They try to get the maximum amount of useful goods and services produced from limited resources. To achieve this goal, society must fully use (completely occupy) its resources and thus ensure that the highest possible output is obtained. Full employment is ensured by the use of all available resources. The economy must provide work for all who are willing and able to work, use all arable land, all factors of production. Since only resources suitable for this should be used, one should keep in mind the restrictions that social practice and customs impose on recognizing resources as suitable for use: legislation or customs may determine the age limits for the use of youth and the elderly. The most possible volume of production is ensured by the efficient allocation of resources in certain areas, so that they make the greatest contribution to the total volume of production. Full production also involves the use of the best available technology.

The problem of efficiency is the most important problem of the economy. Economic activity at the micro level involves the constant comparison of results and costs, the determination of the most effective course of action. In general terms, efficiency means the implementation of a process with minimal cost, effort and loss. Economic efficiency is an indicator determined by the ratio of the economic effect (result) and the costs that generated this effect (result). In other words, the lower the amount of costs and the greater the value of the result of economic activity, the higher the efficiency. The concept of economic efficiency is applicable to the activities of the enterprise, and to the functioning of the entire economic system. It will be considered effective when the needs of all members of society are most fully satisfied with these limited resources.

Any economic unit seeks to efficiently use scarce resources, i.e. with. get the maximum amount of useful benefits produced from these resources. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to fully use (completely occupy) its resources and, on this basis, achieve the full volume of production. In this regard, the concepts of full employment and full volume of production arise. Full employment -- the use of all available resources (no unemployment, idle production capacity, vacant agricultural land, etc.). Full employment implies not 100% employment of resources, but optimal. For example, there cannot be 100% employment of agricultural land, since part of the land must be fallow (rest). The full volume of production is the use of all suitable economic resources, ensuring the maximum possible volume of production and the most complete satisfaction of needs. Total production assumes that the resources used make the most valuable contribution to the total output.

Full employment is a situation when all the economic resources of the country are fully used, and first of all its labor force. From the time of Keynes, governments have usually seen the ultimate goal of their economic policies as achieving full employment.

In general, the concept of "full employment" is ambiguous. In the Soviet Union, for example, this meant providing the entire able-bodied population with jobs. Society sought to achieve a balance of labor resources at the highest possible level. As a result of such a policy of the state, employment has reached an ultra-high, marginal level. By the beginning of the 1990s, more than 94% of the entire able-bodied population was engaged in social production and other socially useful activities. Under the conditions of a centralized planning and distribution system, full employment meant a state of the economy in which all labor resources were involved. However, practice has shown that this level of employment was excessive, it was detrimental to other aspects of life and, above all, people's health, family upbringing of children.

In Western economic theory and practice, full employment (the concept of "optimal employment" is used as identical) means a state of the economy in which everyone who wants to work at the prevailing (dominant) level of real wages has a job.

The question arises, at what level of involvement in professional (paid) work can full employment be achieved? Apparently, if jobs meet the needs of the population. However, not every workplace can satisfy the need for such. This is evidenced by the presence of vacant (unoccupied) jobs simultaneously with the presence of the unemployed. Therefore, we should talk about the proposed economically viable jobs.

Economically feasible is understood as a productive (provided with working capital, etc.) workplace that allows a person to realize his personal interest, achieve high labor productivity using the achievements of science and technology, and have a decent income that guarantees the normal reproduction of the employee and his family. A workplace that meets the specified requirements can be used in 2-3 shifts, then 2-3 places will be economically viable.

Consequently, if the demand for economically viable jobs is met by the supply of labor that is appropriate in terms of the professional and qualification structure, then this will mean full employment. Such a balance will ensure the best results on the scale of the economy, as they are built on the basis of scientific and technological progress, high labor productivity. Without the constant improvement of jobs, the creation of new ones that meet modern requirements, and the withdrawal from the production process of old jobs that do not meet the economic feasibility, it is impossible to achieve the development of society in social terms, the realization of the interests of each individual and society itself.

Achieving full employment cannot be achieved with the help of a single market mechanism; constant regulation of this process by the state is necessary. State regulation primarily consists in the development of fundamental science, education, health care, ensuring environmental and national security, the functioning of the so-called natural monopolies (railways, energy and pipeline networks).

The combination of the market mechanism and state regulation can be solved with a significant change in the structure. The overemployment inherent in the socialist economy has already been overcome. However, this did not happen as a result of structural adjustment and an increase in labor productivity, but a recession in the economy, an increase in unemployment and the departure of a part of the unemployed from the labor force, leaving the labor market. The current structure of employment does not meet the needs of either society or the majority of the population.

Let's consider a situation at incomplete employment of resources. Underutilization of resources - the inability of the economy to produce the maximum amount of goods and services based on the resources used, according to the dictionary definition.

The reasons for the increase in part-time employment lie both in the supply of labor and in the demand for it, with the latter factor playing a much more significant role. The requirement for flexibility in working hours stems from recent changes in the organization of work. In the context of increased intercompany competition, the individualization of products and services provided in accordance with the requirements of a particular customer is becoming the basis for the work of an increasing number of companies seeking to maintain their positions in the market.

Underemployment in the labor market is combined in the economy with underemployment and other productive resources. As a result, the resource rarity condition turns out to be untrue. There is a question about the underutilization of available funds. All this changes the task of economic analysis. The main thing is to ensure full employment of resources. The underemployment problem is accompanied by a high unemployment rate, a sharp drop in production, and, consequently, low employment of production capacities.

Uncertainty of behavior, the influence of the monetary factor and the situation of part-time employment, disrupt the effect of equilibrium forces in the economy. As a result, there are steady tendencies for the economy to deviate from equilibrium, and the market cannot cope with these tendencies on its own.

Achieving full and effective employment is one of the key tasks of the socio-economic policy of the state, the most important problem of economic science.

The concept of "full employment" does not have an unambiguous interpretation.
Depending on the criterion underlying its characteristics, it is interpreted in different ways.

In Western economic theory and practice, full employment (the concept of "optimal employment" is used as identical) means a state of the economy in which everyone who wants to work at the prevailing (dominant) level of real wages has a job.

The question arises, at what level of involvement in professional (paid) work can full employment be achieved? Apparently, if jobs meet the needs of the population. However, not every workplace can satisfy the need for it. This is evidenced by the presence of vacant (unoccupied) jobs simultaneously with the presence of the unemployed. Therefore, we should talk about the proposed economically viable jobs.

Under economically viable is understood as a productive (provided with working capital, etc.) workplace that allows a person to realize his personal interest, achieve high labor productivity using the achievements of science and technology, and have a decent income that guarantees the normal reproduction of the employee and his family.

Consequently, if the demand for economically viable jobs is met by the supply of labor that is appropriate in terms of the professional and qualification structure, then this will mean full employment. Such a balance will ensure the best results on the scale of the economy, as they are built on the foundation of scientific and technological achievements, high labor productivity. Without the constant improvement of jobs, the creation of new ones that meet modern requirements, and the removal of old ones from the production process that do not meet the economic feasibility of jobs, it is impossible to achieve social progress, the realization of the interests of society and each individual.

Achieving full employment cannot be achieved with the help of a single market mechanism, it is necessary to constantly regulate this process by the state and society.

Efficient employment. Full employment can also take place with some deviation of existing jobs from the status of economically viable, if they do not correspond to the professional and qualification composition, the educational level of the workers. Then both workers and the state will bear both economic and social losses. Some workers will receive low wages that do not ensure their normal existence. The state and society will receive less resources in the budget, in social funds.

Therefore, the problem of employment efficiency, or effective employment, arises. There is a wide range of opinions on this issue among economists. Many domestic economists effective employment in the conditions of a socially oriented market economy, they understand such employment of the population that provides a decent income, health, and the growth of the educational and professional level of each member of society based on the growth of social labor productivity.

Such a definition of effective employment is quite acceptable; it assumes the all-round development of a person. However, using such a broad definition, it is impossible to measure effective employment with a single indicator, but it is quite possible to quantify it through a system of indicators.

The first indicator in this system can be called level of occupational employment of the population. The employment rate of the population by professional work can be defined as the quotient of the division of those employed in professional work by the total population (in percent). This coefficient shows the dependence of employment on demographic factors, i.e., on birth rates, death rates and population growth. This coefficient gives one of the characteristics of the well-being of society.

The second indicator is the level of employment of the able-bodied population in the public sector. This indicator is closely related to the dynamics of the working-age population, depending on changes in demographic and socio-economic factors. The level of employment of the able-bodied population from an economic point of view expresses, on the one hand, the need of the public economy for workers, and on the other hand, the need of the population for jobs. It is calculated similarly to the first indicator, i.e., as a percentage of the population employed in professional labor to the size of the entire able-bodied population (labor resources).

The progressivity of the change in this indicator should be judged taking into account the initial level of employment and growth in labor productivity.
At the same time, high employment does not mean high efficiency if it does not ensure the growth of labor productivity.

The third indicator is the proportions of the distribution of the labor resources of society in the spheres of socially useful activity. After calculating the employment rate for professional work, the employment rates for studies and other socially useful activities can be determined in a similar way in order to establish the necessary proportions. The progressivity of changes in these proportions should be assessed taking into account the social productivity of labor and the level of employment (super high or low) in the previous period, as well as taking into account the goals of society.

The fourth indicator is the rational structure of the distribution of employees by industries and sectors of the economy. This indicator is often called rational employment. It has independent meaning. Rational employment is the proportion of the distribution of labor potential by type of occupation, industry, sector of the economy. With an unsatisfactory distribution of labor at the junctions between production links, industries and sectors, contradictions and losses arise. With rational employment, it is possible to avoid or reduce significant "connection" losses and have an additional result, i.e. rational use of labor. At the same time, this also means an increase in employment efficiency.

The fifth indicator is related to the optimization of the professional and qualification structure of employees. This indicator makes it possible to identify the correspondence of the professional and qualification structure of the working population to the structure of jobs, as well as to determine how the system of personnel training meets the needs of the economy in them. If a discrepancy is identified, a system of measures should be developed to stimulate a balance in the structure of jobs and the professional and qualification structure of the labor force. The main attention should be paid to the training, retraining and advanced training of personnel at enterprises and educational institutions at all levels.

Finally, employment efficiency can be judged by such as the rate of unemployment. Currently, in Western economic literature, the point of view is popular that full and efficient employment is achieved in the presence of the so-called natural rate of unemployment. Natural rate of unemployment- this is its level (with a given structure of supply and demand), which keeps the levels of real wages and prices unchanged with a zero increase in labor productivity. In practice, it is calculated by summing fluid (frictional) and structural unemployment. The latter is associated with the release of workers as a result of the restructuring of the economy under the influence of scientific and technological progress. For example, for the United States, such a norm today is an unemployment rate of 5.5–6.0%.

You can get a more or less accurate idea of ​​effective employment only by using a system of indicators.

secondary employment. The diversity of socio-economic processes occurring within the labor market gives rise to the existence of various forms of employment. Forms of employment are organizational and legal methods, conditions of employment. Within the framework of the national labor market, the labor of people is organized using a variety of organizational and legal forms that differ in legal regulation, the duration and mode of working time, the regularity of labor activity, and the place of work.

Among the various forms of employment, secondary employment occupies a special place. This is due both to its specificity and to the impact it has on the functioning of the labor market. secondary employment can be defined as an additional (secondary) form of using the labor force of an employee already involved in the labor activity. In the overwhelming majority of cases, secondary employment brings additional income to the worker.

The existence of secondary employment corresponds to the changed conditions of the economic life of society. A flexible labor market requires a variety of forms of employment and the use of labor.
As a result, new approaches to employment are being formed, expressed in the concept of global employment. It proceeds from the needs in the labor activity of the entire able-bodied population, involves the regulation of the total volume of work and its distribution among all those who want to get a job. At the same time, the minimum wage ceases to be the starting point in the construction of remuneration systems and gives way to a guaranteed minimum income, which can no longer be regulated by the conditions of employment. It is within the framework of the concept of global employment that mass individualization of the forms, modes and conditions of employment, the very structure of a person's labor path takes place. The flexibility of an employee in the labor market, his professional, qualification and social mobility, the ability to find his place in the changing sphere of social and labor relations, of course, increase the level of competitiveness and guarantee employment even in conditions of economic crises. The dynamics of the number of jobs in all types of work in Russia in recent years is presented in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1

Number of jobs for all types of work
for the production of goods and services in the economy of the Russian Federation
by type of economic activity (annual average)

Full employment (according to the forms of organization of working time, full and part-time employment are distinguished) is employment for a full working day (week, season, year), which generates income in normal sizes for a given region.

Part-time employment is the employment of a certain person either for part-time work, or for part-time pay, or for part-time efficiency.

Distinguish between visible and invisible underemployment. Apparent underemployment is predominantly a statistical concept that can be directly measured through data on wages, hours worked or through ad hoc sample surveys. Invisible underemployment is primarily an analytical concept that reflects a fundamental imbalance between the labor force and other factors of production. Characteristic signs of invisible (hidden) part-time employment may be low incomes, incomplete use of professional competence or low labor productivity of workers.

Taking into account the reasons for employment in part-time regimes, one can distinguish between “forced” and “voluntary” part-time employment.

Forced is called part-time employment caused by economic reasons: a reduction in production volumes, the reconstruction of an enterprise, the cyclical nature of the development of a market economy.

Voluntary is called part-time employment due to social reasons; the need for advanced training, the acquisition of a profession, the state of health, the upbringing of children, the need to change the profession and other social needs.

Underemployment has two essential features: firstly, employment can only apply to employees. Secondly, persons who are regularly employed for only a certain number of hours each month are considered underemployed.

That is why part-time workers include temporary, seasonal and casual workers, although they usually work less than the standard working hours. The exception is temporary workers at Japanese enterprises. The explanation is that such workers in the status of "temporary" in Japanese enterprises can work their entire working life. Therefore, such workers, if the length of the working period is below the standard, are classified as part-time workers.

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Assistance to the Applicant » 18. Full employment implies: a) employment in the presence of a frictional economy

18. Full employment involves: a) employment in the presence of a frictional economy

18. Full employment involves:

a) employment in the presence of frictional and structural unemployment in the economy;

b) a situation in which unemployment is zero;

c) the presence of only cyclical unemployment;

d) the rate of unemployment, which is called the natural rate of unemployment.

19. In what case is labor considered as an inferior commodity compared to leisure:

a) at low wages, when the action of the "income effect" prevails;

b) at low wages, when the action of the "substitution effect" prevails;

c) at high wages, when the action of the "income effect" prevails;

d) at high wages, when the action of the "substitution effect" prevails.

20. In accordance with the classical theory of employment, there is:

a) only frictional unemployment;

b) only structural unemployment;

c) only cyclical unemployment;

d) only voluntary unemployment.

21. What is the so-called natural rate of unemployment by the standards of the West:

22. According to Okun's law, a two percent increase in the actual unemployment rate above its natural rate means that the actual GNP value lags behind the potential level by:

23. Which of the following cannot be attributed to the consequences of unemployment:

a) GNP growth;

b) the growth of real GNP;

c) the lag of real GNP from the potential level;

d) social differentiation of society;

e) decrease in labor efficiency;

f) the growth of social tension in society;

g) a decrease in the standard of living.

What does full time employment mean?

Economic rent is:

a) the price of any resource;

b) the price of a natural resource;

c) the price paid for the use of a resource whose supply is strictly fixed.

25. The supply line of land as a factor of production:

a) horizontal with respect to the x-axis;

b) vertical with respect to the x-axis;
c) has a negative slope;

d) cannot be determined.

26. Net economic rent is:

a) income derived from any factor of production that is characterized by a perfectly elastic supply with respect to its price;

b) the income received due to any factor of production, which is characterized by a perfectly inelastic supply in relation to its price;

c) income from the use of the best land plots;

d) income received from the use of the worst land plots.

Perpendicular BK dropped from vertex B of parallelogram ABCD divides side AD

How does the energy density of an electromagnetic field depend on the strength of the electric field?

Where does blood go from the abdominal aorta of a perch? - in the liver -

Are inversely proportional: 1) the price of sweets and the cost of 5.5 kg

The notary's professional liability insurance contract provides for an insured amount of 50,000 rubles.

Analyze the situations depicted in the pictures (pp. 6-7). Compare the pictures in each

Why is meat more expensive than vegetables?

A passenger on a train traveling at a speed of 79.2 km/h. noticed that the oncoming train

What role did K. Marx and F. Engels play in the history of the labor movement?

A bus and a truck that is 15 km/h faster than the speed

In art and aesthetics, the problem of subject and object is refracted into a problem

The software package GIS (geographic information system) AS EDDS should include subsystems

As a means of moving a spacecraft within the solar system has been proposed

The cycle of a four-stroke Diesel engine is shown in the figure. Branch AB-in cylinders sucked

From two piers, between yakimi 144 km

Some of the people in the low-income category have additional _

Types and forms of employment, their development in Russia; flexible forms of employment.

Employment- the activity of the able-bodied population, associated with the production of material and spiritual goods in order to meet personal and social needs, which does not contradict the law and, as a rule, brings them earnings (labor income).
Main principles employment:
1. Ensuring freedom in labor and employment, the prohibition of forced, compulsory labor. A person has the priority right to choose to participate or not to participate in social labor;
2. Creation by the state of conditions for ensuring the right to work, protection from unemployment, assistance in finding employment and financial support in case of unemployment in accordance with the constitution of the Russian Federation.
Employment happens:
Complete, i.e. when all willing able-bodied citizens have an objective opportunity to have a paid job, while the unemployment rate is equal to the natural one.
Productive, i.e.

Full and part-time employment

when the population is employed in social production, namely, it is the employed part of the EAN.
Socially useful - the activities of people who work in social production, serve in the armed forces and internal troops, study full-time, are engaged in housekeeping, caring for children and sick relatives.
Rational - a kind of free employment, suggesting a qualitative correspondence between workers and the jobs they occupy.
Efficient - the use of labor resources, which achieves the maximum material result and social effect with minimal labor costs, with minimal social costs.
Forms of employment are the organizational and legal conditions of employment.
Differ forms employment on the following grounds:
Form of ownership of the means of production:
labor-for-hire relations between the owners of the means of production and workers;
entrepreneurship;
self-employment.
Place of work
at the enterprise;
at home;
shift method.
Regularity of work activity
a permanent employee must work a certain number of hours every week, less often every month;
temporary employment for a fixed period and travel employment;
seasonal work during a certain season;
episodic performance of various short-term works in order to receive material remuneration without concluding an employment contract.
Legitimacy of employment
formal (registered);
informal.
Activity Status
main;
additional (secondary).
Operating modes
tight schedule;
flexible schedule.
Flexible forms of employment forms of employment of the labor force based on the application of non-standard organizational and legal conditions for the employment of workers. Non-standard, flexible employment includes the following forms:
Employment associated with non-standard working hours, such as a flexible work year, a compressed work week, flexible working hours.
Employment related to the social status of workers: self-employed workers, helping family members.
Employment at work with non-standard jobs and work organization: home work, call workers, shift and forwarding employment.
Employment in non-standard organizational forms: temporary workers, part-time jobs.