The concept of a new culture in the 18th century. Russian culture of the 18th century

During the reign of Peter I, a radical breakdown of old traditions took place. The tsar passionately desired to bring Russian culture closer to that of the West. So, in 1700, the European system of counting years was introduced, and the new year from now on began on January 1, it was also ordered to shave off beards and wear German or Hungarian dress. The assemblies became permanent; entertaining evenings with noble persons, and there it was necessary to appear with their wives and daughters, which was not allowed before. However, most of these transformations affected only the upper strata, while the vast majority of the population lived in the old way.

Education

Reforms and wars required the training of high-quality personnel, so Peter I paid great attention to education. Military and "digital" schools, Medical School were organized. The emphasis in teaching was on the exact sciences. To awaken the thirst for knowledge, Peter I founded the Kunstkamera, the first Russian museum. Also on the idea of ​​the king, but after his death, the Academy of Sciences was opened.
During the 18th century (especially in the second half), the class character of education intensified, and new educational institutions appeared: Moscow University (1755), Smolny boarding school for noble maidens (1764), public schools and others.

Literature.

In 1702, the Vedomosti newspaper was first published. For the needs of the school in 1703, the famous textbook "Arithmetic" by L. Magnitsky was published. In 1721, F. Prokopovich wrote the Spiritual Regulations to substantiate the reforms of Peter I in the church sphere.
Literature truly blossomed in Catherine's reign. At this time, three directions developed: classicism (A. Radishchev, V. Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov, G. Derzhavin and A. Sumarokov), sentimentalism (N. Karamzin) and artistic and realistic (D. Fonvizin). The empress herself published a humorous magazine "Vsakaaya Vsyachina". N. Novikov was a prominent publicist.

Architecture.

In the 18th century, the Baroque style was predominant. Worked in it: D. Trezzini (Peter and Paul Cathedral) and B. F. Rastrelli (Winter Palace). However, at the end of the century, the baroque gives way to classicism, represented by such masterpieces as the Pashkov house in Moscow (V. Bazhenov) and the Senate building (M. Kazakov).

Painting, sculpture, theater

The main genre of painting throughout the 18th century was the portrait. Outstanding artists of that time: F. Rokotov, I. Nikitin, A. Matveev, D. Levitsky and V. Borovikovsky. Landscape, everyday and historical genres are born.
In sculpture, special mention should be made of K. Rastrelli, E. Falcone, F. Shubin and M. Kozlovsky.
The first state public theater began its work in 1756. Its director was the merchant and actor F. Volkov.

Science and technology.

After the creation of the Academy of Sciences, it became an organizing center where prominent Russian scientists worked, including M.V. Lomonosov. In addition, foreign historians G. Miller and G. Bayer worked there. Among the Russian representatives of the same science there were also many talented ones: V. Tatishchev, M. Shcherbatov, N. Novikov.
Huge achievements in the reign of Catherine II were achieved by technical thought. An elevator, an arched bridge across the Neva, a "self-running carriage", an optical telegraph and a searchlight are just some of I. Kulibin's projects and inventions. It is also important to create the first steam engine in Russia by a self-taught mechanic I. Polzunov.

So, the opening of the "window to Europe" gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russian culture in the 18th century. It was at this time that art was finally freed from the influence of the church, its new forms appeared, and the cultural heritage of our country increased many times over.
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Culture of 18th century Russia

Introduction

General assessment of Russian culture of the XVIII century

Education

Literature

Painting

Architecture

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The history of Russian culture is divided into two unequal, sharply limited periods: the ancient one, stretching from time immemorial to the era of the transformations of Peter the Great, and the new one, embracing the last two centuries.

During the first period, from elements borrowed from Byzantium, brought to us from the East and partly from the West, an original type of art was slowly but continuously developed, promising to achieve high perfection, but suddenly stopped in its development by Peter the Great's reforms.

The second period was marked by the transplantation of Western European art to us. But at that time, progressive Russian artists, under the influence of the national self-consciousness that had awakened in Russian society, began to abhor academic routine and rushed from imitating foreign models to direct reproduction of reality and to the study of artistic antiquity in order to make it the basis of their work.

The 18th century played a huge role in the history of Russian culture. At the beginning of the century, there is a transition from the Middle Ages to the culture of the new time, all spheres of society are being Europeanized, and culture is being secularized. In the 18th century, preparations began for the order of things that marks the state life of Russia among the European powers. Therefore, borrowing the fruits of European civilization for the sole purpose of material well-being becomes insufficient; there is a need for spiritual, moral enlightenment, a need to put the soul into the body prepared before. The 18th century entered the history of world culture as an epoch of great ideological and socio-historical changes, the sharpest struggle against feudal-monarchical foundations and religious dogmatism. The spread of the materialistic worldview and the affirmation of the spirit of love of freedom were reflected in philosophy, science, literature, in the educational activities of the greatest philosophers, scientists, writers of this time - Diderot and Holbach, Voltaire and Rousseau, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller, Lomonosov and Radishchev. A new period is entering and Russian culture, which experienced a significant turning point at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. After a long time of cultural isolation due to the three centuries of Mongol conquest, as well as the influence of the Orthodox Church, which tried to protect Russia from everything Western. Russian art is gradually embarking on the path of pan-European development and freeing itself from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. This was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of a new, rationalistic outlook on life. "Secular" art is gaining public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role in the system of civic education, in the formation and development of new foundations of the country's social life. And at the same time, Russian culture of the 18th century did not reject its past. While joining the rich cultural heritage of Europe, Russian figures at the same time relied on Russian national traditions accumulated over a long previous period of cultural and historical development of Kievan and Moscow Rus, the experience of ancient Russian art. It was thanks to this deep continuity that Russia was able during the 18th century not only to take an active part in the general process of the movement of world culture, but also to create its own national schools, firmly established in literature and poetry, in architecture and painting, in theater and music.

By the end of the century, Russian art achieves tremendous success.

General assessment of Russian culture of the 18th century The significance of the shifts that have taken place in Russian culture is evidenced by the fact that for the first time in the 18th century, secular, non-church music leaves the realm of oral tradition and acquires the significance of high professional art. Russian culture in the 18th century developed under the influence of those great changes that the reforms of Peter I introduced into the socio-political life of the country. Since the beginning of the century, Muscovite Rus has been turning into the Russian Empire. Peter's reforms radically changed the whole structure of the cultural and social life of Russia. The Petrine era has always caused controversy with its complexity and ambiguity. However, Peter's reforms did not mean a radical break with the past, with national traditions, and a complete assimilation of Western models. However, the openness of Russian culture to the West accelerated its own development. The culture of this period is characterized by a rapid change of styles (Baroque, Classicism). Authorship appears. Art became secular, more diverse in terms of genre, enjoyed the support of the state. But along with the emergence of these trends, the artistic culture of the first decades of the XVIII century. still retained some features of the previous century and was of a transitional nature.
The political and cultural achievements of the Petrine era strengthened the people's sense of national pride, consciousness of the greatness and power of the Russian Empire. Early 18th century was an important period in the formation of Russian literary traditions. The literature of this time still bears the imprint of antiquity: literary works exist and are distributed not in printed form, but in handwritten form, as it was before, the authors remain unknown; genres are mostly inherited from the 17th century. But new content is gradually pouring into these old forms. The idea of ​​the works is changing, being influenced by humanistic thought and the ideas of the Enlightenment.
At the beginning of the XVIII century. stories (“Histories”) were popular, especially “History about the Russian sailor Vasily Koriotsky”, which reflected the emergence of a new hero, figure, patriot and citizen. "Histories" showed that a person can achieve success in life due to personal qualities, virtues of a person, and not due to origin. The influence of the Baroque style was manifested, first of all, in poetry, dramaturgy (represented mainly by translated plays), love lyrics.
An extraordinary contribution to the development of Russian culture of the 18th century was made by Russian composers, performers, opera artists, who mostly came from the people's milieu. They were faced with tasks of great difficulty, within a few decades they had to master the wealth of Western European music accumulated over the centuries. In the general path of the historical development of Russian art of the XVIII century, there are three main periods: the first quarter of a century associated with the reforms of Peter;. the era of the 30-60s, marked by the further growth of national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art, and at the same time the strengthening of class oppression; the last third of the century (starting from the mid-1960s), marked by great social changes, the aggravation of social contradictions, a noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment. Education In the XVIII century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. These figures show the rise in literacy in Russia and, at the same time, its lag in comparison with Western Europe: in England at the end of the 18th century there were more than 250 thousand students in Sunday schools alone, and in France the number of elementary schools in 1794 reached 8 thousand. In Russia, on average, only two people studied out of a thousand. The social composition of students in secondary schools was extremely diverse. The children of artisans, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. predominated in public schools. The age composition of students was also not the same - both kids and 22-year-old men studied in the same classes. Common textbooks in schools were the alphabet, the book by F. Prokopovich "The First Teaching to the Young", "Arithmetic" by L. F. Magnitsky and "Grammar" by M. Smotrytsky, the Book of Hours and the Psalter. There were no compulsory curricula, the duration of study varied from three to five years. Those who completed the course were able to read, write, knew the basic information from arithmetic and geometry. Basically, the training of specialists was also carried out through universities - Academic, established in 1725 at the Academy of Sciences and existing until 1765, Moscow, founded in 1755 on the initiative of Lomonosov, and Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, but actually acted as a university from the 80s of the XVIII century. Students of the philosophical, legal and medical faculties of Moscow University, in addition to science in their specialty, also studied Latin, foreign languages ​​and Russian literature. Moscow University was a major cultural center. He published the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti", had his own printing house; various literary and scientific societies worked under him. D. I. Fonvizin, later A. S. Griboedov, P. Ya. Chaadaev, the future Decembrists N. I. Turgenev, I. D. Yakushkin, A. G. Kakhovskiy came out of the university. It is necessary to soberly assess the results of the development of education in Russia in the 18th century. Noble Russia had an Academy of Sciences, a university, gymnasiums and other educational institutions, while the country's peasant and craftsmen remained largely illiterate. The school reform of 1786, so widely advertised by the government of Catherine II, was popular only in name, but in reality it was purely class in nature. We must not forget that the ideas of the "Enlightenment" were "the motto of tsarism in Europe." However, the genius of the people was able to manifest itself not thanks to the policy of "enlightened absolutism", but in spite of it. This is especially evident in the example of M. V. Lomonosov. A powerful means for mental development, for expanding the mental sphere of a Russian person, for destroying the former isolation and stagnation, was the communication of information about what was happening in Russia and in other lands. Before Peter, knowing what was going on at home and in foreign countries was the privilege of the government; extracts from foreign newspapers (chimes) were compiled for the king and a few close associates and were carefully kept as a secret. Peter wanted all Russian people to know what was going on in the world. On December 17, 1702, the great sovereign indicated: according to the statements about military and all kinds of affairs that are necessary for declaring the Moscow and neighboring states to people, print chimes, and for printing those chimes, statements in which orders, about which they are now and will continue to be sent to the Monastic order, from where those statements should be sent to the Printing House. The decree was executed, and from 1703, chimes began to be published in Moscow under the title: "Bulletin of military and other affairs worthy of knowledge and memory that happened in the Moscow state and in other surrounding countries." Although the newspaper was small, there were no articles in it, and only brief reports about remarkable events in Russia and abroad were placed, nevertheless, it also promoted reforms both in the military and in the civilian field. Transformative activities were widely covered in journalism. Its largest representatives were the scientist-monk Feofan Prokopovich, the merchant and entrepreneur Pososhkov, who came from the peasantry, and the nobleman Tatishchev.

The aggravation of class contradictions, the growth of the peasant movement contribute to the development of advanced social thought and lead to a clearer division of culture into two camps: progressive and recreational. The literature of the progressive nobility and democratic strata of society is growing and gaining strength, sharply denouncing bribe-taking officials, nobles who occupy a high position not for their servants, and cruel landowners.

Science is progressing. Brilliant inventors are emerging from the masses of the people, who have made many important discoveries, ahead of those of Western Europe. So, I. Kulibin, a Nizhny Novgorod tradesman, created a scooter-bicycle, a machine-made self-propelled vessel, a project for an arched bridge across the Neva without intermediate abutments. The son of the Ural miner I. Polzunov in 1763, almost 20 years earlier than Watt, invented and built a steam, "fiery" machine.

The system of home education in noble families expanded wider. Scientific and literary societies arose in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Much attention was paid to the collection and publication of ancient Russian and literary works. Significantly more newspapers and magazines began to appear, books were published. Particularly fruitful in this respect was the activity of Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818).

He was a man of great culture, a prominent public figure, journalist and writer. He began his social educational activities by publishing satirical magazines (his first magazine, Truten, began to appear in May 1769). In the 70s, Novikov published a number of books on the history of Russia.

Novikov organizes a "Friendly Scientific Community" in Moscow, the purpose of which was to spread education and publish useful books. A "Printing Company" was created, which not only published books, but also organized a book trade in cities and even in villages.

Novikov's activities, which rallied many progressive people around him, seemed dangerous to Catherine II. Since 1784, the persecution of Novikov began, and in 1792 he was imprisoned for 15 years in the Shlisselburg fortress. After the death of Catherine II in 1796, Novikov was released from prison, but he came out completely sick.

Theatre

Until the middle of the 18th century (until 1756), theatrical performances continued only in schools, mainly theological ones.

Since the 1930s, the court theater has been restored. It is served mainly by foreign troupes (Italian, German, French).

Plays in Russian were staged in school theaters in the 1930s and 1940s. Since the end of the 1940s, interest in the theater has also been awakening in broad urban democratic circles. School pupils, petty officials, soldiers, shopkeepers on holidays began to perform performances in specially arranged premises, wooden booths, or in private houses, mainly in merchants. Such temporary theaters arose not only in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but also in the provinces.

One of these first amateur, and then semi-professional private troupes was the troupe of F. G. Volkov in Yaroslavl. Volkov (1729 - 1763) was a talented son of the Russian people, one of the remarkable people of the 18th century. The son of a merchant, he studied for three years at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, then went to St. Petersburg to study trading. But Volkov decided to devote himself not to trade, but to the theater. He visited school performances at the Moscow Academy, but he was struck by the theater of St. Petersburg.

Here he saw performances of Italian opera, German drama and a performance staged in the gentry building by the students of this educational institution. Upon returning to Yaroslavl, Volkov gathers an acting troupe, builds a special room and begins to stage performances. Volkov himself was an architect, and a painter, and a director, and a poet, and the first actor in this theater.

The Volkov Theater was a national Russian theater, democratic both in terms of the composition of the actors and the composition of the audience who attended its productions. Rumors about the theater reached St. Petersburg, and in 1752 the Yaroslavl people were summoned to the court of Elizabeth. Here they staged a school drama. I liked the acting. To receive both general education and special acting training, the most talented actors, including the brothers Volkov and Dmitrievsky, were assigned to the gentry corps. In 1756 they completed the course. Then, by decree of Elizabeth, a permanent “Russian theater for the presentation of comedies and tragedies” was organized.

This is how the Russian theater arose, which was of great importance for the development of art and literature.

Literature

The most important period in the development of Russian fiction is the second third of the 18th century. Outstanding literary figures (theoreticians and writers) appear; an entire literary trend is born and takes shape, that is, in the work of a number of writers, common ideological and artistic features are found. Classicism was such a literary trend.

Classicism got its name because the representatives of this literary movement proclaimed the best works of ancient art - the art of ancient Greece and Rome - as the highest example of artistic creativity. These works were recognized as classic, that is, exemplary, and writers were asked to imitate them in order to create truly artistic works themselves.

Each trend in art is evoked in life by certain social needs. Classicism is the art of the era of the formation of national states, the period of the formation of nations, national culture. The political system in a number of countries at this time takes the form of absolutism.

Since the era of absolutism in the 17th-18th centuries was experienced by various states of Western Europe, classicism was also characteristic of the literatures of these countries: France, Germany, England. Based on the study of artistic works and the works of the Greeks and Romans, a guide for writers was developed. It was called "Poetic Art" and served as a reference book for classic writers for a century and a half.

Classicism considered literature and art as a school that educates people of loyalty to the absolutist state, explains to them that the fulfillment of duties to the state and its head - the monarch - is the first and main task of a citizen.

It was pointed out that writers should depict those phenomena of life that are of interest to the aristocracy, the nobility and noble citizens, cater to their tastes and evaluate the phenomena depicted as they are viewed by representatives of these circles. Taking a story from everyday life was considered unacceptable. The writer had to depict events important for the state: the policy of kings, war, etc. the heroes of the works should be kings, commanders. Russian classicism had many features in common with Western, in particular with French classicism, since it also arose during the period of absolutism, but it was not a simple imitation. Russian classicism originated and developed on original soil, taking into account the experience that had been accumulated earlier by its established and developed Western European classicism.

These peculiar features of Russian classicism are as follows: firstly, from the very beginning, Russian classicism has a strong connection with modern reality, which is illuminated in the best works from the point of view of advanced ideas.

The second feature of Russian classicism is the diatribe-satirical stream in their work, conditioned by the progressive social ideas of the writers. The presence of satire in the works of Russian classic writers gives their works a vitally truthful character. Living modernity, Russian reality, Russian people and Russian nature are to a certain extent reflected in their works.

The third feature of Russian classicism, due to the ardent patriotism of Russian writers, is their interest in the history of their homeland. All of them study Russian history, write works on national, historical themes.

Painting .

The 18th century brought changes to many areas of Russian life, and art was no exception. Iconography is being replaced by painting.

A. Losenko became the founder of the development of Russian painting at the beginning of the 18th century. He laid the foundation for the direction that our painting took for a long time. A distinctive feature of this trend was the severity of the drawing, which was based not so much on nature as on the forms of ancient sculpture and Italian art of the eclectic era. Poverty of fantasy, adherence to certain, routine rules in composition, conventionality of color and, in general, imitation were the main shortcomings of the painters of that time.

From the middle of the 18th century, among the genres, the portrait received a special impetus for development, in which a deep interest began to awaken.

At this time, portraiture took a leading position. Russian artists, in addition to images of tsars, sought to perpetuate the activities of Russian boyars, patriarchs and merchants, who also sought to keep up with the tsar and often entrusted the order of a portrait to Russian portrait painters who were improving in the visual arts of that time. The Russian portrait of the 18th century was characterized by a passion for the transfer of exquisite gestures and poses of sitters. The artists tried to enrich the portrait composition with everyday interiors and attributes of the national costume and the surrounding space. Highlighting expensive furnishings, rich furniture, vases, and of course clothes made of luxurious fabrics, they brilliantly conveyed the textures of materials, carefully writing out the texture of silk and brocade with the help of the finest shades.

Portraits painted in the second half of the 18th century by artists Levitsky, Rokotov and Borovikovsky, Bryullov, Tropinin, Kiprensky perfectly demonstrate all the peculiarities of the Russian portrait of that time. The art of portraiture of the 18th century developed in its various varieties: ceremonial, semi-ceremonial, intimate and chamber portrait. These directions reflected various aspects of the wealth of the material world and spiritual morals, developing and improving the pictorial language, complicating it. Art entered a new stage of popularity, many artists earned fame in the production of formal portraits against the background of nature and architecture, which were created in the most complex light and shade processing, subtly combining the color of the tones of the paint layer with the dynamics of the picturesque texture.

Later, under the influence of the social upheaval produced in France by the great revolution, the taste of the time changed: ceremonial, flaunting all kinds of luxury, full of accessories, portraits gave way to more modest images, with empty, monophonic backgrounds, with colorless and ugly costumes. These two circumstances, the influx of unimportant foreign artists and the simplification of the requirements for portraiture explain why many of the portraits painted in the early years of the reign of Alexander I are inferior to portraits of Catherine's times.

Genre paintings in the 18th century were considered a secondary, side branch of painting. In art, which for a long time served only for the delight of high society and was subject to academic routine, the depiction of everyday life and folk life was considered unimportant - fun, which artists are allowed to do in the form of a break from other, more serious works. Genre paintings at that time came out for the most part from under the brush of historical painters, who, while performing them, could not get rid of the conventionality and imitation that they had learned at school. The life of ordinary mortals with its types, customs and customs was reproduced only with small deviations from the rules legalized for high, noble subjects.

INTRODUCTION

FEATURES AND CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE XVIII CENTURY

RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE XVIII CENTURY

1 Science and education

3 Russian theater in the 18th century

4 The heyday of Russian painting in the 18th century

5 New trends in 18th century architecture

RESULTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE XVIII CENTURY

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

INTRODUCTION

Topic selection. To write a term paper, we have chosen a significant and important topic - "The culture of Russia in the XVIII century." Its significance and importance are due to the fact that this particular era is characterized by an intensive flourishing of culture in Russia, which laid the foundation for the further development of a universal Russian culture.

The relevance of control work. Of course, the chosen topic is relevant. Despite a number of large and serious studies on the Russian culture of the 18th century that have appeared recently, the noble culture of this period remains a poorly studied socio-cultural phenomenon in the history of Russian culture. Although in the history of Russia the 18th century can truly be called fateful with full right. It became a time of fundamental changes that were caused by the implementation of Peter's reforms. With his transformations, Peter I turned Russia sharply towards the West. For the development of Russia and Russian culture, this turn and its consequences became the subject of a sharp dispute between thinkers and scientists, which flared up with particular force in the 19th century. century and continues up to the present.

Joining the rich cultural heritage of Europe, Russian figures of the 18th century relied at the same time on the indigenous domestic traditions that had been accumulated over a long previous period of artistic and historical development, on the experience possessed by ancient Russian art. It was precisely because of this deep continuity that during the 18th century Russia was able not only to take an active part in the general process of the movement of world culture, but also to create its own national schools, which firmly established themselves in music and theater, in painting and architecture, in poetry and in general in literature.

Russia continued to intensively expand its territories, turning into a huge country-empire. The reforms and transformations begun in the 18th century also continued, and Russia was changing rapidly, finding its rightful and worthy place among the leading powers of the world. These reflections clearly indicate the relevance of our chosen theme of the course work.

The object of study is the culture of Russia in the 18th century; the subject of the study is the peculiarities of the culture of Russia in the 18th century.

The purpose of the course work is to present in detail the culture of Russia in the 18th century. This goal is related to the disclosure of a number of significant tasks:

Understand the economic, political and social conditions for the development of Russian culture in the 18th century.

To reveal the features of the development of culture in the XVIII century

Consider the foundations of the theory of Russian literature.

Describe the new fiction with a developed system of genres.

To highlight the issue of the birth of the Russian theater.

Describe the development of various genres of painting.

Focus on the principles of modern architecture.

To present the contribution of Russian culture of the 18th century to world culture and its influence on the subsequent development of Russian culture.

Consider the culture of the Oryol region in the 18th century.

This topic has found quite a wide coverage in the specialized literature. Researchers focus their attention on certain moments of this era.

When analyzing the material under study, the following research methods were used: familiarity with the literature on this topic, analysis method, comparison methods.

The structure of the course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, divided into a number of paragraphs, conclusions, conclusion, list of references.

1. FEATURES AND CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE 18TH CENTURY

1 Economic, political and social conditions for the development of Russian culture in the 18th century

Attention should be paid to the persistent tradition of distinguishing the 18th century as integral in its characteristics in social, political, domestic, cultural relations. It is unlikely that there was another century that so intently and stubbornly attracted the attention of historical novelists, publicists, scientists, just history buffs, as the "XVIII century". The culture of pre-Petrine Russia is usually united by the concept of "ancient" (sometimes referred to as "medieval"). culture of the 18th century. It is customarily delimited from the “Old Russian”, but also it stands separately from the subsequent time.

The concept of "culture of the 18th century", traditional for the "Essays on Russian Culture", covers not only what relates to spiritual culture, but also the culture of agricultural production, political, culture, military art, and the methods of activity of people of that time in the field of court and law. , medicine and health care, the study of the natural conditions of the country, trade, etc.

Not only the results, outstanding achievements, spiritual and material values ​​created by the activity of people, but first of all the organization, incentives, forms, conditions, etc. of human activity make it possible to unite such diverse phenomena as the work of a working person in a manufactory under the concept of “culture” , the work of the publisher of magazines and books N. I. Novikov or the poet G. R. Derzhavin. In particular, this approach to the concept of "culture" makes it possible to avoid its elitist interpretation, when researchers focused their attention mainly on those phenomena that seem to them to be the achievements of the most prominent cultural figures. The real diverse life of all social strata is involuntarily excluded from the sphere of cultural activity, in the context of which only the highest achievements of artistic creativity, socio-political thought and science can be adequately understood.

The concept of "Russian culture of the XVIII century." incorporates the culture of the Russian people as a whole in a certain period of its history. The concept of "Russian culture of the XVIII century." also includes many private concepts, such as: art, social thought, culture of agricultural, industrial production, etc. Another circle of paired concepts: medieval (traditional) - new culture; national culture - national; noble - peasant; urban culture-manor culture, etc.

The reforms of Peter I in Russia, which opened this era, contributed to the creation of an unusual cultural situation. Europeanization, which affected only the upper strata of society, led to the emergence of a deep cultural gap between the nobility and the bulk of the country's population. In Russia of that era, as it were, two cultures arose: the dominant one, which closely approached the European one, and the folk one, which remained predominantly traditional in its essence.

In the history of Russian culture, the era of Peter I played a huge role. At the beginning of the 18th century. culture passes from the Middle Ages to the period of modern times, all spheres of society were subject to Europeanization, there was a secularization of culture.

The Petrine era has always caused controversy with its ambiguity and complexity. But it is clear that Peter's reforms did not at all mean a radical break with national traditions, with the past of the Russian people, and a complete assimilation of Western models. However, the openness of Russian culture to the West accelerated its own development. The culture of this period is characterized by a rapid change of styles (classicism, baroque). The authorship of created cultural works appears. Art acquires a secular character, distinguished by great diversity in terms of genre and enjoying the support of the state. But the artistic culture of the first decades of the 18th century, along with the appearance of these trends, still retained a number of features of the previous century, being characterized by a transitional character.

Peter I decisively forced Russia with medieval Christian thinking, patriarchy and deeply rooted archaism to take a step towards the New Age. “Hence the extreme fragility of transformations and the unpredictability of the course of historical and cultural development in Russia in the 18th century. Hence the formation of a number of "opposition pairs" in the Russian sociocultural process of the 18th-19th centuries.

In the XVIII century. two tendencies were outlined in the development of Russia, competing with each other and represented by an "enlightened" minority (cultural elite) and a conservative majority ("unenlightened" mass). It was an unconscious struggle between the “pochvenniks”, who defended the original path of Russia's development, and the pro-Western advocates of reforms. The ideas of Western reforms and liberalism often came from power structures; representatives of this direction were called "Westerners". The national-soil and protective-conservative moods prevailing at that time rose "from below", coinciding completely with the moods of the masses and the majority of the provincial landed nobility; representatives of this direction began to be called "Slavophiles".

In fact, the implementation of reforms "from above" emphasized even more and strengthened the difference between the "noble" class and the "vile people", who were called the bulk of the peasant population. These differences “were expressed both in the way of life and in the style of thinking. On the one hand, Westernization (Western way of life) and the desire for enlightenment, at first superficial, and then deep humanitarian education; on the other hand, conservative traditions, the strengthening of serfdom and almost complete illiteracy”15, p. 71].

The reforms were carried out in a command-despotic way, and their results were reflected in a phenomenon called "democracy of unfreedom." The essence of this phenomenon was in the external democratization of the eastern type. In Russia at the end of the XVIII century. the formation of opposition to absolutism was carried out in the person of the creative intelligentsia and the enlightened nobility. In 1825, representatives of the enlightened nobility came out openly against absolutism.

But much more than an open speech against the autocracy, the minds of the opposition were occupied by socio-political, aesthetic and moral-religious problems: the legitimacy of the elite position of the nobility in society, the significance of human existence and the human person, ways of moral improvement of society, correction of morals (A. Cantemir, N. Karamzin, N. Novikov, P. Radishchev, D. Fonvizin, M. Shcherbatov and others).

The so-called noble culture, as a result of such turbulent processes, split by the end of the 18th century. into two wings - conservative-protective, which became the mainstay of absolutism, and liberal, characterized by rejection of the official church and enlightened absolutism, which allowed disregard for the individual and serfdom.

2 Features of the development of culture and its periodization in the XVIII century

The main feature and characteristic feature of the development of Russian artistic culture in the 18th century was the achievement of a fusion of "Europeanism" and national identity.

The reforms divided the Russian "culture-faith" into "faith" and "culture", creating two cultures: religious and secular; at the same time, the religious part of culture moved to the periphery of national-cultural development, while secular culture took root.

In Russian history, for the first time, interest in artistic culture turned out to be immeasurably great: now literary works began to be read not only in secular salons, but they also showed great interest among the emerging intelligentsia (teachers, hairdressers, officials, etc.). Performances and musical evenings entered the norm of life of the "enlightened" society. Collecting porcelain, paintings, books was considered a sign of good taste and even fashion.

In the development of artistic creativity in the 18th century, the baroque era of the 40-50s and the era of classicism of the second half of the 18th century will be singled out.

Russian culture of the XVIII century. began to be imbued with the principle of historicism: from that time on, history appears as an artificial “resurrection” of the past, as a memory, pursuing the goals of edification, education, the task of comprehending, analyzing the experience gained or repelling from the past, as a “lesson” to the present. At the same time, the orientation of Russian culture towards the future, its appeal to the attitudes and ideas of development, is also emerging. Hence the development in the XVIII century. professional scientific interest in the study of national history -the formation of national history as a science (V. Tatishchev, M. Lomonosov, G. Miller, M. Shcherbatov, I. Boltin and others) and the experience of artistic comprehension in poetry, prose and dramaturgy (A. Sumarokov, M. Kheraskov, Ya. Knyazhnin, N. Karamzin and others).

One way or another, in Russia, with the beginning of the Petrine reforms, a situation of socio-cultural upheaval arose. In Russian culture, the principle of unlimited freedom gained dominance, and the forms of everyday behavior began to transform in an almost revolutionary way; cultural values; style and ideas and works of culture. New traditions and rituals were introduced, while the old ones were rejected. The change took place in the culture of everyday life - of course, all these changes were carried out within the framework of the life of a rather narrow circle of people educated in Europe. The presence of a formal and meaningful "novelty" became a mandatory requirement of the Russian "age of Enlightenment".

For Russia, the 18th century is significant for significant achievements and noticeable changes in the field of art. Its character, content, genre structure, means of artistic expression have changed. Russian art, both in painting, and in sculpture, and in architecture, and in graphic art, entered the pan-European path of development. In the depths of the 17th century, in the time of Peter the Great, the process of “secularization” of Russian culture was going on. In the development and formation of a secular culture of a pan-European type, it was no longer possible to rely on the old artistic cadres, for whom new tasks turned out to be beyond their capacity. Foreign masters, invited to the Russian service in those years, not only helped in the creation of new art, but also became teachers and mentors of the Russian people. Another no less important way of obtaining professional training was sending Russian masters to study in Western Europe.

Many Russian masters received high training in this way in Holland, France, Germany, England, Italy. It seems to us that it was precisely at this stage that Russian art came into closer contact with the stylistic trends that had been developed in the Western European art of modern times, through which he had to go his way. But at first, the process of restructuring the artistic consciousness of Russian masters proceeded with great difficulties, the method of their work still affected traditional ideas, the laws of medieval creativity in the form of monumental and decorative murals and icon painting.

So, all these changes, we emphasize this once again, concerned the nobility. But the majority of peasants in the XVIII century. lived in the same huts, which were heated in a black way. In winter, young cattle were kept in the hut along with people. Lack of hygiene and overcrowding caused high mortality, especially among children. Although there were some changes here: the design of the hut changed: a wooden ceiling and the same floor appeared.

The overwhelming majority of serfs were the illiterate part of the population. Leisure, which usually appeared only in winter, when the peasants completed agricultural work, was filled with traditional entertainment: round dances, songs, ice slides, gatherings. Family relations also remained traditional. Contrary to the decree of Peter I, the decision to marry, as before, was made not so much by the young as by older family members.

The life of a rich landowner had absolutely nothing to do with the village. The daily table of the landowner, the interior of his dwelling, his costume, differed from the peasant ones not only in wealth, as in the 16th-17th centuries, but also in the type itself. The landowner put on a camisole, a uniform, and later - dressed in a tailcoat, kept a cook preparing delicious dishes. Usually rich noblemen tried to write cooks from abroad. In rich estates there was a numerous household, which consisted not only of coachmen and footmen, but also contained their own tailors, shoemakers and even musicians. But such a way of life was characteristic of the noble and wealthy elite of the nobility. The small landed nobles had much more modest requests, and indeed the possibilities themselves.

Even at the end of the XVIII century. only a few nobles acquired a good education. And yet, it was the estate life, freedom from material need and official duties that ensured the flourishing of culture in the second half of the 18th century.

In the general path of the historical development of Russian art of the 18th century, there are three main periods:

· the first quarter of a century associated with the reforms of Peter;

· the era of the 30-60s, marked by the further growth of national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art, and at the same time the strengthening of class oppression;

· the last third of the century (starting from the mid-1960s), marked by great social changes, the aggravation of social contradictions, a noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment.

So, the Russian Enlightenment, starting with the Petrine reforms and ending with the “golden age” of Catherine, simultaneously acted as a renewing and destructive force in relation to ancient Russian culture and its values, traditions and norms of Holy Russia, pre-Petrine civilization, and this clearly manifests its modernization meaning. and character.

culture painting architecture science

2. RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE 18TH CENTURY

1 Science and education

Peter's reforms contributed to the political and economic growth of the country. Enlightenment made significant progress, which had a great influence on the further development of culture. From January 1, 1700, a new chronology was introduced - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural history museum was organized in Russia, called the Kunstkamera. This museum was created to promote scientific knowledge. It contained historical relics, zoological and other collections (rarities, all sorts of curiosities, monsters).

Under Peter 1, education was part of the state policy, and such a step was connected with the fact that the state needed educated people to implement reforms. Under Peter 1, general and special schools began to open, all the necessary conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences.

In Moscow in 1701, the Navigation School was opened, which became the first secular state educational institution. Several vocational schools were also created - Medical, Engineering, Artillery. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. theological seminaries, parochial schools, digital schools were opened.

The organization of higher and secondary education is closely connected with the creation of the Academy of Sciences by decree of Peter I (1724). It included a gymnasium, a university and an academy. The establishment of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences marked the beginning of the institutionalization of scientific activity in Russia. Academic science was initially considered as a kind of scientific department, guided by the needs of the state. The Academy of Sciences and Arts (as it was called in the project of Peter I) included “three classes of sciences”: mathematical, which included mechanics, theoretical mathematics, navigation, geography and astronomy; physical, which included experimental and theoretical physics, botany, astronomy and chemistry. In the humanities class, they planned to teach modern and ancient history, eloquence, ethics, politics, and law.

“The Academy did not provide for research in the field of theology, it was originally of a secular nature. The same applied to teaching at the established Academic Gymnasium and Academic University, which provided for the training of future academic workers. The first members of the Academy invited from abroad were world-famous scientists - mathematicians L. Euler and D. Bernoulli, physicist F. Epinus, astronomer G. Delisle, etc. The first Russian academician was elected to the position of professor (academician) of chemistry in 1745 M. V. Lomonosov. Later, S. P. Krashennikov, S. Ya. Rumovsky, I. I. Lepekhin and others became members of the Academy - mostly children of artisans, soldiers, and lower clergy.

Mikhail Lomonosov deservedly received the title of the first Russian academician. This thinker was an encyclopedic scientist, about whom Pushkin said that he, the founder of Moscow University, was our first university . Hard work, brilliant abilities made this man a titan of science - he worked in the field of chemistry, physics, mineralogy, astronomy, mining, geology, geography, history, poetics, linguistics. In these and other branches of knowledge, the scientist was able to leave a noticeable, deep and outstanding mark. For example, Lomonosov discovered the law of conservation of matter and motion, substantiated the theory of the atomic and molecular structure of matter, the causes of the rise of continents and mountain building, etc. In historical science, he strongly criticized the scientists Miller and Bayer, not accepting their Norman theory. He argued that the history of the Russian people, their language, originates from ancient times , and not at all from the calling of the Varangians, whom he considered the inhabitants of the southern coast of the Baltic.

The great mathematician L. Euler, who worked at the Academy at the same time as Lomonosov, called this scientist a man of genius who, with his knowledge, does as much credit to the academy as to his science.

Lomonosov was followed by a whole galaxy of outstanding Russian scientists. M. V. Severgin is the founder of the Russian mineralogical school. S. P. Krashennikov compiled the famous Description of the land of Kamchatka , I. I. Lepekhin described the lands of Siberia, the Urals, the Volga region in his Daily notes.

At the same time, in the second half of the century, the scientific foundations of agrochemistry, biology and other branches of knowledge were laid. Such outstanding scientists worked in the field of history as: I. N. Boltin, M. M. Shcherbatov ( Russian history from ancient times).

On the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened in 1755, which became a major cultural center. In the printing house, which was organized under him, they began to publish the newspaper "Moscow News". There were also vocational art schools. The Ballet School and the Academy of Arts were opened in Moscow, c. Petersburg was famous for the Dance School.

At the end of the 18th century, there were 550 educational institutions in Russia with 62,000 students.

The development of science, as we said, was caused by the practical needs of the state, the expansion of ties with world science, the appearance of a significant number of scientists from Russians and foreigners. In connection with the conduct of a large number of expeditions to different parts of the country, its participants draw up maps of Kamchatka, the Don and the Caspian and Baltic Seas, etc. I.K. Kirilov brought together in his Atlas of the Russian Empire (1734) geographical discoveries.

Under Peter I, works on the history of the Northern War were created - History of the Northern War and Book of Mars . In the second quarter of the XVIII century.V. N. Tatishchev created a generalizing work - Russian history . In it, the thinker used a large number of different sources, including Russian chronicles, including those that have not survived to this day. Thus, the excerpts from them, which are given in his work, provide, firstly, information about events that are absent in other chronicles known to us, and secondly, allow us to study the history of the chronicle itself more fully. Tatishchev did what was customary for his time: he sometimes transcribed the source notes quite freely, accompanying them with his own reasoning, additions, etc., which often misled and still misleads critics and researchers.

The rise of technology was closely connected with the creation of an army, the construction of ships, and the development of industry. Russian manufactories in terms of technical equipment did not differ from Western European ones.

In 1712, the famous inventor A.K. Nartov created a lathe using a self-propelled mechanical cutter holder. Nartov owns the invention of machines for drilling the muzzles of cannons, mechanization and technology for the production of coins were developed.

Efim Nikonov in 1720-1724 built and tested a submarine and diving suit. The construction of hydraulic structures was carried out in the country.

In 1700, a state mining and exploration service was created. A deposit of copper ores was discovered in the Urals, coal was found on the Don, and the Kuzbass brought coal reserves.

In the translation of J. Bruce, a popular book appeared by the famous physicist and astronomer H. Huygens, "The Book of the World View, or Opinion on the Celestial and Terrestrial Globes and Their Decorations", dedicated to the justification of the heliocentric system of N. Copernicus. J. Bruce and G. Farvarson were the organizers of astronomical observations in Russia. The first printed calendar containing information on meteorology, astrology, and astronomy began to be published. Petersburg since 1725. began to systematically conduct meteorological observations.

A series of pharmacies were opened in St. Petersburg and Moscow, medical schools were established and hospitals were organized. In St. Petersburg in 1718, they began to manufacture medical instruments.

Book publishing has greatly increased in this century. In 1708, a font reform was carried out, a civil seal was introduced, which contributed to the increase in civil and secular books, as well as the publication of magazines. Libraries were organized, bookstores were opened.

The concept of Peter's reforms developed the technical and natural sciences, material production, the priority of the thing instead of the priority of the word and verbal etiquette, as a rule, acting in the form of stereotyped religious thinking.

2 Russian literature of the 18th century

In the literature of the 18th century, the old forms were preserved, but the content of the works changed, being influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and humanistic thought.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. novels ("stories") were popular, especially "the story of the Russian sailor Vasily Koriotsky", which reflected the emergence of a new hero, figure, patriot and citizen. "stories" showed that a person can achieve success in life due to personal qualities, virtues of a person, and not to origin. The influence of the Baroque style was manifested, first of all, in poetry, dramaturgy (represented mainly by translated plays), love lyrics.

The foundations of the theory of modern Russian literature were laid by the writer and publicist F. Prokopovich in his works "Rhetoric" and "On Poetic Art". He substantiated the principles of early classicism. In Russian literature, the beginning of the classical tradition was laid by the work of A.D. Kantemir, a poet, who was the first to introduce in Russia the genre of poetic satire, which was developed by classicism.

Literature since the 1930s influenced by classicism. This direction arose under the influence of Western European, earlier in time. Russian classicism was subject to common European laws, but it still had a pronounced interest in antiquity and strict genre regulation. Translations of ancient authors (especially Horace and Anacreon) gained great popularity. In dramaturgy and poetry, the dominant place was given to ancient plots. The national feature of Russian classicism was its closer (compared to Western Europe) connection with the ideology of the Enlightenment, which manifested itself in the high civic pathos of art.

Classicism also acquired its own characteristic features - the pathos of absolute monarchy, national statehood. The direction of classicism reached its peak in the philosophical, solemn odes of Lomonosov with their ideas of nationwide cultural progress and a wise monarch.

Russian classicism is represented by the names of M. M. Kheraskov, A. P. Sumarokov, its head, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, V. I. Maikov and others. nobility and autocratic statehood.

The founder of the new versification, which is the basis of modern Russian poetry, was Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky (1703 - 1768). The new, syllabic-tonic system of versification became an essential element of the new literature. It is based on the alternation of unstressed and stressed syllables in a line.

At the origins of the new Russian drama was the author of the first Russian comedies and tragedies, Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (1717-1777). He created 12 comedies and 9 tragedies, as well as about 400 fables. He took the plots of most tragedies from Russian history, for example, "Dmitry the Pretender".

The influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, Pugachev's peasant war, and then the French Revolution led writers to devote their works to acute social and political problems. Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744-1792) denounced the arbitrariness and ignorance of the landlords in the comedy "Undergrowth". Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin (1743-1816) tried in the ode "Felitsa" to create the image of an "ideal monarch", with which contemporary rulers could not stand comparison.

Classicism was replaced by sentimentalism. He has a particular interest in the experiences, feelings, interests of the common man, especially from the middle classes. The beginning of sentimentalism is associated with the name of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826). The writer managed in his story "Poor Liza" to prove the simple truth that "peasants know how to love" and are ready to give their lives for love.

Noble poetry of this time is not limited only to love lyrics. He is also familiar with genres of greater social significance, for example, satire, significant examples of which were first presented by Kantemir, although even before him satirical elements appeared, for example, in the oratorical prose of Feofan Prokopovich, in the verses of Simeon of Polotsk or in "interludes", which were often displayed in caricature the form of enemies of the policy of feudal expansion.

In the work of Lomonosov and Kantemir, older genres took shape - a solemn ode and satire. Creativity Trediakovsky gave samples of artistic prose, poetic epic and marked the beginning of the formation of the genre system of lyrics.

With Sumarokov and his followers, there was a “decrease” in high style along the line of lyrics and especially along the line of comedy. Lomonosov's theory ranked comedy among the low genres, allowing it greater freedom from "rules" and thereby "lowering" classicism in it. The wide literature of the nobility did not fail to use this relative freedom. Sumarokov in his "Epistle on Poetry" paid much attention to comedy, to which he set the didactic task: "the property of comedy to rule the temper with a mockery - to make laugh and use its direct charter."

N. M. Karamzin wrote a sentimental story in the genre of a sentimental journey.

In a number of works that belong to the genre of classicism, elements of realism are clearly visible. D. I. Fonvizin in his comedies Brigadier and undergrowth realistically and aptly described the life of the landowners' estates, drawing the morals of their owners, sympathizing with the fate of the peasants, whose situation required, in his opinion, relief by softening the morals of the nobility, as well as its enlightenment.

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) in his artistic form, in his works, raised the problem of the need to eliminate serfdom and autocracy. In the book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", which combines the travel genre with a sensitive story, they are given vivid pictures of lawlessness and arbitrariness.

Early 18th century is an important period in the formation of the Russian literary language. The literature of the Petrine era was distinguished by great linguistic diversity, along with the Church Slavonic language, foreign words were actively used in it, many of which have been preserved in modern Russian.

First of all, Russian classical poetics developed questions of poetic language, which had to be adapted to new tasks.

Lexical norms of the literary language in the middle of the XVIII century. were ordered by M.V. Lomonosov.<#"justify">3. RESULTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE XVIII CENTURY

1 The contribution of Russian culture of the 18th century to world culture and its influence on the subsequent development of Russian culture

The eighteenth century in the field of Russian culture is considered the century of deep social contrasts, the rise of science and enlightenment.

The age of reason and enlightenment" - this is how the great thinkers of the 18th century, heralds of new revolutionary ideas, spoke about their time. The 18th century entered the history of world culture as an era of great socio-historical and ideological shifts, the most acute struggle against religious dogmatism and feudal-monarchical foundations.

The spread of the materialistic worldview and the affirmation of the spirit of love of freedom found a vivid reflection in literature, science, philosophy, in the educational activities of the greatest thinkers, writers, scientists of that time - Holbach and Diderot, Rousseau and Voltaire, Schiller, Goethe, Lessing.

Russian scientists not only creatively perceived the achievements of Western European scientists, but they themselves exerted an ever-increasing influence on world scientific thought. In Russia, the general level of development of science in the 18th century was lower than in Western Europe, but each new achievement became all the more important. The publications of the Russian Academy of Sciences were famous among scientists from other countries. Abroad closely followed the scientific life of St. Petersburg.

This was the first century when secular culture developed rapidly, when a new, rationalistic worldview won a decisive victory over the ascetic harsh dogmas of religious morality, which opened a wide road for the flourishing of the culture of subsequent eras.

Russian culture took a worthy place in world culture during this period. It manifested features of the national outlook and character. It began to have its own dynamics of development, which made it unique, unique and recognizable among other cultures.

The culture of the Russian state in the 18th century, subject to European influence, itself acquired world significance. The main achievement of this period is associated with the release of the creative forces of the individual, the flourishing of personal creativity, the implementation of the Lomonosov formula that "the Russian land will give birth to its own Platos and quick-witted Newtons."

in Russia in the 18th century. architectural creations were created, which are the property of not only Russia, but the whole world. Some of them, namely: Bazhenov VI - the construction of the Grand Kremlin Palace and the building of the collegiums on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin. And still one of the most perfect work of all Russian classicism of the late XVIII century.

The most important progressive traditions of Russian architecture, which were of great importance for the practice of late architecture, are urban planning and ensemble building. Architecture was transformed over time, but nevertheless, a number of features of Russian architecture existed and developed over several centuries, maintaining traditional stability until the 20th century.

In general, Russian art of the XVIII century. constitutes an important milestone not only in the history of Russian artistic culture, but also played a major role in establishing the progressive aesthetic ideals of European culture in the 18th century. generally.

The results of the historical and cultural development of the XVIII century. are quite significant. Russian national traditions were developed in all kinds of art. All areas of culture developed - printing, education, fine arts, architecture, literature. There is a formation of Russian classicism. The development of culture of the XVIII century. paved the way for the brilliant flourishing of Russian culture of the 19th century, which became an integral part of world culture. The Russian culture of the 18th century fulfilled its great mission with dignity, becoming a culture that inspired Russian life with new ideals that laid the foundation for Russian public consciousness for many centuries. In artistic culture, principles were formed, the most complete implementation of which determines the 19th century. The great culture of Russia of the new century, with its significance, overshadows the contradictory, full of quests and painful transition from the medieval era to the Enlightenment, the culture of the previous century. But it forms the basis of the remarkable processes of development of Russian spirituality in the 19th and even 20th centuries.

2 Culture of the Oryol region in the 18th century

The percentage of the urban population of the Orel province in the XVII century. was small, since the vast majority of the population lived in rural areas, and 2/3 of it was serfs.

For a long time, education in the provinces was at a low level, although in the second half of the 18th century. In Russia, the system of public school began its formation. The main pedagogical centers in the Orel region of this period continued to be monasteries. In the Oryol province in 1778 a theological seminary was established. The theological seminary (episcopal school) became one of the few educational institutions in the province. It carried out the training of priests for the parishes of the Oryol diocese. She played a positive role in the development of education. “Not all of its graduates became priests, some of them continued their studies in other secular educational institutions. Teachers for the public schools of the province were recruited from the students of the theological seminary. Soon after the opening of the seminary, several theological schools were established. In particular, on September 15, 1779, the Oryol Theological School, located in the Assumption Monastery, began its activities. Here they taught French, Greek and Latin, arithmetic, sacred history, catechism, and grammar. Later, a poetry class was opened, the teaching of philosophy and the German language was introduced.

In the second half of the XVIII century. professional music is also rapidly developing - in Orel at that time the Oryol Musical Chapel was created. The nobles often arranged musical evenings and performances, concerts, and were enthusiastically engaged in home music-making.

During the years of Orel belonging to the Sevsk diocese, there has been a significant rise in the moral and intellectual level of the flock and clergy. The archpastors summoned learned monks from the Kyiv diocese, setting up libraries at the churches, demanding from the clergy the obligatory education of the people and children.

During this time, the most important event was the emergence of religious educational institutions. Under the third Bishop of Sevsk, Ambrose (Podobedov), later Metropolitan of St. Petersburg, it was founded in 1778 in the city of Sevsk. In addition to the seminary, religious schools were opened in Orel. Thanks to this, not only in urban, but also in rural parishes, deacons and priests appeared who graduated from a theological school.

The architecture of the Oryol region in the middle of the XVIII century. characterized by the development of the Baroque style. Religious civil buildings continued to be intensively built. In the Oryol region, church stone construction became widespread. At first, the monasteries were its initiators.

There was a fortress theater. Actors acted out comedies and tragedies on specially arranged stages, took part in ballet and opera performances. The quantitative composition of the troupe was associated with the wealth of the owner. On the occasion of the passage through the Orel of Catherine II on July 17, 1787, a "noble troupe" gave a big performance at the residence of the Governor-General. Actors in the presence of the Empress played the comedy of the French playwright Charles Favard "Soliman II, or" Three Sultans ". This was the first theatrical performance that was recorded in the history of Orel.

Thus, in the second half of the 18th century, the city of Orel developed rapidly in the cultural direction. Architecture, music, education - everything moved forward, leaving behind indelible marks in the history of the Oryol region.

CONCLUSION

Having solved the tasks set and the goal put forward, we formulate some conclusions that are reflected in the work:

The reforms of Peter I created an unusual cultural situation in Russia. The results of the historical and cultural development of the XVIII century. are very significant. In all forms of art, the development of Russian national traditions continued. At the same time, the strengthening of ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture.

All directions of all areas of culture - printing, education, fine arts, architecture, literature - were developed. New fiction, literary magazines, secular music, public theater appeared. The formation of Russian classicism is being carried out, which was replaced by sentimentalism. The development of culture of the XVIII century. prepared the brilliant flourishing of Russian culture of the next century, which became an integral part of world culture.

The middle of the 18th century is considered to be the turning point in the development of literature, when a developed system of genres was formed - a fable, an ode, a tragedy, an elegy, a story, a comedy, a journey, a novel. The main distinguishing features of that time are also represented by a new literary language and a new system of versification. The 18th century is a period of unusually intensive cultural development of the country, since Russia at that time was discovering the achievements of Western European culture accumulated over many centuries. Domestic school of fine and theatrical art, in literature in the XVIII century. developed, obeying the general laws of European culture, while actively preparing the take-off of national culture in the 19th century.

REFERENCES

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.Dmitrieva N.A. Brief history of arts. In 3 books. Book. 2. / N.A. Dmitriev. - M.: Garderika, 2009.- 567 p.

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10. Krasnobaev B.<#"justify">APPENDIX

M.Yu. Lomonosov

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Rokotov F. Portrait of Peter III

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Science, education, publishing have reached, many educational institutions and libraries have been opened. Outstanding works of culture have been created in architecture, sculpture, painting, theater, literature, etc. Numerous figures of science and culture have glorified Russia throughout the world.

For Russia, as well as for Western European countries, the XVIII century. was the age of the Enlightenment. The culture of the upper strata of Russian society, secular at its core, differed significantly from the traditional culture of peasants and city dwellers. However, there was no impassable abyss between them. Works of literature, works of painting, sculpture and architecture became public property. The enlightened part of society was more and more imbued with the idea of ​​improving the life of the entire Russian people.

The main events and periods of culture of the 18th century in Russia:

• until 1725 - cm.Culture under Peter I .
• 1762 - the creation of the "Commission on the stone structure."
• 1764 - the opening of the Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational House.
• 1769 - the beginning of the publication of the journals "Vsakaaya Vsyachina" and others.
• 1782 - the opening of the monument to Peter I on the Senate Square in St. Petersburg.
• 1783 - opening of the Russian Academy 1786 - opening of public schools.
• 1795 - the opening of the first Public Library.

Art of the 18th century in Russia by period

Art of the 18th century in Russia by industry

• Painting of the 18th century in Russia. material from the site

Russian literature of the 18th century

The influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, popular uprisings and, finally, the French Revolution led to the fact that many poets and writers of the second half of the 18th century began to devote their works to topical social problems. In Russian literature of the 18th century, three names can be noted - G. R. Derzhavin, D. I. Fonvizin and A. N. Radishchev.

Music of the 18th century

Among the musicians of the reign of Catherine II, Dmitry Stepanovich Bortnyansky (1751-1825) was especially distinguished. He was born in Ukraine. He studied singing and music theory at the Court Singing Chapel in St. Petersburg. For ten years he lived in Italy, where he perfected himself in the art of music. Here his first operas were staged. In 1779 Bortnyansky returned to Russia. His writings, presented to Empress Catherine II, made a sensation. Bortnyansky was awarded the title of composer of the Court Chapel and was awarded a monetary award, and in 1796 he was appointed director of the Court Choir. Bortnyansky entered the history of Russian music primarily as the author of spiritual choral compositions.

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Russia 18th century

The culture of Russia in the 18th century was of key importance in the development of the state. This is the century of enlightenment and reason. This is how the great thinkers of that time spoke of him. The culture of Russia in the 17th-18th centuries is considered the heyday of an era of great socio-historical and ideological shifts. The latter was also marked by a struggle with religious dogmas and feudal-monarchical foundations. The culture of Russia in the 18th century is distinguished by the affirmation of the spirit of love of freedom and the spread of a materialistic worldview. This is most clearly reflected in literature, science, and philosophy. In a word, in the representative activity of the largest writers, philosophers and scientists of that time. We are talking about Radishchev, Lomonosov, Schiller, Goethe, Lessing, Rousseau, Voltaire, Holbach, Diderot. The culture of Russia in the 17th-18th centuries is a significant turning point, from which a new period began for the state. It is impossible not to take into account the three centuries of Mongol conquest. Because of him, the culture of Russia in the 16th-18th centuries seemed to be in isolation. In addition, it should be noted the influence of the Orthodox Church, which did its best to fence off Russia from the "Western" and "heretical". This also applies to forms of cultural life, customs and education. Nevertheless, the culture of Russia in the 18th century embarked on the path of pan-European development. She began to gradually free herself from medieval shackles.

Portraits:

Radishchev:

Radishchev is a writer whose name we are proud of. Of all the remarkable people of the 18th century, he is the closest and dearest of all to a Soviet citizen. No wonder the first monument erected by the young Soviet Republic was the monument to Radishchev. Radishchev is dear to us as the first Russian revolutionary, a fighter against autocracy and serfdom, against the oppression of man. He “was the first to prophesy liberties,” we can say about him in the words of Radishchev himself. Beginning with Radishchev, Russian literature acquires a new, most valuable quality: there is a direct connection between advanced fiction and the social revolutionary movement. Radishchev was a widely educated person. He had great knowledge in chemistry, physics, astronomy, mineralogy, botany, medicine, political economy; he also worked in the field of history, agronomy, and the theory of verse; knew French, German, English, Latin and Italian. ( This material will help to write competently on the topic Biography of Radishchev. The summary does not make it possible to understand the whole meaning of the work, therefore this material will be useful for a deep understanding of the work of writers and poets, as well as their novels, short stories, stories, plays, poems.) But the most important thing is that he devoted all his vast knowledge, all the forces of his mind, feelings and will to the cause of serving the motherland, the struggle for the people's revolution, for the freedom and happiness of the working people.

Lomonosov:

Great Russian scientist, philosopher, founder of Moscow University. Born in the village of Denisovka, Arkhangelsk province, in a Pomor family. In 1731 he entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow to study. In 1735 he was sent to Petersburg to an academic university, and in 1736 to Germany, where he studied first at the University of Marburg (1736-1739), and then in Freiburg at the School of Mining (1739-1741) at the mountain adviser I. Genkel. After returning to Russia in 1741, Lomonosov became an adjunct of the physical class of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, and in 1745 - a professor of chemistry. Since 1748, Lomonosov worked in the chemical laboratory of the Academy established on his initiative. Until 1748, Lomonosov was engaged mainly in physical research, and in 1748-1757. his works were devoted mainly to the solution of theoretical and experimental problems of chemistry. His works related to mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth sciences, astronomy became a milestone in the development of science, delimiting natural philosophy from experimental natural science. Lomonosov outlined the foundations of atomic-particle theory, developed the kinetic theory of heat, substantiated the need to involve physics to explain the phenomena of chemistry, and proposed the name "physical chemistry" for the theoretical part of chemistry, and "technical chemistry" for the practical part. He also drew attention to the fundamental importance of the law of conservation of substances in chemical reactions.

Schiller:

Born November 10, 1759 in Marbach. A native of the lower classes of the German burghers: his mother is from the family of a provincial baker-innkeeper, his father is a regimental paramedic. After studying in elementary school and studying with a Protestant pastor, Schiller in 1773, on the orders of the Duke of Württemberg, entered the newly established military academy and began to study law, although from childhood he dreamed of becoming a priest; in 1775 the academy was transferred to Stuttgart, the course of study was extended, and Schiller, leaving law, took up medicine. After completing the course in 1780, he received a position as a regimental doctor in Stuttgart. While still at the academy, Schiller moved away from the religious and sentimental exaltation of his early literary experiments, turned to drama, and in 1781 completed and published The Robbers. At the beginning of the following year the play was staged in Mannheim; Schiller was present at the premiere For unauthorized absence from the regiment for the performance of The Robbers, he was arrested and banned from writing anything other than medical essays, which forced Schiller to flee the Duchy of Württemberg. The quartermaster of the Mannheim theater, Dalyörg, appoints Schiller a "theatrical poet", concluding a contract with him to write plays for staging on stage.

Goethe:

Johann Wolfgang Goethe - philosopher, thinker, naturalist, educator and, most importantly, the great and brilliant German poet was born in Frankfurt am Main on August 28, 1749. His parents were wealthy and respectable people: his father was an imperial adviser, a lawyer, his mother was a noblewoman, the daughter of a Frankfurt elder. Already in childhood, Johann began to show amazing abilities for science. Already at the age of seven he knew several languages, in addition, at this age he began to write his first poems and compose plays. A talented child read a lot and tried to replenish his knowledge base as much as possible. In 1765, Goethe became a student at the University of Leipzig, where he was supposed to study law. Finding himself free from parental care and moralizing, Goethe boldly bursts into the literary life of the city, and in 1767 he wrote a collection of poems "Annette", whose works are full of lyrics and convey his experiences of first love. Studying at the university was interrupted by a serious illness, due to which Goethe leaves home for a year and a half. The father was against the literary activities of his son and insisted on continuing his studies at the university, as a result of which, in 1770, John moved to Strasbourg. In addition to jurisprudence, Goethe studies chemistry, medicine, philology, while continuing to be fond of literature. After meeting and getting to know the critic and thinker Gottfried Herder, Goethe radically changes his worldview, and he becomes an active member of the Sturm und Drang literary group, whose members opposed conventions and feudal orders. The period of graduation from the university accounts for the creation of the first historical drama - "Getz von Berlichingen", the main character of which enters the fight against feudal orders. In 1772, Goethe moved to the city of Wetzlar to practice law. It is in this city that the poet experiences the pangs of unrequited love for his friend's fiancee Charlotte Buff. Goethe depicted his deep feelings and torments in his work “The Sufferings of Young Werther” - this novel made the poet famous.

Features of Russian culture of the 18th century

In the 18th century, the "Europeanization" of Russian culture took place - the process of introducing Russian culture to the European one. The penetration of Western influences into Russia began in the 17th century. There was a German settlement in Moscow. There were many Englishmen and Dutchmen in Russian trade and industry. However, these were only the first symptoms of a new trend in the development of Russian culture. It fully manifests itself in the 18th century. Russia's acquaintance with European culture took place in several bullets: foreign masters were invited to work in Russia, works of European art were acquired, Russian masters were sent abroad as pensioners, i.e. at public expense. From the middle of the 18th century, the development of Russian culture corresponding to the all-European development began. From now on, all new cultural movements and artistic trends come from the West and take root on Russian soil (baroque, rococo, classicism, romanticism, etc.)

The second trend in the development of Russian culture of the 18th century is the "secularization" of culture, the penetration of secular principles into it, the departure from the church and religious canons. This process covered all spheres of culture (education, enlightenment, book publishing, artistic culture, everyday life). Moreover, in the West, by this time, new forms of life, secular culture, had already been formed. Therefore, Russia had to go through this path of development in all spheres in 50 years, which lasted 2-3 centuries in the West. Russian culture of the 18th century absorbed the problems of European culture of the 15th - 18th centuries, combining the features of both the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.

The assessment of Russian culture of the 18th century is ambiguous. Slavophiles criticized her for copying and imitating, for breaking away from ancient Russian traditions. They talked about the unlimitedness of the spiritual life of the era. Westerners believed that borrowing from European experience was necessary to overcome Russia's backwardness. In their opinion, the Western experience was reworked and rooted in Russian soil. In Western European culture there are many statements that deny any kind of originality of Russian culture.

Painting

The history of Russian art at the beginning of the 18th century underwent a turning point. Old Russian art was replaced by a new "European" art. Iconography gave way to painting.
New genres developed, especially favorable conditions arose for the portrait. Interest in the image of a "parsun" (person) arose in Russia already in the second half of the 17th century. The pictorial language of the parsuna is largely arbitrary: the figure, almost merging with the background, was interpreted flatly, the range of colors is dark. The traditions of the parsuna will live on in the portrait of the 18th century for quite a long time, until the middle of the century.

At the same time, since the beginning of the 18th century, new forms of portraiture have been emerging. The image of a man required bold, picturesque solutions. The flowering of art in the middle of the 18th century coincided with the rise of the entire national culture. The largest masters of that time - Antropov and Argunov, independently mastered the techniques of portrait art. Unlike foreigners, they sought to overcome the superficial perception of nature and created works full of energy, expressiveness and bright colors.
In the second half of the 18th century, the further development of the ideas of the Enlightenment determined a lofty idea of ​​the purpose of man and filled art with a humanistic content. Outstanding artists of that time - F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky and V. Borovikovsky had a profound impact on the development of portraiture

Architecture

The 18th century is considered important and significant in the architecture and urban planning of Russia. It is characterized by three trends - baroque, rococo and classicism, which appeared sequentially over the course of a century. During this period, newer cities appeared, objects were created that in our time are considered recognized historical and architectural monuments.

Baroque

In the first third of the century, all architectural transformations are inextricably linked with the name of Peter the Great. During this period, Russian cities have undergone significant changes both in socio-economic terms and in architectural planning. It was at this time that industry developed, which led to the construction of many industrial cities and towns. The political situation in the country and abroad created the prerequisites for the fact that the nobility and merchants that dominated this period were drawn into the construction of public facilities. If before this period the most majestic and beautiful were created mainly by churches and royal residences (chambers), then at the beginning of the 18th century in cities great importance was attached to the appearance of ordinary residential buildings, as well as emerging theaters, embankments, mass construction of town halls, schools, hospitals (so-called hospitals), homes for orphans. Since 1710, bricks have been actively used in construction instead of wooden buildings. True, initially this innovation concerned, first of all, the capitals, while for the periphery, stone and brick remained banned for a long time.

Peter I created a special commission, which in the future will become the main body of state planning of both the capital and other cities. Civil construction already prevails over the church. Great importance is attached not only to facades, but also to the appearance of the whole city - houses are being built with facades along the streets, buildings are being decompacted for fire prevention purposes, streets are being improved, roads are being paved, the issue of street lighting is being resolved, trees are planted along the roadsides. In all this, one can feel the visible influence of the West and the firm hand of Peter, who, with his decrees, practically revolutionized urban planning in those years. Therefore, it is not surprising that in a short time Russia manages to practically catch up with Europe, reaching a decent level in terms of urban planning and urban improvement.

The main architectural event of the beginning of the century is the construction of St. Petersburg. It is from this city and the Moscow Lefortovskaya Sloboda that serious transformations in the architectural appearance of other cities begin. Western-oriented Peter the Great invites foreign architects and sends Russian specialists to study in Europe.
Trezzini, Leblon, Michetti, Schedel, Rastrelli (father) and other eminent architects come to Russia, who are destined to make a great contribution to Russian architecture of the first quarter of the 18th century. Interestingly, if at the beginning of their creative path in Russia they clearly followed their principles and Western architectural thinking, then after a certain period of time historians note the influence of our culture and identity, which can be traced in their later works.
In the first third of the 18th century, the predominant trend in architecture and construction was baroque. This direction is characterized by a combination of reality and illusion, splendor and contrast. The construction of St. Petersburg begins with the foundation of the Peter and Paul Fortress in 1703 and the Admiralty in 1704. Peter set serious tasks for the architects of that period in terms of the compliance of the new city with the advanced European principles of urban planning. Thanks to the well-coordinated work of Russian architects and their foreign colleagues, the northern capital acquired formally Western features, merging with traditional Russian ones. The style in which numerous pompous palaces, churches, state institutions, museums and theaters were created is now often called Russian Baroque or Baroque of the Petrine era. During this period, the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the summer palace of Peter the Great, the Kunstkamera, the Menshiikov Palace, the building of the Twelve Colleges in St. Petersburg were created. The ensembles of the Winter Palace, Tsarskoye Selo, Peterhof, the Smolny Monastery, and the Stroganov Palace, created in this and later periods, are decorated in the Baroque style. In Moscow, these are the churches of the Archangel Gabriel and John the Warrior on Yakimanka, the main entrance to the Arsenal courtyard of the Kremlin is decorated with characteristic elements characteristic of this period. Among the important objects of provincial cities, it is worth noting the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Kazan.

Baroque and Rococo

Despite the fact that the death of Peter I was a great loss for the state, it no longer had a significant impact on the development of urban planning and architecture of that period. Russian architects working in St. Petersburg under the supervision of foreigners adopted their experience, returned to their homeland and those who were sent to study abroad. The country at that time had strong personnel. The leading Russian architects of that period were Eropkin, Usov, Korobov, Zemtsov, Michurin, Blank and others.
The style characteristic of this period is called rococo and is a combination of baroque and emerging classicism. It shows gallantry, confidence. Rococo is more typical for interior solutions of that time. In the construction of buildings, the splendor and pomposity of the Baroque is still noted, and the strict and simple features of classicism are also beginning to appear.
This period, which coincided with the reign of Peter's daughter Elizabeth, was marked by the work of Rastrelli the son. Brought up on Russian culture, in his works he demonstrated not only the brilliance and luxury of palace architecture, but also an understanding of the Russian character, Russian nature. His projects, together with the work of contemporaries Kvasov, Chevakinsky, Ukhtomsky, organically fit into the history of Russian architecture of the 18th century. With the light hand of Rastrelli, domed compositions began to appear not only in the capital, but also in other Russian cities, gradually replacing the spire-shaped ones. The splendor and scope of his palace ensembles are unparalleled in Russian history. But with all the recognition and luxury, the art of Rastrelli and his contemporaries did not last long, and it was replaced by a wave of classicism in the second half of the 18th century. During this period, the most ambitious projects were created - a new master plan for St. Petersburg and a redevelopment project for Moscow.

Classicism

In Russian architecture in the last third of the 18th century, the features of a new direction began to appear, which was later called Russian classicism. By the end of the century, classicism was firmly established as the main direction of art and architecture. This trend is characterized by the severity of ancient forms, simplicity and rationality of designs. Unlike the buildings in the Baroque style that filled St. Petersburg and its environs, classicism most manifested itself in Moscow buildings of that time. Among many, it is worth noting the Pashkov house, the Senate building, the Tsaritsyno complex, the Golitsyn house, the Razumovsky palace, which are considered the most striking examples of classicism in architecture. At that time, the Tauride Palace, the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, the Marble Palace, the Hermitage, the Hermitage Theater, and the Academy of Sciences were being built in St. Petersburg. Kazakov, Bazhenov, Ukhtomsky and many others are rightfully considered outstanding architects of that time.
The period of the 18th century also includes changes that affected many provincial cities of that time - Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Arkhangelsk, Odoev Bogoroditsk, Oranienbaum, now Lomonosov, Tsarskoye Selo, now Pushkin and so on. Since the 18th century, Petrozavodsk, Taganrog, Yekaterinburg and many other cities have their origins, which at that time and later became important industrial and economic centers of the Russian state.

Literature

The beginning of the 18th century, according to many modern researchers, does not quite coincide with the beginning of a new era in the development of Russian literature. The Petrine era, which marks the beginning of the traditional courses in the history of Russian literature of the 18th century, was a turning point in the history of Russian statehood and culture, but still it was hardly a turning point in literature. Rather, at that time, the transition from ancient Russian, medieval literature to modern literature, which had become apparent in the second half of the previous century, continued. Profound qualitative changes in all areas of the secularizing culture also left their mark on literature, in which, from the second half of the 17th century, interest in the depiction of the human person increased, the drama of understanding life deepened, new types and types of literary works appeared (panegyric and love lyrics, school and court drama). It was in the second half of the 17th century that the active process of mastering the diverse Western European artistic experience, its original and creative processing, which continued in the Petrine era, began.

The assimilation of the new did not mean a decisive break with domestic literary traditions, but in many respects made it possible to further develop a number of features of precisely Russian national culture. The Russian 18th century was often called the period of "accelerated" development of literature, because in less than a hundred years Russian literature had passed a path that took much longer for most Western literatures. Following the advent of the Baroque, classicism was established in Russia, and soon sentimentalism and literary movements were born and flourished, as a result of which the boundaries between them turned out to be very relative.

At the same time, Russian literature of the 18th century was created in the conditions of constantly expanding, lively contacts between Russia and the West. Educated Russian people at this time, as a rule, knew French well, many of them read two or three modern European languages ​​and at least one ancient one. The works of French, English, German philosophy, literature, journalism were well known to them in the original, but throughout the 18th century the number and quality of translations from ancient and from the main European languages ​​increased and improved. Russian literature and culture of the 18th century not only recognized itself as an organic part of the European cultural movement of its time, but also strove for creative competition with the literatures of other peoples of Europe, and above all with the most famous and authoritative French literature of the 17th-18th centuries in those years.

An important aspect of the cultural reality of the XVIII century. researchers consider a gradual rethinking of the goals and objectives of literary creativity. Literature, of course, has not yet become a proper profession, until the 1760s it had neither a more or less distinct social, nor even a political function, but the struggle for its social status turns out, according to V.M. Zhivov, an inevitable companion of the literary activity of a number of leading writers of the "eighteenth century".

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