Very often we use the words "man", "individual", "personality", "individuality", using them as synonyms. However, these terms mean different things. The concept of "man" acts as a philosophical category, since it has the most general, generic meaning that distinguishes a rational being from all other objects of nature. The individual is understood as a separate, concrete person, as a single representative of the human race. Individuality can be defined as a set of features that distinguish one individual from another at the biological, psychological, social, and other levels. The concept of personality is introduced to highlight the social essence of a person as a carrier of social qualities and properties, a certain combination of which defines him as a personality. Since in this concept the emphasis is on the social principle, the personality acts as a special sociological category.
At the time of birth, the child is not yet a person. He is just an individual. To become a personality, a child must go through a certain path of development, where the indispensable conditions are biological, genetically predetermined prerequisites and the presence of a social environment with which he interacts. Therefore, a person is understood as a normative type of person that meets the requirements of society, its values and norms.
Personality can be characterized either from the point of view of its structure, or from the point of view of interaction with other people, the environment.
Structural analysis of personality is one of the most difficult problems of sociology. Since the personality is considered as a structural integrity of biological, psychological and sociogenic components, the biological, psychological and social structures of the personality are usually distinguished, which are studied by biology, psychology and sociology. The biological structure of the personality is taken into account by sociology when normal interactions between people are violated. A sick person or a disabled person cannot perform all the social functions inherent in a healthy person. The psychological structure of the personality, which includes a set of emotions, experiences, memory, abilities, etc., is more associated with sociology. Here, not only various kinds of deviations are important, but also the normal reactions of others to the activity of the individual. The qualities of this personality structure are subjective. But when determining the social structure of a personality, one should not be limited to its subjective side, since the main thing in a personality is its social quality. Therefore, the social structure of the individual includes a set of objective and subjective social properties of the individual that arise and function in the process of his various activities. It logically follows from this that the most important characteristic of the social structure of the individual is its activity as an independent action and as interaction with other people.
In the social structure of the individual, the following elements can be distinguished:
A way of implementing special qualities in an activity, manifested in a way of life, its level and quality, in various types of activity: labor, family, socio-political, cultural, etc. At the same time, the activity of the individual in the production of material and spiritual values should be considered as the central link in the structure of the personality, which determines all its elements;
Objective social needs of the individual: since the individual is an organic part of society, its structure is based on social needs that determine the development of a person as a social being. A person may or may not be aware of these needs, but from this they do not cease to exist and determine her behavior;
Abilities for creative activity, knowledge, skills: heredity sets the abilities of a person that determine the effectiveness of his activity, but what abilities will be realized depends on the interests of the individual and his desire to realize these inclinations. Indeed, natural abilities affect such parameters of human activity as pace, rhythm, speed, endurance, fatigue, but the content of activity is determined not by biological inclinations, but by the social environment;
The degree of mastery of the cultural values of society, i.e. the spiritual world of the individual;
Moral norms and principles that guide a person;
Beliefs are deep principles that determine the main line of human behavior.
All these structural elements are found in every personality, albeit to varying degrees. Each person somehow participates in the life of society, has knowledge, is guided by something. Therefore, the social structure of the individual is constantly changing.
Personality can also be characterized in terms of social type. The need for typification of individuals is universal. Each historical era has formed its types, for example, in accordance with the dominant values, the cultural types of the English gentleman, the Sicilian mafia, the Arab sheikh, etc.
The well-known psychological typology is based on the character and temperament of a person; it includes 4 types - choleric, sanguine, melancholic and phlegmatic.
The famous Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (1875-1961) proposed his own typology, which is based on three axes of human thinking, and each of them divides the world and the idea of the world into two poles:
extraversion - introversion
Abstractness - concreteness (intuition - sensorics),
Endogeneity - exogeneity (ethics - logic).
Extraversion and introversion is the division of the world into the world of objects and the world of interactions between them. In accordance with this division, the extravert is focused on objects, the introvert - on the interactions between them. An extrovert is a person whose psychological characteristics are expressed in the concentration of his interests on the outside world, external objects. Extroverts are characterized by impulsive behavior, initiative, sociability, social adaptation and openness of the inner world. An introvert is a person whose socio-psychological warehouse is characterized by a focus on his inner world, isolation. Introverts consider their interests the most important, give them the highest value; they are characterized by social passivity and a tendency to introspection. An introvert is happy to fulfill the duties assigned to him, but does not like responsibility for the final results.
The world is concrete and the world is regular. On the one hand, the world is formed from specific objects and interactions between them: for example, the boy Vanya goes to school. On the other hand, along with concrete truths, there are abstract truths, such as "all children go to school." A person with abstract or intuitive thinking (the terms "intuitive" and "abstract thinking" are identical) tends to think about all children. A person with concrete (sensory) thinking will think about his child.
The world is endogenous and exogenous, i.e. it is formed from internal and external phenomena. Jung himself called this axis "emotions - thinking", and some social psychologists call "ethics - logic".
If in social psychology the main attention is paid to the development of psychological types, then in sociology - to the development of social types. Personality type as an abstract model of personal characteristics inherent in a certain population of people ensures the relative constancy of a person's responses to the environment. The social type of personality is a product of the interaction of historical, cultural and socio-economic conditions of people's life. According to L. Wirth, a social type is a person endowed with some characteristic properties that meet the requirements of society, its values and norms and determine its role behavior in a social environment. This means that an individual must be a typical representative of any group of people (class, estate, nation, era, etc.) in terms of behavior, lifestyle, habits and value orientations. For example, a typical intellectual, a new Russian of the 1990s, an oligarch.
Personality typologies were developed by many sociologists, in particular, K. Marx, M. Weber, E. Fromm, R. Dahrendorf and others, who used different criteria. Thus, R. Dahrendorf believed that personality is a product of the development of culture and social conditions. He put this criterion as the basis of his typology, in which the identification of personality types goes through the concept of homosociologicus:
Homofaber - in a traditional society, a "working person": a peasant, a warrior, a politician, i.e. a person endowed with an important social function;
Homoconsumer is a modern consumer, i.e. personality formed by mass society;
Homouniversalis - a person capable of engaging in various activities, in the concept of K. Marx - changing all kinds of activities;
Homosoveticus - a person dependent on the state.
Another typology includes social personality types that are distinguished on the basis of value orientations that individuals adhere to:
Personality types can be distinguished depending on the value orientations of individuals:
Traditionalists - focused on the values of duty, discipline, law-abiding, the level of their independence, self-realization, creativity is low;
Idealists are critical of traditional norms, have a firm focus on self-development;
Frustrated personality type - characterized by low self-esteem, depressed well-being;
Realists - combine the desire for self-realization with a developed sense of duty, skepticism with self-control;
Hedonistic materialists - focused on satisfying consumer desires.
Since there are two components in the personality structure, such as a set of relations with the outside world and internal, ideal relations, the following types of personality are also distinguished:
Ideal - a type of personality that society proclaims as a kind of standard; the ideal type of personality in the era of the USSR was a real communist (pioneer, Komsomol member);
Basic - a type of personality that meets the needs of society as much as possible, i.e. it is a set of typical personality traits most common in a given society; they are characteristic of people who grew up in the same culture, went through the same socialization processes, for example, the type of workaholic in post-war Japan. As a rule, it is the basic type that prevails within a certain society.
All these typologies only confirm the belief of sociologists that social types are a product of society. And since we live in an era of rapid change, an era of globalization, when national cultures are gradually melted into one global one, we can witness the emergence of new types of personality.
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Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus
EE "Belarusian State Economic University"
Department of Economic Sociology
by discipline: Sociology
on the topic: Personality from the point of view of sociology: concept, structure, types
FFBD student
1st course, RFN-1
Yu.V. Buglak
Checked
G.F. Bedulina
Introduction
2. Social status and social role. Personality types
3. Theories of socialization
4. The process of socialization
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Man acts as the initial cell of the social structure. Therefore, its study and definition of its nature, needs and desires is of great interest to sociology.
As you know, the object of sociology is society, consisting of social institutions, organizations, groups. People are also the object of sociological research. Sociologists are interested in opinions, motives for actions, life plans, value orientations, goals of activity, and much more that expresses the personality of a modern person. There is no socialization in animal communities. It is possible only in human society. Socialization is the process of transforming a person from an individual into a personality. personality emotional mental
The life of people takes place in communication with each other, so they need to unite and coordinate their actions. Undoubtedly, the world exists solely because the actions of a huge number of people are in agreement, but for this they need to understand who is supposed to do what and when. The first condition for organized social life is the existence of certain agreements between people, which take the form of social expectations expressed in norms. In modern society, the state plays the role of a mechanism for the implementation of a large number of norms - laws.
1. The concept of personality, its structure
Philosophy is interested in man from the point of view of his place in the world as a subject of knowledge and creativity. Psychology analyzes a person as the integrity of mental processes, qualities and relationships: temperament, character, abilities, volitional qualities, etc. That is, psychology is looking for stable characteristics of the psyche that ensure the immutability of human nature. Historians, on the contrary, are interested in how a human being changes under the influence of cultural and historical factors.
A sociologist studies a person, first of all, as a personality, as an element of social life, reveals the mechanisms of its formation under the influence of social factors, as well as the ways and channels of the reverse influence of the individual on the social world. Sociology is interested in the participation of a person-personality in the changes and development of social relations; it explores the relationship between the individual and the social group, the individual and society, the regulation and self-regulation of social behavior. That is, the specificity of the sociological approach to the study of man is to identify his social characteristics.
Let's distinguish between terms that are used in relation to a person.
The term "man" is used as a generic concept, indicating belonging to the human race. That is, the concept of "man" indicates the qualitative difference between people and animals, man - a product of nature, serves to characterize the universal qualities and characteristics inherent in all people.
The term "individual" is used in the sense of "a particular person", a single representative of the human species.
The term "individuality" means that special and specific that distinguishes one person from others, including his physiological, mental and social qualities.
The term "personality" serves to characterize the social in a person. Personality is a stable complex of social qualities, properties acquired under the influence of the corresponding culture of society and the specific social groups to which it belongs, in whose life it is included.
Initial sociological principles of personality analysis:
Every person is an individual, but not everyone is a person. Individuals are not born, individuals are made. The individual is the starting point for the development of the personality, the personality is the result of the development of the individual in society.
Personality is a concrete expression of the essence of a person and at the same time an expression of socially significant features of a given society, its culture.
The inclusion of the individual in society occurs through its entry into various social communities, they are the main way of connecting society and man.
We emphasize that any person (and not just brilliant and great, gifted and bright people), who is the bearer of the social qualities of his society, those social. groups to which he belongs, and acting as a subject of social. life, must be considered as a person. However, the level of personality development may be different.
To characterize the personality, the concept of "personality structure" is used, which includes:
Needs
Interests
Value Orientations
Local settings
Beliefs, worldview principles.
The initial step in the analysis of personality is needs.
Need - the need for something, the contradiction between the cash and the necessary.
Needs are: material and spiritual, primary and secondary.
The American sociologist A. Maslow proposed a hierarchy of human needs, which consists of five levels:
Physiological needs (needs for food, air, movement, sex, etc.).
Existential needs (needs for self-preservation, for confidence in the future).
Social needs (needs for belonging to a team, communication).
Needs of prestige (the need for respect, recognition, promotion).
Spiritual (self-expression through creativity).
Maslow considers the first two groups of needs to be primary and innate, the other three are acquired. Each subsequent level of needs is updated only after the needs of the previous level are satisfied. Thus, Maslow, with the help of the idea of the elevation of human needs, tries to trace the transition of a person from a biological state to a social one.
The next component of the personality structure - interest - is the focus of the subject on objects that are significant for him, related to the satisfaction of needs. The needs and interests of the individual underlie its motives.
Motive is an internal stimulus to action. The motive should be distinguished from the stimulus - the external stimulus of the individual to action.
Value orientations are objects and ideas that are meaningful to an individual. They are formed by the selective assimilation of the values of the society in which a person lives.
An object valuable for an individual is not always really necessary, necessary for a person. An individual evaluates an object without directly and directly relating it to his needs and interests (which he may not be fully aware of), passing through the prism of value criteria common in a given society, ideals, ready-made assessments, stereotypes of everyday consciousness, ideas about what is proper, fair, beautiful, useful, etc. However, the process of formation of value consciousness is not a one-way process, a person is critical of "ready-made" values, checks them on his own life experience. Thus, value consciousness is a complex, multidimensional spiritual phenomenon, in which there are both common value stereotypes accepted non-reflexively, on faith, and value ideas accepted and verified by personal experience, one's own assessments, one's own value judgments.
Dispositional concept and personality structure. The dispositional concept of personality (lat. disposito - location) was formed on the basis of combining two approaches to personality - sociological, showing the social conditioning of the personality's activity, and socio-psychological, describing the motivational structure of the personality. In the first approximation, the disposition implies that the individual is ready to respond effectively to the macro- and microenvironment and to the changing situation (See: Social psychology. L., 1979. For the dispositional concept in cognitive psychology, see: Rokeach M. The Nature of Human Values. N.Y. , 1973).
Unlike imperative behavior, which does not allow for multiple choices, the disposition not only allows such a choice, but also presupposes it. The sociological aspect of the dispositional concept of personality was developed by V.A. Yadov. It is based on studies of social attitudes and value orientations, conducted by the author himself, as well as by a group of scientists led by D.N. Uznadze. The aim of these studies was an attempt to find out the socio-psychological prerequisites for each person's ability to be an active and useful member of society. As a system-forming feature of the personality structure, the diversity of the individual's attitudes to the conditions of his activity was singled out. This refers to the consideration of these relations as a specific system, as integrity.
The social attitudes of the individual are associated with certain needs and conditions of activity in which this or that need is satisfied. Both needs, and situations of activity, and the disposition itself form certain hierarchical systems of arrangement of elements in order from the highest to the lowest.
Within the framework of the dispositional concept, the needs of the individual are considered in relation to physical and social existence and in the cycle of individual development (ontogenesis), they are structured according to the level of involvement of the individual in expanding areas of activity - from the family to society. The activity of the individual in this approach is stimulated by its needs for self-realization. Another component of the personality structure is situations (conditions) in which the needs of the personality can be realized. They, in turn, form a certain hierarchy. The basis here is the duration of time within which these conditions apply. These are both rapidly changing objective situations, and longer - conditions of group communication, and long-term, related to the conditions of duration in the areas of work, social and family life. The conditions associated with the way of life of society are even more stable. All this gives the activity of the individual greater plasticity, adaptability, universalism, since contradictions between needs and situations (conditions) constantly arise and are resolved, from which a person does not always come out victorious.
Dispositional formations also form their own hierarchy. The first level of the dispositional structure of the personality is associated with the simplest life situations that require elementary behavioral readiness. Often they are devoid of modality, i.e. do not require correlation of the judgment with the reliability of certain actions or phenomena (i.e., the answer "for" or "against"). This level also does not require cognition (from the English cognition - knowledge), i.e. intelligence, knowledge. The latter is activated when the usual (automatic) action encounters an obstacle. For example, if a person, having come to the usual bus stop, did not find it on the spot, he willy-nilly must think about the situation that has arisen and look for its rational solution.
The second level of the dispositional structure is socially fixed attitudes with a complex structure consisting of three main components: emotional (evaluative), cognitive (rational) and actually behavioral (behavioral readiness). Here we are talking about the interaction of the individual with individual objects and in different specific situations, as well as his ability to resolve various conflicts (role situations).
The highest level of the dispositional hierarchy is formed by the system of value orientations of the individual on the goals of life and the means of achieving them, determined by the general social conditions in which he is. In this case, we are talking about the higher needs of the individual, the interests associated with the implementation of higher social and individual values.
In the system of value orientations, a central axis can be distinguished, organizing the hierarchy of values into a specifically individualized structure; this axis is called the "life position of the individual" and acts as a kind of balance of the direction of its interests in such spheres of life as, for example, labor or the sphere of consumption. "Personal position in life" is a very important category that fixes a person's stable focus on certain values. Every person has it, even those who do not realize it, although they act in accordance with it. The dominance of the focus of interests on certain areas of activity or a relatively uniform identification with activities in the areas of work, family, life and leisure, social and political life, etc. ultimately determines the most significant features of the "social quality" of the individual in relation to the main features of the way of life of his social environment. The alternative to dispositional behavior is imperative behavior, leaving little room for free activity.
Dispositional formations characterize the properties of a "modal" personality, i.e. subjectotype, and the properties of the "reference" personality, i.e. certain social ideal. The dispositional attitude of the individual plays a decisive role in choosing her own behavior. This is not just a choice of an act, but, mainly, a choice of oneself as a person (See: Kon I.S. Opening "I". M., 1978). The concept of the dispositional structure of personality makes it possible to explain many experimental phenomena. Dispositions can be used in the development of computer programs in terms of their genesis, determination by the conditions of an individual's activity and practical results of implementation.
2. Social status and social role. Personality types
The study of a person's place in society, his connection with him is carried out with the help of the concepts: "social status" and "social role".
The social status of a person is his position in the social system, associated with belonging to a particular social group. Social status implies a set of certain rights and obligations.
Social status is a generalized characteristic of a person's position in society, including profession, qualifications, position, financial situation, nationality, religiosity, etc.
The social status of an individual is characterized by the following points:
1. Certain rights and obligations, enshrined in laws or not.
3. The level of social prestige and respect in the eyes of the public.
4. The volume and range of consumed goods and services.
5. Evaluation of certain events in public life.
There are several types of social statuses.
Acquired status - status achieved through the efforts of the person himself (for example, manager, professor, banker).
Prescribed status - a status given to a person from birth (for example, a city dweller, a man, a Ukrainian).
Mixed status - a status obtained by a person due to circumstances beyond his control (for example, unemployed, disabled).
The main status is a status that has a significant impact on the performance of all social roles by an individual; as a rule, it is associated with a person’s professional activities. The main status changes throughout a person's life, it is associated with the subjective recognition of the importance for an individual at a certain life stage of a particular social status. For example, at the stage of professional self-determination, the status of a student can act as the main status, after the birth of children, the status of the father becomes the main status, after the children gain financial independence, the main status is the representative of the profession (doctor, lawyer, engineer, etc.).
Social role - the expected typical behavior of a person associated with his social status. This is the behavior of a person who has an appropriate social status.
Since the behavior of a person occupying a certain status can have several aspects (for example, a student can be a lecturer, an experimenter in a laboratory, a headman, a participant in student conferences, an informal leader, an intern, etc.), the concept of a role set is often used instead of the concept of a social role. . Those. consider these different aspects as small independent roles. From this point of view, several social roles belong to one status.
T. Parsons proposed five characteristics of social roles:
Emotionality. Some roles require emotional restraint in situations that are usually accompanied by a violent display of feelings.
Receipt method. Some roles are conditioned by prescribed statuses, other roles are won.
Scale. Some roles are limited to strictly defined aspects of human interaction. For example, the roles of physician and patient are limited to matters that directly relate to the health of the patient. A broader relationship is established between the child and parents.
Formalization. Some roles involve interacting with people in accordance with established rules. For example, a doctor is required to provide emergency medical care to his patient.
Motivation. Different roles are due to different motives. It is expected, for example, that an entrepreneur is preoccupied with his own interests - maximizing profits. But the employment worker is supposed to work primarily for the public good, not for personal gain.
According to Parsons, any role includes some combination of these characteristics.
The social role is divided into role expectations - what, according to the "rules of the game", is expected from a particular role, and into role behavior - how a person actually performs his role. The main link between them is the character of the individual. This means that the behavior of a particular person does not fit into a pure scheme, everyone interprets and interprets the role in their own way. A role is a generalized template that a specific person fills with content.
The situation associated with the need to satisfy the conflicting requirements of one, two or more roles is called role conflict.
Types of role conflicts:
Interpersonal role conflicts are contradictions between the roles played by different individuals (for example, the roles of the offender and the employee of the internal affairs bodies).
Intrapersonal role conflicts are contradictions within a role or between roles played by one individual. Intrapersonal role conflicts are also of two types:
intra-role (for example, a student is presented with conflicting requirements in the learning process, and he is forced to choose whether to write an abstract in philosophy, do independent work in sociology or work on a course project);
inter-role (for example, the roles of a company manager and a father of a family make conflicting demands on an individual).
There are several ways to resolve role conflicts:
The choice of the main role (a person weighs the importance of each role that he needs to perform simultaneously).
Separation of roles (a person clearly separates the place of performance of different roles: for example, a father in a family and a warden in a prison).
Rationalization (a person hides from himself the reality of a role conflict or tension by unconsciously searching for the unpleasant sides of a desired but unattainable role).
Regulation of roles (a person shifts responsibility for a poorly performed role to others).
As already noted, sociology is interested in the socially typical in the individual. There are the following types of personalities:
Ideal - a type of personality that acts as an ideal for members of a given society, to which they aspire.
Basic - the type of personality that is necessary for the optimal development of society at this stage.
Modal - a personality type that is the most common in a given society.
If we analyze the history of Ukrainian society in the 20th and 21st centuries, we can distinguish the following modal personality types:
A personality "dissolved" in society does not stand out from the system of traditional social relations; it has adopted a collectivist ideology, within which an individual is only a functionally defined element of the social system. This type of personality dominated in the USSR until the period of stagnation.
A person alienated from society corresponds to the period of the collapse of the totalitarian ideology and is characterized by a dual system of values (for external and internal use).
An ambivalent personality whose consciousness consists of two parts - democratic values, on the one hand, and totalitarian orientations, on the other. This type has become dominant since the emergence of an independent Ukrainian state. There are three types of ambivalent personality type:
The conformally ambivalent personality type is characterized by the uncritical acceptance of various socio-political alternatives, support for decisions, leaders and organizations that are mutually exclusive;
· the nihilistic-ambivalent type tends to deny any alternatives to social development, to be negative in relation to any organized political forces;
· The mosaic-ambivalent type is characterized by a contradictory combination of elements of democratic consciousness, which is being formed, and totalitarian structures, which are being destroyed.
If the conformally ambivalent consciousness leads society to an authoritarian form of government, and the nihilist-ambivalent consciousness leads to rebellion, then the mosaic consciousness seems to be the most flexible, capable of accepting democratic norms.
Unlike living organisms at the lowest rung of the evolutionary ladder, the human infant is not able to survive without the help of others. In order to live independently in society, a newborn must learn to understand himself, acquire communication skills, and learn the many rules by which this society lives. In other words, the child must be socialized.
3. Theories of socialization
The infant enters the big world as a biological organism and his main concern at this moment is his own physical comfort. After some time, the child becomes a human being with a set of attitudes and values, with likes and dislikes, goals and intentions, patterns of behavior and responsibility, as well as with a uniquely individual vision of the world.
This process of assimilation of personal qualities at different stages of a person's physical existence is defined in sociology by the term "socialization".
Socialization is a complex process of including an individual in social relations, during which he learns patterns of behavior, social norms and values necessary for successful functioning in a given society.
Primary socialization - that socialization in which the individual is included in childhood. Secondary socialization is the subsequent process of learning new roles, values, knowledge at each stage of life.
The people and institutions through which the socialization of the individual is carried out are called agents of socialization. Agents of primary socialization - parents, brothers and sisters, grandparents, all other relatives, family friends, peers, teachers, doctors - all people who are connected with the individual by close personal relationships. Secondary socialization is carried out by people who are formally connected by business relations, i.e. representatives of the administration of the school, university, army, court, etc.
3.1 Theories of C. Cooley and J. Mead
Theories of socialization have a rather long history of formation and development. The most famous were the theories of Ch. Cooley and J. Mead, R. Linton, Z. Freud. A great contribution to the explanation of the process of socialization was made by representatives of the school of symbolic interactionism C. Cooley and J. Mead.
According to them, each person builds his "I", based on the reactions of other people with whom he comes into contact. The core of personality is the result of social interaction, during which the individual has learned to look at himself as an object, through the eyes of other people. A person has as many social selves as there are individuals and groups whose opinion he cares about. The decisive role in socialization is assigned to the primary groups, in which informal and trusting relationships are formed.
The human self that is revealed through the reactions of other people is known as the "mirror self". Other people are those mirrors in which the image of the "I" of a person is formed. “I” includes: 1) the idea of “how I appear to another person”, 2) the idea of “how this other evaluates my image”, 3) the resulting specific “feeling” of pride or humiliation.
Complementing and developing the theory of the “mirror” self was the concept of the “generalized other”, developed by J. Mead. "Generalized other" means anonymous people, people, society as an abstract entity - a network of institutions (family, religion, education), the state. The formation of a “generalized other” in the mind is a decisive phase of socialization.
According to Mead, the conscious self grows in the social process. A small child discovers his self as a being with definite intentions only in interaction with others. If a child is dealing with only one person, his development as an individual will be comparatively straightforward and one-dimensional. A child needs several adults who react differently to the world. In addition, it is necessary that others significant for the child themselves contact with the “generalized other”.
Seeing the peculiarity of human consciousness in the ability to use symbols and gestures, Mead believed that a person can be an object for himself, being also a subject. Mead calls the mental system of this process "I" and "me". As a subject, the "I" can remain itself, as an object, by accepting the relation of the other to itself. The mediators of this process are “significant others”, i.e. mother, father and other relatives.
The main role in the process of socialization, according to Mead, belongs to children's games, during which the mind and abilities of the child develop, the roles of several persons are assimilated at once. At the first stage of development (1-3 years), the child simply tries on all sorts of roles. At the second stage, together with others, he begins to carry out an orderly interaction between various persons (playing "mothers and daughters"). The criterion for the formation of a mature "I" is the ability to take on the role of a "generalized other" - with the onset of the third stage (from 4 years onwards). Mead emphasized the importance of relationships with peers for the formation of an independent and responsible personality.
3.2 Theory of J. Piaget
The French psychologist J. Piaget, keeping the idea of different stages in personality development, focuses on the development of the individual's cognitive structures and their subsequent restructuring depending on experience and social interaction. These stages replace one another in a certain sequence: sensory-motor (from birth to 2 years), operational (from 2 to 7), the stage of concrete operations (from 7 to 11), the stage of formal operations (from 12 to 15).
3.3 Freud's theory
One of the first to single out the mechanism of the child's socialization was the founder of psychoanalysis Z. Freud. According to Freud, personality consists of three main components: "it", "I", "super-I". "It" is a primitive component, irrational and unconscious, the bearer of instincts, subject to the principle of pleasure. The instance of "I" controls the personality, taking into account the characteristics of the external world. "Super-I" - the bearer of moral norms, performing evaluation functions. Freud understood socialization as a process of "deployment" of the innate properties of a person, as a result of which the formation of these three constituent elements of personality occurs. In this process, Freud identifies 5 stages associated with certain areas of the body: oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital.
The first stage of human development corresponds to the oral phase and covers the first year of life. During this period, the parameter of social interaction develops, the positive pole of which is trust, and the negative pole is distrust. If the baby does not receive proper care, love, then he transfers the distrust he develops towards the world to other stages of his development. The question of which beginning will prevail arises anew at each successive stage of development.
According to Freud, the second stage, coinciding with the anal phase, covers the second and third years of life. At this phase, a relationship is established between independence, on the one hand, and modesty and insecurity, on the other. A child who has learned from this stage much more independence than shame (if parents allow him to do what he is capable of) will be well prepared for the development of independence in the future. The third stage usually occurs between 4 and 5 years of age. Age from 6 to 11 years - the fourth stage, corresponding to the latent phase. The fifth phase is the age from 12 to 18 years.
3.4 E. Erickson's theory
E. Erickson's theory of personality development arose from the practice of psychoanalysis. According to Erickson, the foundations of the human "I" are rooted in the social organization of society. Each stage of personality development corresponds to its own expectations inherent in a given society, which an individual can justify or not justify, and then he is either included in society or rejected by it.
These ideas of Erickson formed the basis of 2 important concepts of his concept - "group identity" and "ego-identity". Due to the fact that from the first day of life, the upbringing of a child is focused on including him in a social group, a group identity is formed. In parallel with the group identity, an ego identity is formed, which creates in the subject a sense of stability and a continuous self, despite the changes that occur to a person in the process of his growth and development.
Erickson put forward 3 important and new positions. 1) he suggested that along with the phases of psychosexual development described by Freud, during which the direction of attraction from autoeroticism to an external object changes, there are also psychological stages in the development of the “I”, during which the individual establishes basic guidelines in relation to himself and his social environment .
Secondly, Erickson argued that the formation of personality stretches over the entire life cycle, and does not end in adolescence. And thirdly, each stage has its own development parameters, which can be positive and negative.
The social parameter of Freud's third stage (phallic), according to Erickson, develops between enterprise on one extreme and guilt on the other. How parents react at this stage to the games and amusements of the child largely depends on which of these qualities will prevail in his character.
The fourth stage, corresponding to the latent phase in psychoanalysis. Here Erickson expands the scope of psychoanalysis and points out that the development of the child during this period depends not only on the parents, but also on the attitude of other adults. During this period, the child develops deduction, the ability for organized games, regulated activities, and the social parameter of this stage is characterized by skill, on the one hand, and a sense of inferiority, on the other.
During the transition to the fifth stage (12-18 years old), the parameter of connection with the environment fluctuates between the positive pole of identification "I" and the negative pole of confusion of roles. Those. a teenager who has acquired the ability to generalize must integrate everything that he knows about himself as a son, a schoolboy, a friend, an athlete, etc. He must collect all these roles into a single whole, comprehend, connect with the past and project into the future. If a young person successfully copes with such psychosocial identification, then he will have a sense of who he is and where he is going. In contrast to the previous stages, the influence of parents is now much more indirect.
The sixth stage of the life cycle is the beginning of maturity. The parameter specific for this stage lies between the positive pole of intimacy (marriage, friendship) and the negative pole of loneliness.
The seventh stage is adulthood. At this stage, a new personality parameter appears - universal humanity. Erickson calls universal humanity the ability of a person to be interested in the fate of people outside the family circle, to think about the life of future generations. Anyone who has not developed such a sense of belonging to humanity focuses on himself and his own comfort.
The eighth and last parameter of Erickson's classification is psychosocial, it lies between integrity and hopelessness.
Erickson believes that each stage has its own strengths, that failure at one stage can be corrected by subsequent successes at others. In addition, Erickson shifts part of the responsibility for the formation of personality from parents to the individual himself and to society.
From the moment of birth and throughout life, a person is in contact with others, engaging in various activities. In domestic sociology, the process of socialization is usually divided into three periods: pre-labor, labor and post-labor. Many sociologists argue that socialization is never complete and never ends. New patterns of behavior develop when a person, for example, migrates to another country, moves to a new job, joins a religious sect, leaves home, gets divorced, and so on. At each stage of socialization, certain social institutions come into play: the family, peer groups, school, labor collectives.
Primary socialization is usually the most important for an individual, since secondary socialization is derived from primary. The child takes on the roles and attitudes of significant others, learns them and makes them his own. In the process of socialization, individuals also play an active role in changing their environment.
4. The process of socialization
Socialization is the process of assimilation by an individual of social norms and cultural values of the society to which he belongs.
Socialization covers both a targeted impact on a person (education) and spontaneous, spontaneous processes that affect a person.
Stages of socialization:
Primary socialization (acquisition of norms by a child).
Secondary (assimilation of norms and roles by an adult).
Primary and secondary socialization have the following differences:
The socialization of adults is expressed mainly in a change in their external behavior, while children's socialization corrects basic value orientations.
Adults can evaluate norms, children can only assimilate them.
The socialization of adults involves the understanding that there are many shades between black and white.
Adult socialization aims to help the individual acquire certain skills; socialization of children forms the motivation of their behavior.
Socialization proceeds under the influence of agents of socialization. The agents of socialization are: parents, peers, teachers, the media (primary socialization) bosses, colleagues, political leaders, religious organizations, the media (secondary socialization). Socialization begins with the formation of personality. How does this happen? To answer this question Let us turn to the theory of George Herbert Mead. J. Mead believes that the human "I" is a social product and is formed in the process of interaction with other individuals. The process of personality formation goes through three stages.
Imitation. At this stage, children copy the behavior of adults without understanding it. For example, a child walks around the apartment with a stick and at the same time imagines that he has a vacuum cleaner in his hand.
game stage. From the age of 4-5, children begin to play roles (teacher, doctor, policeman, etc.). At the same time, they change intonation, take postures that they have seen in adult bearers of this role. By exchanging roles during the game, children gradually comprehend themselves as separate actors - as “me”. According to J. G. Mead, the human "I" consists of "I-myself" and "I-me." "I-myself" is an unsocialized child, a set of spontaneous aspirations and desires. “I-me” is “I”-social, it is a vision of what a person is, created on the basis of the opinions of significant others (relatives, friends).
Stage of collective games. From 8 to 9 years old, children begin to take part in organized games based on clear rules, the concept of fairness and equal participation (football, basketball). At this stage, the child learns to evaluate his behavior not from the point of view of specific people, but from the point of view of the "generalized other" - this is how Mead calls the general values and moral norms that are the basis of culture.
All these stages are related to primary socialization.
According to J. G. Mead, the stage of secondary socialization corresponds to the 4th stage
The stage of orientation towards the “generalized other. This is a generalization of the requirements of all people who surround a person, the ordering of these requirements and the development of a life scheme in accordance with them.
The process of socialization does not end with the growing up of the child, it continues throughout a person’s life, because society is changing, a person enters new social groups to which it is necessary to adapt.
When an individual enters a new social environment for him, whether it be employment, moving to a new place of residence or post-perestroika changes, there is a need for his socialization. In any of these cases, the individual lives through a series of moments that are called the structure of socialization:
Adaptation - adaptation to new conditions, roles, norms.
Internalization is the adoption of norms, values, their inclusion in the inner world of a person.
Social activity is the production of new norms, values, the transformation of a person into a subject of social relations.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to note that the process of socialization of the individual proceeds mainly under the influence of group experience. At the same time, a person forms his “I” - an image based on the perception of the reaction of others to his behavior, i.e. how others evaluate it. In order for such perception to be successful, a person assumes the roles of others and looks at his behavior and his inner world through the eyes of these others. Forming his "I" - the image, the person is socialized. However, there is not one identical process of socialization and not one identical personality, since the individual experience of each of them is unique and unrepeatable.
The process of socialization reaches a certain degree of completion when a person reaches social maturity, which is characterized by the acquisition of an integral social status by the person. However, in the process of socialization failures and failures are possible. A manifestation of the shortcomings of socialization is deviant (deviant) behavior. This term in sociology most often denotes various forms of negative behavior of individuals, the sphere of moral vices, deviations from principles, norms of morality and law. The main forms of deviant behavior include delinquency, including crime, drunkenness, drug addiction, prostitution, and suicide.
Numerous forms of deviant behavior indicate a state of conflict between personal and public interests. Deviant behavior is most often an attempt to leave society, to escape from everyday life's hardships and problems, to overcome the state of uncertainty and tension through certain compensatory forms. However, deviant behavior is not always negative. It can be associated with the desire of the individual for something new, advanced, an attempt to overcome the conservative, which hinders moving forward. Various types of scientific, technical and artistic creativity can be attributed to deviant behavior.
The socialization of the individual assumes that the object of research is not one or several, but the whole complex of socially significant qualities of a person in their close unity and interaction. They cover the whole set of features of consciousness and behavior: knowledge, conviction, diligence, culture, upbringing, the desire to live according to the laws of beauty, etc. It is important to overcome stereotypes, atavisms in the minds and behavior of people.
At the same time, in whatever sphere a person acts, the spiritual moment always and in everything accompanies his activity. Moreover, a person does not passively reproduce what society dictates to him. He has the ability to show his creative power and influence the phenomena around him.
Bibliography
1. Kazarinova N.V., Filatova O.G., Khrenov A.E. Sociology. Textbook for universities. M.2000
2. http://ru.wikipedia.org
3. http://www.grandars.ru
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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
"VITEBSK STATE TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY"
FACULTY OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND RETRAINING OF STAFF
Test
in the discipline “Sociology. Economic sociology»
VITEBSK 2007
Exercise 1
CULTURE
The concept of culture
Elements of culture
Functions of culture
SOCIAL VALUES AND NORMS
The essence of social values and norms
Social broadcast of norms
Changing social norms
IDEOLOGY
Concept of ideology
Social functions of ideology
Types of ideology
Task 2
Bogomolova T.Yu., Tapilina E.S. Economic stratification of the population of Russia in the 90s//Sotsis. 2001. No. 6.
Task 1 Society and culture
CULTURE
The concept of culture
In the 18th century, the meaning of the word "culture" expanded so much that it spread to the spiritual sphere, and this word gradually acquired a whole range of different meanings. The specificity of each field of knowledge leaves its mark on which particular aspect of culture is considered as the main one. Since sociology studies society at different levels, up to the most concrete ones, culture is considered here as a system of generally valid behavior patterns operating in society or within a certain social class. In culture, two levels are distinguished: primary, or spontaneous, - direct and usually not subject to theoretical understanding of the mass skills of people in everyday life; secondary - literature, cinema, painting.
From the point of view of sociology, spontaneous culture as an object of study is more productive, since it provides more information about immediate social life, including the life of those social groups and individuals who largely fall outside the range of secondary culture. Spontaneous culture is a million big and small details about the way of thinking, attitudes and behaviors inherent in all members of a given society. It is these features of culture that make people from the same social environment similar and dissimilar - people from different societies and eras.
Different cultures can coexist within the same society. Thus, the behavior of a Russian nobleman of the 18th century was strikingly different from the behavior of a serf or merchant. They differed in clothing, manners, knowledge and skills, even the language they spoke in their environment.
The influence of culture on the individual is stronger than it might seem. Contrary to the fact that we usually consider culture as something secondary and ephemeral in relation to our physical nature, natural and bred are so closely intertwined in individual perception that culture can even influence sensations. For example, R. Melzak investigated the role of culture in how a person feels physical pain.
Elements of culture
There are several components in culture:
1. Value is what is desirable and preferred within a given culture. They are passed down from generation to generation through family and non-family upbringing.
2. Ideology is understood as a system of views, beliefs, values and attitudes, in which people's attitudes to reality and to each other, social problems and conflicts are realized, and also contains the goals of social activity aimed at consolidating or changing existing social relations. It has internal unity and integrity and does not contain mutually exclusive or contradictory provisions. Ideology is the real force that organizes and mobilizes social action.
3. Language is a system of verbal codes and symbols, transmitted from generation to generation and serving as the basis for verbal interaction. This is the most important criterion for distinguishing “us” from “them”. Moreover, language is a tool of social differentiation, since it conveys the worldview along with the social attitudes present in it.
4. Symbols are the most important element of culture. Along with language, they form a system of social communication codes within one cultural system. Like words, they reflect a certain worldview inherent in a given culture.
5. Traditions are a set of ideas and behaviors that are characteristic of a given culture and are passed down from generation to generation. This is the social and cultural heritage that parents leave to their children not as individuals, but as members of a particular social group, national and religious community, class, etc. Every person is born into some tradition. Traditions govern life. Customs are a concrete expression of tradition - these are more private “fragments” of tradition tied to certain situations.
6. A ritual is a fixed sequence of actions, gestures and words performed and spoken at a strictly defined time, in a strictly defined place and in strictly defined circumstances. The content of the ritual is strictly connected with tradition. The rituals are very diverse, from the primitive rituals of primitive societies aimed at ensuring a successful hunt, to the complex rites and mysteries of world religions.
7. A behavior model is an ideal idea of how one should behave in a given situation. The models of behavior offered by a particular culture are based on its specific vision of the world with specific values, symbols and traditions. Under such models, we adjust our own behavior in various situations and on the basis of them we evaluate the actions of others and our own. Behavior patterns are stable and little subject to changes in everyday life: in order for them to change, a long historical interval is needed, since they cannot change without changing the entire system of values.
Functions of culture
As a complex of all the considered elements, it performs a number of important functions in society. One of the most important functions of culture is communication. Culture is a universal system of communication between people at all levels, from interindividual to generational level.
Another function of culture is predictive. Since culture presupposes certain patterns of behavior and values, then, based on the requirements of culture, it is possible to predict how the average carrier of this culture will behave in a given life situation.
The third function of culture is identification. Culture enables an individual to feel his belonging to a group through values, symbols, behavior patterns, etc., common with the group. Based on common values, an emotional bond arises that unites members of a single group.
Finally, the fourth function is adaptive. Culture allows the individual to adapt to his geographic environment, helping him to solve the problems of survival.
SOCIAL VALUES AND NORMS
The essence of social values and norms
All of us, since we live in a society of our own kind, are doomed to choose a line of behavior in their environment. From behavioral responses, both our own and those of others, we learn whether we are accepted by a particular social group, whether we are leaders or outsiders, whether in some way we determine the behavior of others, or whether it is others who predominantly determine our own behavior.
In different situations - in different social contexts - the same people behave differently. People's behavior is determined by values. In essence, the values of all people are similar, people differ only in the scale of their values - in which of the values dominate for them, and which ones can always or situationally be sacrificed.
Social values are the value ideas adopted by a given social group. Such representations are more diverse than individual values. They are determined by ethnic psychology, the peculiarities of the way of life, religion, economy and culture, if we are talking about the people, and the specifics of the occupation and social status of the group, if we are talking about more fractional groups.
Since each person is included not in one, but in several social groups, the values of these groups intersect in his mind, sometimes very contradictory. Group values are classified into social, stratification, political, ethnic, religious.
Those values that really determine the behavioral strategies of people are obligatory for all members of a given social group, and for the neglect of which punishments sanctioned by the group are applied in the group, they are called social norms. Not all value ideas are reflected in the norms. Only those values that are capable of actually regulating action become norms. Positive states of things that cannot be achieved by human effort do not become norms, no matter how good and desirable they may be.
There are also positive assessments of human actions and actions that never become a social norm because people are not able to follow them en masse. For example, in any society, heroes are revered as an ideal of courage and selflessness, and saints as carriers of the ideal of lofty morality and love for one's neighbor. But history does not know a society that would consist only of heroes or saints. Thus, some social values always remain an exclusive unattainable model. The norm becomes what, in principle, can be demanded from the behavior of everyone.
The norm cannot be actions that a person cannot not perform in any way. In order for a norm to become a norm, there must be the possibility of the opposite choice.
The function of norms in society is not limited to the direct regulation of the social behavior of individuals; they make such behavior reasonably predictable. Norms prescribe to all members of a given group in such and such a situation to behave in a strictly defined way, and this normative prescription is reinforced by the threat of social sanctions in case of non-compliance and the expectation of encouragement in case of performance.
On February 15, 2015, the famous French sociologist Frederic Lebaron held a series of lectures and a seminar for students and teachers of the Baltic State University. Immanuel Kant. Frederic Lebaron has long-standing friendly relations with the Baltic Federal University of Kaliningrad. Vice-President of the Sociological Association of France, a student and follower of Pierre Bourdieu, authoritatively declares that sociology is inseparable from economics and is a unique tool for assessing the level of well-being of society.
Back in 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy, being the President of France, suggested that experts dissociate themselves from the previous system of criteria for assessing social development: the volume of industrial production and GDP, calling them irrelevant and incapable of giving an objective assessment of the quality of human life in society. Frederic LeBaron closely watched the work of the created commission, which, by the way, did not fulfill the task set by the French government.
Why can't we rely entirely on GDP as an indicator of a society's level of well-being? Traffic jams increase the statistics of gasoline consumption. Consequently, traffic congestion contributes to an increase in the share of production and consumption of petroleum products. However, traffic jams are rather a negative phenomenon, which also contributes to the deterioration of the environmental situation.
The share of domestic production is also not taken into account in GDP. Although the level of production of dacha and subsidiary farming is quite high. Six acres may well feed the average Russian family. The shadow economic sector cannot be discounted either, especially given the level of corruption in Russia.
What parameters did the French research group put into the concept of quality of life? First of all, the experts take into account material income, the level of education of the population, the quality of health care services. The state of the environment and indicators of the physical safety of the population must be taken into account. All statistical data should take into account indicators of social inequality. In addition, experts refused to consider only the volume of investments as an indicator of economic development. In the first place came indicators that determine the degree of return on investment. This indicator, which was introduced by the government commission, refers to the so-called sustainability criterion. The efficiency of the use of resources is important here: natural, intellectual and social. Not all of them are replenishable. Mineral resources and water resources require a more than responsible approach to their use.
Economics considers the concept of quality of life from a material point of view. But sociologists invest in the definition of a decent life indicators of happiness or unhappiness. Is it possible to be happy in a single country? Isn't this what humanity has been striving for throughout its history? If the government determined the level of quality of life in terms of not only economics, but also sociology, then it would be forced to consider such aspects of human existence as the institution of marriage and childhood, the living conditions of the disabled and elderly members of society. For example, children are not today a source of economic income, but they determine the future income of the state in terms of labor resources. French experts propose to consider the level of quality of life in terms of "culturally specific validity of contentment or dissatisfaction", which is most likely determined not by today, but by the prospects for the development of society. The situation in Latin American countries is closest to the “happy indicators”: they are experiencing a process of smoothing social differentiation, and sustainable economic growth is planned. People felt it and perked up. Consequently, in terms of "contentment" they feel no worse than the Germans and the French.
Unfortunately, the economic crisis does not add to the number of happy people in Russian society. But there is hope for a cyclical development of the economy, when, after the crisis, a period of economic recovery will surely begin. And after it, prospects and hopes for better conditions for the quality of life will appear.
According to many scientists, in the modern world development, laws of system-cyclic dynamics, there is the general laws of the formation of the multidimensional world, which simultaneously determine the rhythm and its gradualness. They manifest a certain configuration of new relations that develop between various elements of the social whole.
The social system is a set of social relations formed as a result of the joint activities of people, social groups. It is she, together with the economic system, that determines the goals of material and spiritual production, public policy, forms the principles and methods of their organization, and appears as an integral socio-economic system. Social systems are conditionally divided into three types: socio-political (political parties, social movements, government groups, etc.); socio-cultural (scientific, creative, etc.); socio-economic (social production, sectors of the economy, organizations, enterprises, etc.).
Each social system consists of two independent, interconnected subsystems: managed and managing. The managed system includes all the elements that ensure the direct process of creating material and spiritual wealth, the provision of services. The control system includes all elements that provide the process of control, directed impact on groups of people in the controlled system. Communication between the control and managed system is carried out with the help of information that serves as the basis for substantiating managerial actions and decisions coming from the control to the controlled system for execution and vice versa - correcting decisions. Each of them is a set of elements with their inherent properties that determine their place in the internal organization of the system. In the social system itself (in the managed and managing parts) there are homogeneous groups of elements that form systems of a lower level: technical, technological, organizational, economic and social (in the narrow sense).
Each social system is self-governing and experiences external and internal influences. The activity and development of systems are subordinated to the global goal, and its elements and subsystems - to the solution of local problems.
Managing the functioning of such systems is simultaneously the process of preserving their integrity, certainty, and the process of transporting them to a new qualitative state. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account that human history as an integral process, social changes, self-developing, have a pronounced non-linear character. Analysis of society, social processes requires the development of a research methodology, substantiation of objective laws, patterns of emergence, development, functioning and death of social systems of various levels of complexity, which is impossible without going beyond linearity.
In terms of worldview, V.Ya. Matvienko considers the idea of non-linearity in the context of multivariance, choice from several alternatives, the idea of the rate of evolution and its irreversibility under conditions of social entropy. Overcoming the threshold of social entropy leads to negative consequences: socio-cultural contradictions, bankruptcy, collapse, national catastrophe; as well as to synergistic effects that amaze with unusual ideas and manifestations1.
According to synergistic principles, development paths cannot be imposed on foldable systems, but their own development trends can be promoted. The problem of managed development becomes the problem of self-managed development. Synergetics considers chaos as a creative principle, a mechanism of evolution, as a new organization is created from chaos by one's own efforts. At certain moments - moments of instability - small perturbations (fluctuations) can grow into macrostructures. In accordance with social processes: in conditions of social instability, the actions of each person can really influence macrosocial processes, which confirms individual social responsibility for the fate of the entire social system (society).
Synergetics finds out that for complex systems there is an alternative path of development with the choice of a specific path at bifurcation points.
Synergetics opens up new principles for building complex structures that develop from simple ones: the whole is no longer equal to the sum of its components. It provides knowledge about the architecture of the impact in the process of managing complex systems, resonant (small) impacts on complex systems are the most effective. In addition, synergetics reveals the patterns and conditions for the flow of fast avalanche-like processes, processes of non-linear growth, which are self-stimulating. It is important to understand and initiate in open non-linear environments (economic, political, socio-cultural, etc.), to find out the requirements of extreme moments (minimum, maximum - respectively, decay and maximum development).
The recognition of a certain strategy for the development of society makes it appropriate: to determine the range of significant parameters for the existence of society; determination of the trajectory, speed of probable movement, its variants; assessment of the impact of changes in this parameter on economic, social, environmental, demographic, political characteristics; substantiation of a specific strategy for the life of society to ensure its reproduction based on the knowledge of its most important parameters and the nature of their relationships with each other.
at the same time, the objective foundations of social progress should not obscure the subjective activity of society, the social quality of its life. A person should not be dissolved in the system of social relations, the interaction of elements and subsystems of the social whole. The contradiction between the external predetermination of human behavior; freedom of will, between interaction, organization of people and self-organization of the human personality, self-activity of the individual must be constantly overcome.
Man is not only a biological being, but also an economic, social one, therefore social processes are closely intertwined with biological, economic, technical, geographical and other related processes.
socialization environment, first of all, it is characterized by regional conditions, namely: natural and geographical features (landscape, climate, minerals, etc.), socio-geographic features (character of the population, population density, traditional occupations of residents), features of location relative to other regions, features means of communication); climate and economy (the degree and nature of the region's urbanization), socio-economic characteristics (production characteristics, development prospects, standard of living, labor force personality, economic ties with other regions); socio-demographic features (national structure of the population, its gender and age structure, types of families, characteristics of migration processes, ethnic composition and stability of the population), historical and cultural regional differences.
In the social environment there are:
Internally personal processes (for example, self-education);
Processes that occur directly between two or more individuals (for example, the process of communication, information exchange).
A process within a group (for example, organizational processes);
Processes in relations between groups (for example, processes of national self-determination);
Processes that occur in the middle of a separate society (social mobility, etc.);
Processes taking place in a global society (for example, demilitarization processes).
lower bound social system form internally personal processes that directly determine mental and psychophysical processes, upper bound - global social processes.
Social processes are implemented in three forms: first, in the object form - in the form of a consistent change in the state of a social object; secondly, in subjective - in the form of successive actions of the subject; thirdly, in technological - in the form of compliance, the implementation of a certain technology (this is the highest form of a social process that rationalizes the process of activity and optimizes the objective process).
Allocate five social process models, namely:
Structural model of the social process (content and form of the social process, participants, direction and scale);
Dynamic model of the social process (takes into account the time factor, stages, duration, intensity, pace, rhythm, state, turnover);
Factor model of the social process (several factor variables appear);
Typological model of the social process (based on the typology of social processes, for example, according to the general direction (functioning processes and development processes);
By the level of leakage (local, global, etc.); by duration (long-term, short-term); by sphere of distribution (economic, political, socio-cultural, etc.);
Technological model of the social process (optimization of the process according to the result, consequences, efficiency).
The models considered are applied in a complex, mutually supplementing one another, forming a complete picture of the social process.
In our opinion, according to the chosen methodology, taking into account the creative educational trends of socially oriented, as well as transformational national economies, it is advisable to highlight the significance of social processes according to the role they play in the socio-economic development of the object and subject (that is, the stages of origin, stabilization, functioning, adaptation, evolution, transition, liquidation of the social system).
Matvienko V.Ya. analyzing social systems and processes, numerous concepts of socialization, identifies two main approaches to defining the process of socialization, to understanding the role of the person himself in this process. First approach (Emile Durkheim, Talcont Parsons): subject - objective (society is the subject of influence, and the person is its object) assumes a passive position of a person in the process of socialization, and considers socialization itself as a process of its adaptation to society, with the formation of each member in accordance with its inherent culture. The second approach (Chalz Shara, George Herbert Mead): the subject is subjective (a person actively participates in the process of socialization and not only adapts to society, but also initiatively influences the life that surrounds it).
E. Durkheim was one of the first to draw attention to the problem of socialization, he emphasized that any society seeks to formulate a person in certain universal moral, intellectual and even physical ideals. Naturally, these ideals change depending on historical traditions, features of development and the social structure of society.
On the basis of sociology V.Ya. Matvienko identifies four groups of socialization factors: megafactors, macrofactors, mezafactories and microfactories. Megafactors include space, the planet, the universe, which, to a certain extent, through other groups of factors, influence the socialization of the inhabitants of the planet. Level macro factors - this is the national level (capacity, society, macro-large), which affects the socialization of residents in certain countries (the influence is mediated by the following two groups of factors). Mesofactors reflect the conditions of socialization of large groups of people, differentiated by the regional principle and housing of the population, by belonging to the audience of mass communication networks and by belonging to other subcultures. They appear through microfactories. Microfactors include factors that directly affect specific people: family, friends, neighbors, employees, public, state, religious and private organizations, microsociety.
A separate place along with the factors of socialization is occupied by agents of socialization - people in direct interaction with whom the life of an individual passes. In terms of their role in the processes of socialization, agents differ depending on how significant they are for a person, how interaction with them is built, in what direction and by what means they exert their influence.
Society, the state, a social group historically create a set of positive and negative formal and informal sanctions - methods, inducement and persuasion, prescriptions and prohibitions, measures of coercion and pressure up to the use of physical violence, ways of expressing recognition, merit, distinction. With the help of these measures, the behavior of an individual, groups of people is brought into line with accepted cultural, social norms and values.
The socialization of an individual in interaction with various factors and agents occurs with the help of certain tools, "mechanisms" of socialization, which include:
- imitation mechanism (French social psychologist G. Tarde);
progressive mutual accommodation (adaptability) between a human being, which is actively developing, and the changing conditions in which it lives (Yu. Bronfenbrener);
- identification and isolation of the individual (V.S, Mukhina);
- regular change of phases of adaptation, individualization and integration in the processes of personality development (A.V. Petrovsky).
The classification of universal mechanisms of socialization is offered by Matvienko V.Ya., according to which the first group of universal mechanisms includes: psychological and socio-psychological mechanisms of socialization, which manifest themselves through imprinting, imitation, existential pressure, identification, reflection. Imprinting is a fixation by an individual at the receptor and subconscious levels of the features of vital objects that affect it. Imitation is an arbitrary, involuntary assimilation of social experience by a person. Existential pressure - mastery of the language and unconscious assimilation of the norms of social behavior in the process of interaction with significant persons. Identification (identification) is the process of a person's unconscious identification of himself with another person, group, ideal. Reflection is an internal dialogue in which an individual evaluates, accepts or rejects certain values inherent in various instruments of society, family, peers, etc. On the basis of reflection, a person is formed and changes as a result of awareness and experience of the reality in which he lives, his place in this reality and yourself.
The second group of universal socialization mechanisms includes socially forming mechanisms: traditional, institutional, stylized, interpersonal.
interpersonal mechanism - "we can repeat our own as much as we like, but usually generally accepted everyday rules drag us along."1 The interpersonal mechanism of socialization functions in the process of human interaction with persons subjectively significant to him.
Traditional the mechanism of socialization (spontaneous) is the assimilation by a person of norms, standards of behavior, attitudes, stereotypes characteristic of his family and environment. This is assimilated at an unconscious level on the basis of fixation, non-critical perception, stereotypes.
institutional socialization mechanism - functions in the process of human interaction with the institutions of society and various organizations, both specially created for his socialization, and realizing the functions of socialization simultaneously with their main functions (production, public, etc.).
Stylized the mechanism of socialization operates within a certain subculture - it is a complex of moral and psychological traits and behavioral manifestations typical of people of a certain age, a certain professional, cultural layer, which generally creates a certain lifestyle and thinking of a particular age, professional or social group.
These or those mechanisms of socialization play a different role under specific circumstances. Thus, for example, institutional and stylized mechanisms clearly operate in large cities, while in poorly educated families, the traditional mechanism operates.
Socialization of a person occurs with the help of all the mechanisms mentioned above, but in different age and gender and socio-cultural groups, for specific people, the ratio of the role of socialization mechanisms is different.
A social process takes place if social phenomena retain their identity over time, there is logic in changing phenomena or turning off a homogeneous state of things. Therefore, socialization as the assimilation of social experience by an individual is a social process, since it reflects long-term interactions between a person and the social environment; a person's reaction to further influences is to a certain extent due to phenomena that occur earlier, and as a result - a certain state of the personality, some features have become.
V.Ya. Matvienko, the process of socialization suggests considering it as a combination of four components (Fig. 7.1):
Spontaneous socialization of a person in interaction and under the influence of the objective circumstances of the life of society, the content, nature and results of which are determined by socio-economic and socio-cultural realities;
Regarding directed socialization, when the state applies certain economic, legislative-fiscal, organizational measures to solve problems that objectively affect the change in the opportunities and nature of development, the life path of certain age groups (defining responsibilities, a minimum of education, etc.);
Regarding socially controlled socialization (education) - the systematic creation by society and the state of legal, organizational, material and spiritual conditions for human development;
Conscious self-modification of a person who has a social, asocial or antisocial vector (self-actualization, self-improvement, self-destruction), in accordance with individual resources and objective living conditions or contrary to them.
An analytical study of the elements of the socialization process is considered in fig. 7.1.
Rice. 7.1. Characteristics of the components of the socialization process
M. Weber introduced the concept of education, emphasizing that it is based on social action; defining it as an act aimed at solving problems; as an action specifically focused on the appropriate behavior of partners; as acts, which implies a subjective understanding of the possible behaviors of people with whom the individual enters into interaction. Education is a discrete (discontinuous) process; being planned, it occurs in certain organizations and is limited by place and time. The processes of education and socialization are syncretic (continuous).
Sociology identifies three groups of tasks that a person solves at each age stage (stage of socialization): natural-cultural, socio-cultural and socio-psychological.
natural cultural the task is to achieve a certain level of physical and sexual development.
Socio-cultural tasks - cognitive, moral-aesthetic, value-semantic - specific for each age stage in a particular society in a certain period of history (attracted to a certain level of social culture, possession of a certain amount of knowledge, skills, a certain degree of formation of values; solving problems related to with participation in family life, in production and economic activities, etc.).
The tasks of the socio-cultural series have two aspects:
firstly, these are the tasks assigned to a person in a verbalized form by the institutions of society and the state;
secondly, these are tasks perceived by him from social practice, mores, customs, psychological stereotypes of the immediate environment.
Socio-psychological tasks are the formation of a person's self-consciousness, his self-determination in life, self-realization, self-affirmation, which at each age stage have specific content and solutions. Self-consciousness of the individual is considered by sociologists as the achievement by it at a particular moment of a certain measure of self-knowledge, self-respect, self-perception. Self-determination of a person is the determination by her of a certain position in various spheres of actual life activity and the substantiation of plans for a future life. Self-realization is a realization of activity that is satisfactory for a person in spheres of life and (or) relationships that are significant for him. Self-affirmation is the achievement by a person of subjective satisfaction with the result and (or) process of self-realization.
Man is the object and subject of socialization.
Successful socialization provides, on the one hand, the effective adaptation of a person in society, and on the other hand, the ability to resist society to a certain extent, or rather, part of those life conflicts that interfere with the development, self-realization, self-affirmation of the individual. In this way, effective socialization presupposes a certain balance between the identification of the individual with society and the identification of the individual in it.
The person is completely adapted in society and not able to resist it to some extent; conformity can be seen as a victim of socialization. At the same time, an individual who is not adapted in society also becomes a victim of socialization - a dissident, a person - someone who deviates from the way of life accepted in this society.
According to V.Ya. Matvienko, any modernized society to one degree or another produces both types of victims of socialization. A democratic society produces victims of socialization, mainly contrary to its goals. A totalitarian society purposefully produces conformists and, as a by-product of the inevitable consequence, individuals who deviate from the introduced norms. Even the individuals necessary for the functioning of a totalitarian society - the creators often become victims of socialization, for they are accepted for it only as "specialists", and not as individuals. The severity of the conflict is due to the type of society in which a person develops and lives, with a style of education that is characteristic of society as a whole, for sociocultural strata, specific families, educational organizations, with the individual characteristics of the person himself.
