The development of culture took place in difficult conditions of fragmentation of Russian lands. However, despite the constant strife and threats from neighboring states and tribes, there were achievements and successes in the ancient Russian culture of this period. The Oka became more democratic: new territories, cities, new strata of society were actively involved in cultural life. For example, the customers of religious buildings, monumental paintings and precious jewelry were not only princes and boyars, but also wealthy representatives of the urban population, who had their own views, tastes, ideas.

There were changes in ancient Russian architecture. Russian architects began to move away from traditional Byzantine architectural canons and forms and, under the influence of local conditions, began to look for new solutions. In the specific principalities, architectural schools arose, which differed in their characteristics. Kyiv, Chernihiv and Pereyaslav architectural schools are known, which were united by a single style. In Russia, they began to build smaller temples of a simplified design. The internal and external decoration of the temples has changed. The new decoration of the facades became more characteristic: they began to be decorated with pilasters, semi-columns, arcade belts and the so-called curb.

The growth and strengthening of cities - the political and cultural centers of individual principalities - was accompanied by the construction of a large number of religious and civil buildings in Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Pereyaslav and many other cities. Some of them have survived to this day.

The most famous of them are: the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha (1132) in Kyiv on Podil, the Borisoglebsky and Assumption Cathedral of the Yelets Monastery in Chernigov, etc.

The interior of ancient Russian palaces and temples, as before, was decorated with mosaics, frescoes, mosaic floors and a variety of applied arts. The latter were used not only as decorations, but often served as amulets-amulets and were designed to protect their owners from the evil forces of nature. The role of amulets was also played by magical ornaments, which were used to decorate many of their products by master jewelers and artisans who created household items. During the period of fragmentation, the writing of chronicles continued. New centers of chronicle writing appeared in Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky. Some monasteries had entire libraries that consisted exclusively of chronicles. These chronicles were used by subsequent generations of chroniclers, who created entire chronicles, depicting the events of past years from different points of view, and trying to give these events the most objective assessment.

New original forms of historical works appeared; family and tribal princely annals, biographies of princes, etc. Unfortunately, most of these works have not been preserved.

The masterpiece of ancient Russian fiction is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". This work was written in a difficult time for Rus', when it suffered from the Polovtsy raids, and tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in 1185. The word is permeated with the idea of ​​uniting all the forces of Rus' to fight enemies. Using the example of the defeat of Prince Igor, the author of the Lay sought to show what disputes and hostility of princes could lead to.

The Galicia-Volyn land became the center of the cultural life of the Ukrainian principalities during the period of fragmentation. So, as elsewhere at that time, the church played an important role in the development of culture. Chronicles were created in monasteries. The most famous is the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which covers the events of the Galician and Volyn lands from 1201 to 1292. A feature of this chronicle is its secular nature. The author of the chronicle figuratively tells about the time of the reign of Roman and Danila, about the life of princes and boyars, about the military campaigns of Russian squads, about their struggle with the Tatars, Hungarians, Poles and other conquerors.

A clear evidence of the high level of culture was the architecture of the region. They were built mainly of wood, for a long time temples remained stone structures, in some cases chambers.

Temples were built mainly of white stone with carved
ornaments. Archaeologists have established that in Galicia in the XII century there were about 30
monumental stone buildings, but only a small part of them
studied to date. Interesting architectural monuments
Galician land is the princely palace and the Church of Panteleimon in Galicia.

Galician and Volyn principalities, at the turn of the XII and XIII centuries. merged into a single Galicia-Volyn principality, in the second half of the XII century. and in the 13th century, at the time of the decline of the Kyiv principality, they reached significant political power and cultural flourishing. The reigns of Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavich, his sons Daniil and Vasilko Romanovich and grandson Vladimir Vasilkovich are associated with the most glorious pages of Galicia-Volyn history. But from the beginning of the XIV century. The Galicia-Volyn land was politically weakening and in the middle of the same century it became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

Galician-Volhynian literacy, which developed on the basis of the Kievan literary tradition, if not quantitatively, then qualitatively stood at a significant height. A number of copies of the gospel text have come down to us, including the Galician Four Gospels of 1144, the Dobrilovo Gospel of 1164, and others, the lives of Nifont and Fyodor Studit in the Vygoleksin collection of the 12th-13th centuries Pandecty of Antioch of 1307 and other manuscript books of the 12th-13th centuries centuries The chronicler characterizes Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich as a "great scribe" and a philosopher, which has not been on the whole earth. In one of the monasteries, he donated the gospel, transcribed by his own hand, as well as the Great Cathedral, which belonged to his father. He sent liturgical books to several churches, including the Aprakos Gospel in Chernihiv, written in gold and richly decorated. On his initiative, the full life of Dmitry Solunsky, the Pilot Book and, probably, the Conversations of Grigory Dvoeslov were written off. He had collaborators, just like him, bibliophiles who were engaged in the correspondence of liturgical and other books. Metropolitan Peter should be mentioned among the Galician-Volyn figures of that time.

In the second half of the XIII century. in the Galicia-Volyn land, a collection was apparently compiled (used in the so-called Archival collection of the 15th century and in the Vilna manuscript), which included the Explanatory Apocalypse, the Chronograph, which included biblical books, the chronicles of George Amartol and John Malala, Alexandria and the History of the Jewish War by Josephus; further - under the title "Russian Chronicler" - The Tale of Bygone Years and a collection of the type of Svyatoslav's Izbornik of 1073

Thus, the Galicia-Volyn land in the XII-XIII centuries. owned the best works of translated and Russian historical literature of the Kievan period.

Book activity in the Galicia-Volyn land continued, although not so intensively, even after the loss of its political independence.

There can be no doubt that many monuments of literature perished in that restless historical situation that befell the Galicia-Volyn principality.

Chronicle writing in Galicia apparently began in the 11th century. judging by individual stories, which, undoubtedly, were included from the Galician Chronicle in the Tale of Bygone Years and the Kyiv Chronicle (the description of the blinding of Prince Vasilko and the subsequent events of 1098-1100, set out under 1097). The Galician-Volyn chronicle of the 13th century, preserved precisely in Russian lists, based on sources that also entered Russian use. supported in northeastern Rus' the traditions of that retinue poetry, the highest achievement of which at the end of the 12th century. there was a Word about Igor's regiment,

Art of the Galicia-Volyn land of the XII-XIII centuries. cannot be divided by the edge of the Mongol conquest into two halves. The higher military training of the Galician armed forces, the strong defensive walls of the city centers made it difficult for the Tatar conquest, and the subsequent international policy of Daniil of Galicia softened the hardships of the Tatar yoke and ensured an almost normal course of public life, and with it the development of art. Here, as in Novgorod, which escaped the direct defeat of the land by the Mongol hordes, the fateful years 1238-1240. did not interrupt cultural development.

The origins of the art of Galicia-Volyn Rus are connected with the common treasury of artistic culture for all from the ancient Russian principalities - the art of the Kyiv land. We can judge the Galician-Volyn art only by architectural monuments, which, moreover, are poorly studied and are represented almost exclusively by the archaeologically unearthed ruins of temples.

In Kiev architecture of the XI-XII centuries. a foundation was laid for solving a number of new tasks - the city cathedral of the specific capital, the palace princely temple and the ensemble of the princely or generally feudal residence as a whole; they were given in the cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersky monastery, in the Church of the Savior on Berestovo - Monomakh's country palace, and then repeated many times with various modifications, both in the construction of Kyiv itself and in other feudal centers of the 12th century; Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were among them.

It is essential to note the features of originality that distinguish the architecture of Volhynia and Galicia. Monuments of Vladimir-Volynsky - Mstislav Assumption Cathedral (1157-1160) and the ruins of the temple located in the tract "Old Cathedra", apparently dating back to the same time, are exceptionally close to the Kiev-Chernigov monuments.

Volyn in art, as well as in literature, was the direct heir of the Kyiv land and quite zealously followed its traditions.

The art of Galich followed a slightly different path and more critically perceived the artistic heritage and canonical examples. The originality of Galician architecture was facilitated by the very international position of Galich, which facilitated direct connection with Western Europe and the direct impact of Western artistic culture. The abundance of natural building stone made it possible to replace ordinary brick with it and enriched the possibilities for decorative processing of buildings - carving, the play of various tones of facing stone, etc. (Even in the middle of the 12th century), a complex architectural ensemble of the princely palace was created in Galich. The story of the chronicle about the circumstances of the death of Prince Vladimir Galitsky depicts this building for us in the form of a combination of a number of buildings: the residential part of the palace, the "senei" and the palace temple, united by a system of passages; This composition is based on the system of rich wooden housing - the “choir”, which was developed here even in the conditions of life of the princely retinues of Kievan Rus. features with the composition of the Bogolyubovsky castle of the XII century.

Built at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. The Church of Panteleimon in Galicia with its portals and Romanesque carvings shows how the Kiev heritage is reshaped in Galician architecture, how Romanesque features are laid on the all-Russian Kiev-Byzantine basis, creating a peculiar look of architecture.

It has received especially magnificent development since the 40s of the 13th century. This fact cannot but be connected with the circumstance noted above that the Galicia-Volyn land was that corner of the Russian land where cultural development continued in the first years of Mongol rule, where social life was not interrupted. Undoubtedly, all cultural forces that escaped captivity and death rushed here; Chronicle, telling about the development of the Hill, paints a colorful picture of the settlement of the new princely city; at the call of the prince “parishioners of Germans and Rus', foreigners and Lyakhs go day and day and hunes and masters of all bezhehu_is Tatars, saddlers and archers and tulnitsy and forge iron and copper and silver, and be life, and fill the yards around the city, field and villages ".

It is in connection with this story about the large number of craftsmen of various professions who flocked to the Galician land that the Galician-Volyn chronicle reports about the beautiful buildings created in the 40-50s by Prince Daniel in the Hill, which caused genuine delight and surprise of his contemporaries.

The church of Ivan deserved special attention and admiration of the chronicler: its vaults rested on carved four-sided capitals depicting human heads. “sculpted from a certain trickster”, “Roman glass”, that is, colored stained-glass windows on the windows of the temple, created a bizarre illumination of its internal space; in the altar above the throne, a beautiful canopy rose on two columns of solid stone. A ciborium decorated with gilded stars on an azure background; the floor was made of copper and tin and shone like a mirror.

Another building of the Hill - the Church of Mary (1260) was not inferior, according to the chronicler, with its beauty and size to other temples. For this church, a beautiful water-blessing cup was made of red marble, it was decorated with snake heads along the edges. The bowl was placed in front of the main church doors, as was done at the temples of that time in the West.

These characteristics, dedicated by the chronicler to the Kholmsk buildings, reveal to us an exceptionally complex and peculiar composition of its constituent elements. The appearance of the Kholmsky temples allows us to see a peculiar interweaving of features born in the process of development of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century, with clearly borrowed techniques of Romanesque art. The same features characterize the second half of the 12th century. in the Vladimir principality; moreover, individual details of the decoration and decoration of the buildings of the Bogolyubov castle (1158-1165) are so strikingly repeated a century later in the Hill that the idea arises of the possibility of direct work with Prince Daniel of Vladimir architects and carvers who fled from Tatar captivity, and, together with other masters who built and decorated the Kholmsky temples.

The Galician-Volynian culture is characterized by the absence of a pronounced and irreconcilable religious and national aversion to the "Latin" world, and this feature of it also contributed to the enrichment of art by acquaintance with the West. The appeal to Romanesque art was quite understandable for Vladimir of the 12th century. and for Galician Rus' of the XIII century, since this art more fully than Byzantine, expressed the ideas and tastes of the feudal world, the leading representatives of which in Rus' in the XII century. there were Vladimir "autocrats", and in the XIII century. - Galician-Volyn "king" Daniel.

On the other hand, turning to Western culture was a peculiar form of asserting one's own ways of artistic and cultural development in general and moving away from traditions.

This also explains the significant fact that in the Galician-Volyn art, unlike other principalities, the art of sculpture was significantly developed, which was denied by the Orthodox Byzantine Church when applied to religious subjects. It was expressed here not only in the decorative sculpture of the Kholmsky temples, but developed into an independent branch of art, even of a secular nature. The chronicle tells of an interesting statue erected by Prince Daniel outside the city of Kholm, probably on the way to it.

The same influence of Romanesque art is felt in the Galician-Volyn painting, which can only be judged by a few miniatures.

They trace the techniques of Romanesque-Gothic painting, both in terms of the color range and in the very construction of the picturesque image.

So, the Galician-Volyn art of the XIII century. is one of the brightest and most significant pages in the history of ancient Russian art. Having started its journey along with literature from a common source for all ancient Rus' - the Kiev-Byzantine artistic culture, it was enriched by communication with the art of its western neighbors. These introductions were organically mastered by the Galician masters, who created quite original and high-quality monuments of art of Galicia-Volyn Rus.

The principality became the successor of K. Rus, fought for reunification and land consolidation, promoted the development of the economy, cities, crafts, trade, and culture; contributed to the protection of the population of the southwestern lands from physical destruction by the Mongols-Tatars; raised the prestige of Ukrainian lands in the international arena, especially in the context of feudal fragmentation.

After the fall of Kyiv, the Galicia-Volyn principality continued the existence of a state entity in the Slavic lands for a whole century and became the main political center of the future Ukraine.

The word “Ukrainian” was first used in the “Sermons” by the theologian Gregory as early as the middle of the 11th century. The term "Ukraine" is mentioned in the Kyiv Chronicle in 1187 as a synonym for the concept of "crash", that is, the land, native land (for comparison: Serbia. in Serbo-Croatian - Serbian Crash). Since 1335, for Galicia, the concept of “Little Rus'” borrowed from the Greeks began to be used, which later turned into the concept of “Little Russia”. However, in different periods it denoted different regions of Ukraine.

The culture of Rus' in the period of political fragmentation

The period of feudal fragmentation is the time of extensive stone construction in all principalities. Beautiful cities were created in the capital cities architectural structures, and their number was more than ten. In the architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation, their own distinctive features appear. Buildings of the XII - XIII centuries. differed from the structures of the previous period by the smaller scale of buildings, simple but beautiful forms, and ease of decoration. A typical building was a cubic temple with a massive light drum and a helmet-shaped dome. From the second half of the XII century. Byzantine influence in architecture is weakening, which was reflected in the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of temples of a tower-like shape, unknown to Byzantine architecture. Rus' at this time joins the pan-European Romanesque style. This communion did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple, but affected the external design of buildings: arched belts, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columned belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, intricate stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls.
Elements of Romanesque architecture spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. The architectural buildings of the Galicia-Volyn land are poorly preserved and many of them are known only from literary descriptions and archaeological data. In the middle of the XIV century. Galicia-Volyn lands became part of the Catholic states - Poland and Hungary. The Catholic Church for many centuries destroyed all traces of Russian culture, so it is especially difficult to restore the true appearance of the churches of Western Rus'. The peculiarity of the architecture of this land was the combination of the Byzantine-Kyiv composition with Romanesque building techniques and elements of Romanesque decoration. The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, as well as block bricks instead of Kyiv plinths, from which they erected temples of various plans: four- and six-pillared, and without pillars, and round in plan - rotundas. Round churches - rotundas - evidence of the influence of Western early Gothic architecture. The high level of Galician architecture of this period is evidenced by Church of Panteleimon near Galich(beginning of the 13th century) with its perspective portal and carving of capitals.

The general democratization of Novgorod life during the period of feudal fragmentation also affected Novgorod architecture. In 1136, Novgorod became a veche republic, and the princes turned into hired chiefs of a squad guarding the city with its possessions. The prince was evicted outside the city - on Gorodische, 3 km from Novgorod. There the princes settle down and build monasteries - fortresses with temples. The most remarkable of the princely temples is St. George's Cathedral of St. George's Monastery (1119), built by order of Vsevolod Mstislavich. The temple has three asymmetrically located domes, shifted to the west, which is not typical for Orthodox churches. The building was built using the technique of mixed masonry, combining stone blocks and bricks. The cathedral is actually devoid of decor, since Novgorod limestone is loose, oversaturated with shells and is difficult to process. History has not conveyed to us the names of the architects of that period, but the name of the architect of St. George's Cathedral has been preserved in the Novgorod annals - "Master Peter". The construction of the cathedral lasted 11 years, before the end of its walls were covered with frescoes, destroyed in the XIX century. On July 12, 1130, he was consecrated in the name of George the Victorious. In contrast to the interior decoration, the original external appearance of the cathedral has been almost completely preserved (during the restoration of 1931-1935, all its numerous extensions built at different times were removed).

First stone Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa on the Market (Saint Paraskeva-Pyatnitsa was considered the patroness of trade) was built in 1207 on the site of a wooden one built in 1156 by overseas merchants. The documents preserved 15 news about the fires and renovations that befell the temple. The modern appearance of the temple was acquired as a result of post-war restoration, during which many ancient forms were revealed.

A striking example of the monuments of Novgorod architecture of the last third of the XII century. It is rightfully considered Church of the Transfiguration on Nereditsa. It was erected in one season around 1198 under the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich in memory of two dead sons. Despite its relatively small size, it gives the impression of a monumental structure. The volume of the church, crowned with one dome resting on four pillars, is divided into 3 naves and completed from the east by three altar apses. A characteristic feature of its composition is sharply lowered side apses. The appearance of the church in Novgorod is restrained and strict: not a single detail violates the harmony of the whole. ITS only adornment - an arched belt under the dome of a massive drum cut through by eight narrow windows - enhances the impression of simplicity and grandeur.
The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Nereditsa became world-famous due to the frescoes, executed freely and energetically in unusually light colors: combinations of yellow-red ocher, pale green and blue. Unfortunately, during the Great Patriotic War, the church on Nereditsa was destroyed as a result of shelling, and its ancient frescoes were almost completely destroyed. In the restored in 1956-1958. only fragments of the murals of the altar part and the lower sections of other walls have been preserved.

With construction Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. On the site of the pagan sanctuary in Peryn (named after the god Perun), a new type of church is being created, which became decisive for the Novgorod architecture of the 14th-15th centuries. The highest achievements of Novgorod architects include Church of the Transfiguration on Kovalev (1345), Fyodor Stratilat on the Creek(1360-1361), Spas of the Transfiguration on Ilyina Street(1374), Peter and Paul in Kozhevniki (1406), Simeon the God-Receiver in the Animal Monastery(1467).
The facades of all Novgorod churches usually have a three-blade top, the roofs, as a rule, are eight-sloped. Such a deviation in the structure of the roof from the general Byzantine style was determined by local climatic conditions - frequent cold rains and snowfalls. Novgorod churches were built entirely of brick or multi-colored cobblestones with flat brick inserts - plinths, which provided color overflows from grayish-blue to bright red-brown and gave the building an extraordinary picturesqueness.
Temples were decorated very modestly: with brick crosses inserted into the masonry; three small slits where there should have been one large window; "eyebrows" above the windows and a typical Pskov-Novgorod pattern on the drum. This pattern consisted of squares and triangles. Above the ornamental belt, and sometimes instead of it, there was a chain of kokoshniks - arched stepped recesses. The altar apse was decorated with vertical roller patterns, connected on top with arcs. Special mention should be made of the so-called golosniks, peculiar only to Novgorod churches: pots and jugs smeared horizontally into the walls, into the drum of the dome, into the “sails” and vaults and served as a kind of microphones.

During the period of fragmentation, from the middle of the XII century, the largest center of Rus' becomes Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The outlying region of Kievan Rus, lying between the Oka and Volga, begins its rapid development. Large-scale construction of new cities unfolded during the reign of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), the son of Yuri Dolgoruky. In addition to the ancient cities - Rostov, Suzdal and Yaroslavl - new ones are being put forward: Pereslavl-Zalessky, Kideksha, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Moscow and especially Vladimir. Outstanding monuments of art are created here, many of which have survived to this day.
Temples were built mainly from hewn white stone. It was to this time that the creation of the all-Russian type of temple, which has a complex dynamic composition, dates back. Temples with four pillars were crowned with one dome, towering on a high drum with apses protruding from the eastern side. The architecture of this period was distinguished by the simplicity of decor, the severity of proportions, and symmetry.

Assumption Cathedral, erected in 1158-1160, was painted for the next year. The first stone in the foundation of the temple was laid by Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1158. On September 21, 1164, the miraculous icon of the Mother of God was transferred from Bogolyubovo to the newly built cathedral church, after which Prince Andrei proclaimed Vladimir the patron city. Moscow princes. The building of the Assumption Cathedral was erected from limestone and decorated with white stone carvings. The central dome of the temple, crowned with a gilded helmet, rose 33 meters high, surpassing the height of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. The splendor of the Assumption Cathedral was above all estimates. The craftsmen bound the solemn entrance portals arranged on three sides with sheets of gilded copper. The facades were decorated with complex pilasters with Corinthian capitals, and horizontally they were divided into two tiers by an arched frieze. The walls and vaults of the temple were painted with frescoes. From the original frescoes, only fragments of ornamental painting have survived, in which the high professionalism of the artists who performed it is guessed.

Simultaneously with the temple, the construction of the residence of the Vladimir princes in Bogolyubovo began, not far from which, on the banks of the Nerl River, among flood meadows, in 1165 a white-stone Church of the Intercession of the Virgin. The location of the temple is unique: the Church of the Intercession is built in a lowland, on a small hill, located on a flood meadow. Previously, near the church there was a place where the Nerl flows into the Klyazma (now the riverbeds have changed their position). The church was located almost on the river "arrow", making out the crossroads of the most important water trade routes. An elegant four-pillar temple with the division of the outer walls into 3 unequal sections (part of the surface of the outer wall of the building, bounded on both sides by pilasters or shoulder blades) was crowned with a dome placed on a tetrahedral pedestal. A clear rhythm of the arched-columnar belt on the surface of the drum, the main volume and galleries, carvings make up the main decorative decoration of the temple. The refinement of proportions and the general harmony of the temple are noted by many researchers; often the Church of the Intercession is called the most beautiful Russian church.
At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. Equally famous architectural masterpieces were erected on the Vladimir-Suzdal lands, such as: Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir(1190s), Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal (1222-1225), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky(1230-1234).
Stone carving played the most important role in the decoration of Vladimir churches. In an effort to express their own attitude to the world, to the beauties of nature, stone carvers showed true skill. Among the numerous temples of Vladimir, Dmitrievsky Cathedral stands out with elegance and an abundance of decorations. Thin carved lace, completely covering the surfaces of the walls from the arcade-columnar belt up to the dome itself, is the main feature of the cathedral, giving it a special lightness and grace. Figures of Christ, prophets and apostles, Christian martyrs and holy warriors are combined with images of animals, lion masks and flowering trees. The walls between the windows are decorated with intertwined medallions with images of "mountain" birds.
The reliefs were not repeated anywhere and were located from top to bottom. The upper images were larger than the lower ones, which contributed to their better view from the ground. In general, the sculptural decoration of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral is one of the highest achievements of Vladimir carvers, which is the glory and special pride of ancient Russian art.

The collapse of Kievan Rus had extremely important positive consequences. Small areas were easier to govern . Now every ruler took care of the principality as if it were his own property, sought to strengthen and enrich it. Rising to a new quality level economy (handicraft, agricultural production). The absence of internal borders promotes development trade , commodity-money relations .
Rus' used to be called "country of cities". Now there are more of them, they are increasing in size, their social and political significance is growing.
Cities played a huge role in Rus'. First of all, the city is the center of power: the prince or his governor was here. Boyars and other noble people lived in the cities, their estates were located here. The military significance of the cities is also great: a military garrison was located in well-fortified fortresses, and the inhabitants of the cities formed their own militias - city regiments. The city was the religious center of the surrounding lands; a metropolitan was appointed here, to whom archpriests and parish priests were subordinate. Monasteries arose in cities or near them. The city was also a center of culture.

Old Russian cities most often grew on hills, at the confluence of rivers or a river and a ravine. The rivers at that time were the main trade routes, and their steep banks were the natural protection of the city. First, a fortress arose on a hill (it could also be called "detinets" or Krom, Kremlin), the settlement was surrounded by a fortified wall to protect it from enemies, originally wooden, at a later time - stone. Inside the fortifications there was a princely palace, temples, administrative offices, orders, farmsteads, trading, houses of residents.
Let us give as an example the city of Pskov, where the citadel, called Krom, was located on a rocky cape at the confluence of the Pskov River with the Velikaya River and was a formidable fortress, cut off from the settlement by a moat. In Pskov, it was the veche center - the heart and guardian of all city "ends" (quarters) and the entire Pskov land. The harsh impregnability of the city core was addressed to the enemies. For the owners, Krom was a safe haven, the keeper of their shrines, property and lives themselves. Something similar can be seen in other ancient Russian cities, where, during enemy raids, the inhabitants of the towns and suburban villages shut themselves up in citadels, and often burned their towns' courtyards with their own hands.

Pskov Kremlin

If in the IX-X centuries. the territory of Russian cities mainly fit within the limits of small fortresses - detintsy. (The inner castle - detinets - got its name from the "children", combatants who made up its garrison.) Then by the XII-XIII centuries. the cities grew significantly and soon ceased to fit within the narrow limits of the citadels. Settlements of craftsmen and merchants, who settled outside the castle walls, grew up next to the citadel, and two urban worlds were created: princely and free (trade and handicraft). The most striking example of such a neighborhood of two different worlds is Kyiv. In the annalistic news, two parts of Kyiv clearly appear - Gora and Podol. Posadas were subsequently attached to the city, and they were surrounded by a new wall. It formed the outer fortified belt. In large centers, the city suburbs gradually included in the city, surrounded by light fortifications in the form of a palisade, set on a low rampart. Such a fortification was called a "fort".

At the intersection of streets with defensive structures, towers with gates were built. Their number depended on the size of the settlement. In Kyiv there were at least 4 gates, in Vladimir-on-Klyazma - 4, in small fortresses they were content with one gate. The significance of the gate for the city is emphasized by the fact that the term "open the gate" meant the surrender of the city. In large princely cities, there is a noticeable desire to allocate special front gates. In Kyiv, they received the name Golden, in imitation of the Golden Gate in Constantinople. In medieval Rus', churches were always built over the gates, or icons were installed in icon cases. Churches and chapels were often placed next to the gates - for their spiritual protection.

Of exceptional importance for the city were monasteries, located both far from the cities, and in their centers, and among the settlements, and on the near and far approaches to the cities, where they sometimes became "watchmen" - advanced outposts, speaking the language of another era. The walls of the monasteries could acquire a fortress character. But monasteries had another meaning in the life of cities: it was in the monasteries that the cultural life of cities proceeded, chronicles and books were written here, and beautiful works of art were created.
In the center of the ancient Russian city there was a temple and a princely palace - symbols of two authorities, spiritual and secular. In pre-Christian times, the religious center of the city was a pagan temple, with the advent of Christianity in Rus', Orthodox churches began to be erected in the cities. The largest cathedrals of pre-Mongol Rus were erected in Kyiv. The second largest princely and episcopal cathedrals appeared in Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk, and somewhat later - in Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich. Cities of lesser importance, which were given into the possession of the younger princes (or where the princely governors were sent), received correspondingly more modest churches. For example, the cathedral of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky received such a size, which in the grand ducal capitals was given only to secondary township and palace churches.

The symbol of secular power was the prince's palace - "prince's court", which was the center of the political and administrative life of the city. Thieves caught overnight at the scene of a crime were brought here for reprisals, litigation between the townspeople was sorted out by the prince and his tiun (steward), here the city militia converged before setting out on a campaign - in a word, “prince’s court” or the posadnik’s court replacing him in small towns was the center around which urban life was concentrated. Of all the buildings, the prince's tower or mansions stood out. Buildings for the housing of boyars and other noble people competed with the dwelling of the prince. Separate parts of rich houses rose high above the poor dwellings of artisans and other townspeople. An outstanding part of the boyar or princely choir was the tower - a high tower or tower, with rooms for women. In Rus', the word "vezha" was also known, which denoted not only city towers, but also towers at houses. The princely or boyar courtyards, fenced with a high fence, contained not only the master's mansions, but also utility rooms: medushki for storing honey, cellars, baths, even dungeons - cuts.

And yet, the main population of the ancient Russian cities were artisans and people associated with various crafts and daily work. They did not live in chambers and mansions, but in simple houses - huts. Each hut, or cage, whether it was spacious or cramped, above ground or semi-underground, was located in a special courtyard. A fence (“tyn”) made of stakes, or wattle fence, separated one yard from another. Yards, fenced with wattle and tyn, made up the landscape of a typical city street of Ancient Rus'. The words "street" and "end" were used to designate urban areas in Ancient Rus'. In a number of cities (for example, in Moscow), one can observe that the direction of the streets was closely related to the direction of the original roads that converged on the fortified city.

The Mongol-Tatar invasions suddenly interrupted that brilliant flowering of art, which is embodied in the architecture, painting, sculpture of the Kyiv state and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Although the northern Russian lands defended their independence in the struggle against enemies, here, too, during the period of increased threat of raids, artistic life froze. The Mongol-Tatar yoke caused enormous damage to the culture of the Russian people, many crafts disappeared, construction stopped for a long time, a huge amount of material values ​​\u200b\u200bwas taken to the Horde. Thousands of handwritten books, hundreds of thousands of icons, works of applied art perished in the fires, many architectural monuments were lost.

After getting acquainted with the presented materials, it is necessary to complete the verification and control tasks presented here. If necessary, control materials are sent to the teacher's e-mail at: [email protected]

Culture experienced a further upsurge. Local centers of culture arose (Vladimir, Novgorod, etc.).

Craft. Blacksmithing, processing of silver and gold is being improved. From the 12th century watermills are used.

Chronicle. The all-Russian chronicle was replaced by the local one. The number of centers of chronicle writing has increased (Vladimir, Suzdal, Galich, etc.), and its local features are taking shape. Novgorod chronicles were characterized by efficiency and simplicity of presentation of events, the absence of church rhetoric. The Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle had a religious character, asserted the idea of ​​a strong princely power, the claim of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes to supremacy.

Literature. Pearl of literature of the XII century. is an "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", telling about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich(1151–1202) to the Polovtsian Khan Konchak in 1185 d. An unknown author calls on the princes to stop the strife, to unite in the fight against the nomads: “Brother said to brother:“ This is mine, and that is mine.” And the filthy from all sides came with victories to the Russian land. Some scientists consider this monument to be a forgery of the 18th century. (A. A. Zimin). D.S. Likhachev proved its authenticity.

Famous works of the Bishop from the city of Turov Kirill Tyurovsky(1130–1182) and Metropolitan from Smolensk KleeMenta SmallIticha († 1164). "Kyiv-Pechersky Paterandto” contains teachings, lives of the saints of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. "The Word of Daniil the Sharpener" and "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" they criticize the willfulness of the boyars, stand up for the strengthening of princely power and the state in the face of foreign danger.

Architecture. A typical building of the XII century. was a cubic temple of the cross-domed style with light drum and the head of a helmet-shaped form (temple-"hero").

Monumental rigor and simplicity of forms are characteristic of Novgorod architecture. The temples of Novgorod are outwardly modest, but they are in perfect harmony with the harsh northern nature: churches Savior on Nereditsa, Peter and Paul on Sinichya mountain, Paraskeva Fridays. In the beginning. 12th century artel of the master Petra built cathedrals in Antonievsky and Yurievsky monasteries, church Nicholas at Yaroslav's Court.

Vladimir-Suzdal architecture, in contrast to the harsh architecture of Novgorod, was distinguished by the elegance and sophistication of carving on white stone - limestone blocks measuring 50 by 50 cm. romanesque style expressed in arcature-columnar belts and drankI fear. Under Andrei Bogolyubsky, fortress walls and towers were built in Vladimir (the ramparts and golden gate), in 1158–1161. built Assumption Cathedral, in 1165 - the church Veil on the Nerl, and a castle was erected in Bogolyubovo - the residence of the prince. (There is an assumption that the builders were Europeans - Germans or Italians). In 1194–1197 Vsevolod the Big Nest built in Vladimir Dmitrovsky Cathedral, characterized by the richness of stone carvings, as well as St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky.

Painting . Icon " Our Lady of Vladimir"(" Our Lady of Bogolyubskaya "), a wonderful work of Byzantine art early. XII century., It is distinguished by softness, depth of feelings. A mosaic icon of the 12th century is known. " Dmitry Solynsky” from the Mikhailovsky Cathedral in Kyiv (now in the Tretyakov Gallery). Novgorod painters of the XII century. created the icons Angel Golden Hair», « Savior Not Made by Hands”, church frescoes Spas on Nereditsa.

sculpture in Rus' it was poorly developed, it was forbidden in churches due to the struggle against pagan idols. Woodcarving was a characteristic feature of dwellings, wooden temples.

Life - the way of everyday life of the people (food, clothing, housing, maintaining health, recreation, entertainment). Life develops and changes under the influence of the level of culture, geographical conditions and influences the formation of personality, mentality.

marriage customs . In Rus', as in Western Europe, early marriages were practiced. According to church norms, people who had reached the age of 12–14 were considered adults. Vsevolod the Big Nest married his son Konstantin at the age of 10, and married his daughter Verkhuslava at the age of 8.

dwelling . Princely mansions were built of wood, later - of stone. Glass in windows until the 16th century. replaced by mica. Daughter of Yaroslav the Wise Anna Yaroslavna, who married King Henry I of France, was surprised by the provinciality and dullness of Paris in the 11th century. compared to the lavishly decorated Kyiv.

The rural population lived in villages weights. The center of several villages was churchyard- A village with a church. Log huts with earthen floors were heated without a chimney, in black, lit by a torch. The windows were covered with a bull bubble. Ordinary people used earthenware or wooden utensils. They slept on benches, without pillows.

There were two types of residential buildings:

-northern(log walls, a floor raised above the ground, a large stove);

-southern(the floor is deepened, a small adobe stove-heater).

Nutrition . The basis of the diet was plant and animal products - bread, vegetables, fish, less often - meat. Potatoes replaced turnips. Russians did not know strong alcohol, they used honey intoxicating drinks.

Cloth . The main type of clothing was a shirt: from expensive fabrics from the nobility, coarse homespun votola at the common people. Men wore long pants ports, or leggings". The outerwear of ordinary people was retinue- a long, tight-fitting robe. Women's clothing - sundress, headscarf - ubrus. The princes wore cloaks fastened on the shoulder - " basket"and fur coats (" casings"), leather boots. Bast shoes- Lychenitsa with onychs were peasant shoes. To know, following Byzantine traditions, she wore underwear. Anna Yaroslavna impressed the French royal court not only with her literacy, but also with the use of nightgowns.

Zhealth . Anthropologists believe that in Rus' the average life expectancy was 32-44 years, and in Western Europe - 30-35 years. Common diseases were scurvy, rickets, caries - diseases associated with lack of food and low quality nutrition. The overcrowding of the urban population created conditions for the spread of plague epidemics.

It was widespread bath. In the PVL of Nestor, a description of the Novgorod bath is given: “The baths of the Drevyans will burn ramyan and will undress and be naked. And they will pour strong kvass on them, and take young rods, and beat themselves and finish themselves off before they barely get out alive. And they will pour themselves over with icy water, and so they will come to life. And they do this every day, they are not tormented by anyone, but they torment themselves. And then they make a move for themselves, and not torment. Rus' in the development of hygienic skills was ahead of Europe, where there was a ban on washing off dirt from the body by the Catholic Church.

Entertainment . The entertainment of the nobility was falconry, dog hunting ( "fishes") and squad feasts. The common people sang songs, danced round dances, played the harp and flute, arranged buffoons and games.

Thus, Before the Mongol conquest, the culture of Ancient Rus' was strongly influenced by Byzantium and developed in line with Western European culture.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, three all-Russian cultural centers were formed around Galich, Novgorod and Vladimir. They are formed on the basis of the traditions of Kievan Rus, but each of them developed its own aesthetic environment, developed its own artistic ideals, its own understanding and expression of beauty. And this did not testify to the collapse of the ancient Russian nationality and its culture. Despite the existence of local schools, styles, and traditions, the Old Russian culture continued to be fundamentally united. The time of feudal fragmentation was not a time of decline, but a flourishing of ancient Russian culture.

chronicle writing

From the 12th century a new period begins in the history of Russian chronicle writing. Chronicles began to be kept in all principalities, and chronicle writing acquires a regional character. Apart from Kyiv and Novgorod, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Polotsk, Smolensk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Ryazan and other cities become the most significant centers of chronicle writing. Local chroniclers focused on local events, but considered the history of their lands as a continuation of the history of the Russian state and kept The Tale of Bygone Years as part of the local chronicles. Ancestral princely annals appear - biographies of individual princes, historical stories about relations between princes. Their compilers were, as a rule, not monks, but boyars and warriors, and sometimes the princes themselves. Individual features appeared in the local annals. So, for the Galicia-Volyn chronicle, which tells about the events in the life of the Galicia-Volyn principality from the beginning of the XIII century. until 1292, secular and poetic manner of presentation are characteristic. The chronicle pays the main attention to the struggle of princely power with the recalcitrant boyars. The Novgorod chronicle is especially distinguished by its local character. Novgorod chroniclers describe in detail the events of inner-Novgorod life from the 11th to the 15th centuries. from the position of the boyars, eminent merchants and other representatives of the ruling class. The Novgorod chronicle reflects the life of Novgorod with its turbulent political events and fierce struggle both between the various clans of the richest landowners and owners, and between various social groups of the Novgorod land. At the same time, the style of the Novgorod chronicles is distinguished by its simplicity and efficiency, and the absence of church rhetoric. The Vladimir princes claimed all-Russian primacy, so the Vladimir-Suzdal chroniclers sought to give their annals an all-Russian character, to present themselves and their land as the successors of Kievan Rus, and for this they widely used religious argumentation, which was not the case in other chronicle centers.

Literature

High level of development of culture and literature of the X-XI centuries. paved the way for the creation in the 80s of the XII century. a remarkable monument of ancient Russian literature "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The "Word" is dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 in the Polovtsian steppe of the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. That campaign made a strong impression on contemporaries, as it was accompanied by a number of unique circumstances: a solar eclipse, the death of most of the Russian troops, the capture and escape of Igor. The author not only tells about the events of the campaign, but also reflects on what happened, expresses his attitude to what happened, evaluates the campaign and the defeat of Igor in comparison with the events of the history of his country, with his thoughts about the fate of the Russian land. The author of the "Lay" is unknown; the solution to his name has been worrying researchers for several centuries. Most likely, he was a resident of Southern Rus' and belonged to the highest stratum of the nobility - the boyars. But the unknown author was able to overcome the narrowness of the interests of his principality and estate and rise to the height of understanding of all-Russian interests. The author calls on the Russian princes to unite in the face of external danger and "stand up for the Russian land", to protect the southern borders of Rus'. Central to the "Word" is the image of the Russian land. The "Word" told about the events of its time, at the same time, it is also a monument of historical thought. What is happening in it has something in common with past events from Russian history, which was rare at that moment. Usually the authors drew historical examples from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history. A feature of the historicism of this work is that the author tries to find the sources of current troubles in the past and refers to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when princely strife began in Rus', which led to the weakening of the country in the face of the Polovtsian danger. The "Word" is written in an extraordinary poetic language. Unusually expressive is the famous cry of Yaroslavna - Princess Efrosinya, Igor's wife. Yaroslavna begs the wind, the river, the sun not to harm the wounded prince and return him to his native land. The "Word" embodied the characteristic for Russian literature of the XII - XIII centuries. features - connection with oral folk art, with historical reality, patriotism, citizenship.

Architecture

The period of feudal fragmentation is the time of extensive stone construction in all principalities. In the capital cities, beautiful architectural structures were created, and their number was more than ten. In the architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation, their own distinctive features appear. Buildings of the XII - XIII centuries. differed from the structures of the previous period by the smaller scale of buildings, simple but beautiful forms, and ease of decoration. A typical building was a cubic temple with a massive light drum and a helmet-shaped dome. From the second half of the XII century. Byzantine influence in architecture is weakening, which was reflected in the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of temples of a tower-like shape, unknown to Byzantine architecture. Rus' at this time joins the pan-European Romanesque style. This initiation did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple, but affected the external design of buildings: arched belts, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, fancy stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls. Elements of Romanesque architecture spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. The architectural buildings of the Galicia-Volyn land are poorly preserved and many of them are known only from literary descriptions and archaeological data. In the middle of the XIV century. Galicia-Volyn lands became part of the Catholic states - Poland and Hungary. The Catholic Church for many centuries destroyed all traces of Russian culture, so it is especially difficult to restore the true appearance of the churches of Western Rus'. The peculiarity of the architecture of this land was the combination of the Byzantine-Kyiv composition with Romanesque building techniques and elements of Romanesque decoration. The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, as well as block bricks instead of Kyiv plinths, from which they erected temples of various plans: four- and six-pillared, and without pillars, and round in plan - rotundas. Round churches - rotundas- evidence of the influence of Western early Gothic architecture. The high level of Galician architecture of this period is evidenced by the Church of Panteleimon near Galich (beginning of the 13th century) with its perspective portal and carved capitals.

The general democratization of Novgorod life during the period of feudal fragmentation also affected Novgorod architecture. In 1136, Novgorod became a veche republic, and the princes turned into hired chiefs of a squad guarding the city with its possessions. The princes lose the citadel and St. Sophia Cathedral, which passes into the possession of the archbishop. The prince was evicted outside the city - on Gorodische, 3 km from Novgorod. There the princes settle down and build monasteries - fortresses with temples. Of the temples built by order of the princes, the most significant are the Annunciation, Nikolo - Dvorishchensky and St. George's Cathedrals of the St. George's Monastery. The most remarkable of the princely temples is St. George's Cathedral of the Yuriev Monastery (1119), built by order of Vsevolod Mstislavich. The temple has three asymmetrically located domes, shifted to the west, which is not typical for Orthodox churches. The building was built using the technique of mixed masonry, combining stone blocks and bricks. The cathedral is actually devoid of decor, since Novgorod limestone is loose, oversaturated with shells and is difficult to process. History has not conveyed to us the names of the architects of that period, but the name of the architect of St. George's Cathedral has been preserved in the Novgorod annals - "Master Peter". One of the most striking architectural schools of the period of feudal fragmentation was Vladimir-Suzdal. It began with the erection of the first stone temple in Suzdal by Vladimir Monomakh in the 11th century; its heyday falls on the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). Vladimir princes pursued a policy that contributed to the birth of the Great Russian people in the North-East of Rus', laying the foundations of a new Russian statehood. The Vladimir-Suzdal architectural school was distinguished by solemnity, elegance, and rich decor, which reflected the claims of the Vladimir princes to the all-Russian superiority. On these lands, the princes founded new cities: Yaroslav the Wise gave rise to the city of Yaroslavl, Monomakh founded the city of his own name Vladimir, Yuri Dolgoruky - Pereyaslavl - Zalesky. The earliest of the local churches that have come down to us were erected under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky. Dolgoruky became the first independent prince of the Rostov-Suzdal land. The prince chose the village of Kideksha as his residence, 4 km from Suzdal. Here in 1152, in the center of the princely palace, probably by Galician craftsmen, the Church of Boris and Gleb was erected. The Church of Boris and Gleb is the only surviving building from the princely palace. This is a single-dome, four-pillar, three-apse church. It is built from massive blocks of local white limestone. The decor of the church is extremely modest for a princely building. At the same time, in 1152, the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior was laid in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. This temple is also one-domed, four-pillared, three-apsed. The temple is also almost devoid of decor, but it is distinguished by the clarity of its architectural design, the harsh simplicity of its appearance. Andrei Bogolyubsky was the first to raise the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. To decorate his new capital - Vladimir, he launched a large-scale construction. In 1164 in Vladimir, in imitation of Kyiv, in the western part of the city facing Moscow, the Golden Gates were built. They simultaneously served the city as a defense hub and a solemn entrance.

On an artificially constructed hill not far from Vladimir, Bogolyubsky erected his country residence. So, according to legend, the Bogolyubov Palace arose (1158-1165), or rather, a real castle - a fortress that included a cathedral, transitions from it to the prince's tower, etc. The center of the entire ensemble was the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin - the patroness of the Vladimir land and the Vladimir prince. One staircase tower with a passage to the church has survived to this day. Probably, it was in such a passage that the boyars killed the prince, and he, bloody, crawled down the stairs, as the annals unforgettably vividly tell about this. Andrei Bogolyubsky also erected the main shrine of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral (1158-1161), designed to become the main cathedral of the new center of Rus' - Vladimir. He even asked the Patriarch of Constantinople to establish a metropolia in Vladimir separate from Kyiv and to subordinate the bishops of northern Rus' to the Metropolitan of Vladimir, but he did not receive permission for this.

The Assumption Cathedral is a majestic six-pillar church built of large white limestone slabs tightly fitted to each other. An arcade belt runs horizontally along the entire facade of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral: the shoulder blades dividing the facade are decorated with semi-columns, the same semi-columns on the apses; perspective portals, slit-like windows. Spindles are decorated with sculptural reliefs. All these features will become typical for the architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. No less solemn was the interior of the cathedral. The decoration of the temple sparkled with gold, silver, precious stones. After the fire in the Assumption Cathedral in 1185, the architects of Prince Vsevolod erected new walls around the one-domed six-pillar temple, crowned them with four domes and divided the facades into five parts - spindly. The temple appeared even more majestic, it acquired a truly classical for Russian architecture mighty stature.

The brilliant development of Russian architecture was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. But the experience of creating majestic buildings, the traditions and techniques of architectural schools, especially the Vladimir one, were of decisive importance for the culture of the new emerging center of Rus' - Moscow.

fresco painting

In the XII - XIII centuries. in monumental painting - mosaics and frescoes - of various Russian lands, local schools also developed, which had their own characteristics. The common thing for all schools was that the Russian masters not only mastered the art of composition, but also learned to convey a complex range of feelings.

By the end of the XIII century. its own school of frescoes developed in Novgorod. This school transformed all its own and borrowed from outside into a single style, which, according to art critics, is recognized as Novgorod. The Novgorod style is most fully expressed in the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Nereditsa, the Annunciation in Arkazhy and St. George in Staraya Ladoga. The Novgorod style is characterized by a desire to simplify artistic techniques, which was probably dictated by the desire to create art that is understandable to a person inexperienced in theological matters.

icon painting

At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII centuries. in Rus', the Russian icon-painting school was formed. About two dozen icons have come down to our days from pre-Mongolian times.

The most famous of the icons of that era is Our Lady of Vladimir. This icon is not only a sample of the Byzantine icon that has come down to us. easel painting, but also one of the highest achievements of all world art. The name of the ingenious author of this icon is unknown, but his belonging to the Constantinopolitan school is undeniable. Already in 1155, this icon was on Russian soil, where it was brought from Constantinople. The fate of this icon in our country is unprecedented. According to legend, Mary was painted from life by the evangelist Luke ("the patron saint of painters"), while on a board from the table on which Christ ate with his Mother. It was kept in one of the temples of Vyshgorod, a suburb of Kyiv. In 1155 Andrey Bogolyubsky, planted by his father Yuri Dolgoruky in Vyshgorod, took and left Vyshgorod for his native Rostov-Suzdal land. Andrei took with him a local shrine - the icon of the Virgin. In Vladimir, Andrei began to glorify the icon: he decorated it with pearls, gold, silver, and precious stones; built a temple for her - the Assumption Cathedral, established a new holiday in Rus' - Intercession (October 14).

Andrei tried in every possible way to emphasize that he and his land are under the auspices of this icon. In Vladimir, glorification began, the high fate of this image of the Virgin. For centuries it was called "Vladimirskaya". The most significant events in the life of our country were connected with her, more than once she saved Rus' from enemy invasions. With the rise of Moscow as a new center of Russian statehood, it was transferred to Moscow and became a state shrine. In Christian iconography, one of the most beautiful scenes is the image of the young Mother Mary and her son, the God-man, born to suffer for the sins of people.

In the Latin Western world, these motifs found their most striking expression in Raphael's Sistine Madonna. The Madonna of Raphael is a majestic maiden carrying a baby through the clouds with a childish gaze. In the Greek-Slavic world, these motifs are expressed in the Vladimir Mother of God. In the Vladimir icon, according to the artist I.E. Grabar, "the most ancient song of motherhood", the icon painter brilliantly conveyed inexpressible tenderness and inexpressible sadness in the eyes of the Mother, who knows about the unparalleled fate of her son - martyrdom, glory and power over millions. Nowhere in painting is maternal grief and sorrow so expressed, but at the same time, the eternal joy of being. Joy coexists with sorrow, revealing itself in the sweetest tenderness. This iconographic type, born in Byzantium, was called "Eleusa" ("Merciful"), in Russian icon painting it received a special distribution under the beautifully sounding name - "Tenderness".

Among the icons of the 12th and 13th centuries, associated with Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, there are masterpieces. Shoulder "Deisus" (in Greek "prayer" or "petition"), where on both sides of the young Christ, mournful angels replace the traditional figures of the two main saints (Mary and John), interceding before Christ for the human race. The ideological meaning of the "Deesis" symbolizes the idea of ​​intercession. In the eyes of the people, the Deesis embodied the last hope of the desperate.

Arts and Crafts

During the period of feudal fragmentation, decorative and applied art continued to develop. Large cities were famous for their craftsmen. The craftsmen of Galich, Novgorod, Vladimir improved their skills in engraving, wood carving, gold embroidery on fabric, etc. The production of weapons and military armor received special development in Rus'. Gunsmiths made swords, battle axes, spears, sabers, knives, shields, chain mail.

Novgorod gunsmiths in the 12th-13th centuries, using new technology, began to manufacture saber blades of much greater strength, hardness and flexibility. Far beyond the borders of Novgorod, the products of Novgorod goldsmiths were famous. Two signed crater masters of Bratila and Costa and two Zion middle of the 12th century Novgorodians have achieved great skill in the manufacture of bone, glass, wood, and metal products. Vladimir becomes a major craft and trade center. It is inhabited by thousands of skilled architects, builders, masons, carvers, jewelers, and painters. Blacksmiths and gunsmiths played a significant role among them. The high level of the Vladimir-Suzdal gunsmiths and goldsmiths is evidenced by the so-called helmet of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, the third son of Vsevolod the Big Nest and the father of Alexander Nevsky. It was found in 1808 near Yuryev-Polsky on the site of the Lipitsky battle, which took place in 1216 between the sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest, who decided the fate of his father's inheritance. The shape of the helmet is traditional, but technically it was very different from the helmets of the 9th - 10th centuries.

The entire hull is forged from one piece rather than riveted from individual plates. This made the helmet significantly lighter and stronger. The helmet is decorated with chased silver linings. On the overlays of the upper part there are images of the Archangel Michael, next to them are Saints Theodore and George, and at the back - Saint Basil. Along the edges of the plate there is an inscription: "Great Archangel Michael, help your servant Fedor." Fedor - the name of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in baptism. Now the helmet is one of the most valuable exhibits of the collection of defensive weapons of the Armory of the Moscow Kremlin. Thus, in general, a powerful ancient Russian culture was created in the pre-Horde period. Further, hard times will come in Rus', the invasion of the Mongols - Tatars will cause significant damage to the culture of Rus', but Russian culture will not die. She was able to express such a lofty spiritual ideal, she possessed such powerful creative possibilities, such a large supply of original artistic ideas, that she was far from exhausted. Old Russian culture of the XI - XII centuries. laid the foundations for the culture of the new Russian statehood - the Muscovite kingdom.

The culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation

Introduction

I chose the topic “Culture of Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation”, because, despite the widespread opinion about the backwardness of Rus' from other countries at that time, about its cultural underdevelopment, I want to prove the opposite. Rus' of the period of the XI-XIII centuries. experienced a great surge of culture, she spiritually ascended. By the beginning of the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, Rus' was spiritually spiritually rich, by this time it had already managed to produce many monuments of architecture, literature, and painting. At the end of the XIII century, Rus' developed very strongly. In most cities, architecture, chronicle, and iconography were mastered and developed. I also want to show that Rus' took a lot from Byzantium (religion, annals, sacred church books, iconography, the construction of churches and temples), but at the same time, she presented it in her own way, in everything that the people of Rus' created, her spirit was felt, mood, feelings. The Russian people were able to bring into everything that they created a piece of themselves, so unique and dear to us. I also want to show that the culture of the people is part of its history. This is everything that was created by the mind, talent, needlework of the people and that is still passed down from generation to generation, everything that expresses its spiritual essence. A look at the world, nature, human relations and the relationship between man and God.

Russian medieval culture of the X-XIII centuries. deserved high praise, both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed the way to Russian cities, admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni). Western chroniclers called Kyiv an adornment of the East and a rival of Constantinople (Adam Beremensky). The learned presbyter, Theophilus of Paderborn, in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century, admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and black on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one or another type of art, Theophilus put Rus' in a place of honor - only Greece is ahead of it, and behind Italy, Arabia, Germany and other countries. Samples of Russian products were admired by the nobles of the German emperors both when they were in Kyiv as ambassadors, and when the Kyiv prince, who had fled from the insurgent people, showed Russian things to the emperor.

The culture of that time helps us understand the formation of the state, the worldview of people, their minds and feelings, and, most importantly, the culture of that time is still present in our lives, and interest in it does not fade at all, this is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", this cathedrals and temples built at that time, and still living, these are frescoes and icons painted by icon painters of pre-Mongol Rus', these are fairy tales, epics, proverbs, sayings that are still relevant today with their teachings and morals, this is a religion that still adheres to most of the Russian people. All this has passed through the veil of time and continues to exist, amaze and live its own life even in our time.

I believe that the Russian people have made an invaluable contribution to world culture, having created hundreds of years ago works of culture that are still relevant today. So, in this test, I want to show all the richness of the Russian soul, which formed the basis of the cultural monuments of that time.

General conditions for the development of culture

Already in the 11th century in the life of the ancient Russian principalities, one trend more and more stands out: the intensification of princely strife and civil strife, which hindered the formation of Rus' and threatened its very independence. This was facilitated by the growth of patrimonial land ownership and the development of cities. The cities became strong enough not to submit to Kyiv, which could no longer provide them with effective protection if necessary; local princes, who received the support of votchinniki and townspeople, were better able to cope with this task. All this, along with the desire of the princes for independence, led to the separation of the principalities from Kyiv. The struggle for Kyiv itself, however, did not stop, for it remained the most prestigious table and the largest city of Rus'.

Fragmentation, caused by socio-political reasons, was, however, an inevitable stage in the history of Rus' - almost all countries of medieval Europe passed through it.

Civil strife between the principalities share a rather big gap in the defense of the borders of Rus', in addition, many princes did not hesitate to call for help in the fight against the neighboring principalities of the Polovtsians. Those, in turn, strongly dispersed, and the princes soon lost all control over them, and the Russian land groaned under the onslaught of raids from the outskirts. The outlying principalities, cities and villages were burned, robbed, many were taken prisoner, Poland and Hungary also actively intervened in Russian affairs.

The largest lands of the era of feudal fragmentation, which played a leading role in the fate of Rus', were the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod feudal republic.

Vladimir-Suzdal land: Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. The oldest inhabitants of this wooded region were Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes. A favorable impact on the economic growth of this Zalessky land was exerted by the increased from the 11th century. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Rus' under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Rus' was agriculture, which was carried out on the fertile outcrops of black soil among the forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade associated with the Volga route played a significant role in the life of the region. The most ancient cities of the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Mur, from the middle of the XII century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.

The beginning of the establishment of the independence of the Rostov-Suzdal land took place during the reign of one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, who made Suzdal his capital. Pursuing an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on the local boyars, urban and church circles. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, a number of new cities were founded, including Moscow for the first time under 1147. Owning the Rostov-Suzdal land, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to seize the Kyiv throne in his hands. At the end of his life, he managed to capture Kyiv, but he did not enjoy the support of the local population. Yuri died under strange circumstances in 1157 (most likely he was poisoned by the Kyiv boyars). The eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) was born and raised in the north and considered his native lands to be his main support. Having received control from Yuri Dolgoruky in the city of Vyshgorod (near Kyiv), during the life of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and went to Rostov with his entourage. According to legend, along with him, a written by an unknown Byzantine master of the 12th century came to the Rostov-Suzdal land. the icon of the Mother of God, which later became one of the most revered icons of Russia ("Our Lady of Vladimir"). Having established himself on the throne after the death of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital from Rostov to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. He spared no expense to strengthen and decorate his capital. In an effort to keep Kyiv under his control, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he pursued an energetic policy to strengthen the strong princely power. A cruel and power-hungry politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the "junior squad" (service people), the urban population, especially the new capital of Vladimir, and partly on church circles. Steep and often autocratic actions of the prince caused discontent in the circle of large landowners-boyars. As a result of a conspiracy between the nobility and representatives of the prince's inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yuryevich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir). Vladimir-on-Klyazma the status of the main princely capital. The reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) was the period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Novgorod the Great was under the control of Vsevolod Yurievich, and the Muromo-Ryazan land was in constant dependence on the Vladimir prince. Vsevolod the Big Nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands and at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. was the most powerful Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a struggle for power broke out between his numerous sons, which was an expression of the development of the process of feudal fragmentation already within the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself.

Galicia-Volyn land: The territory of Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians to Polissya, capturing the course of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - the extraction of salt and mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trade with other countries, in which the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky were of great importance.

An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, in a constant struggle with which the princely government tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The policy of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary had a constant impact on the processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups applied for help or in order to find asylum. The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the turmoil that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Leading a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subdue other lands of Southern Rus'. After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volhynia among themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich.

Novgorod land: from the very beginning of the history of Rus', it played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was the profit from the sale of craft products - beekeeping, hunting for fur and sea animals. Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held in their hands the exit to the Baltic Sea, from the beginning of the XIII century. Novgorod border in the West went along the line of Lake Peipus and Pskov. Of great importance for Novgorod was the annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest industries brought enormous wealth. Novgorod's trade relations with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, became stronger from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Cloth, weapons, metals, etc. were imported to Rus'. The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political separation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. For the princes Only service functions remained in Novgorod. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of land in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the possessions determined for the service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the XII century. Grand Duke Vladimir was formally considered the Novgorod prince, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod. The supreme governing body of Novgorod was the veche, the real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic, and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of the Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of their control over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages.

The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, as a rule, these movements did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.

Thus, we see that Kievan Rus finally disintegrated, other large Russian principalities and cities appeared, because of which it was not calm in Rus', civil strife, raids from the outskirts, all this disturbed the hearts and minds of the people. It was not the most peaceful time, although it was historically predictable. But at the same time, due to the fact that Rus' was divided into many principalities in each feudal state, art began to develop, which, in general, resulted in such a surge of culture in all regions of Rus'.

Monuments of literature

Russian medieval culture

The most important monument in Rus' is the chronicle - this is a historical genre of ancient Russian literature, which is an annual, more or less detailed record of historical events. Chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary gifted monks who knew translated literature, legends, epics, described events and facts related mainly to the life of princes, the affairs of monasteries, and occasionally non-Ryad affairs.

The geographic outlook of the chronicler is very wide - he knows Britain in the west of the Old World, noting some ethnographic survivals among the British, and China in the east of the Old World, where people live on the edge of the earth . Using Russian archives, folk tales and foreign literature, the chroniclers created a broad and interesting picture of the historical development of the Russian state.

The era of feudal fragmentation was reflected in the fact that regional literary forces appeared, each new princely center kept its own chronicles, which focused on local events, but did not cease to be interested in general Russian affairs. Literature grew in breadth. Chronicles appeared in Novgorod, Vladimir, Polotsk, Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky, Pskov, Pereyaslavl and other cities.

It is important to note that at the time when Ancient Rus' became close to Byzantium, a lot of work began on translating and copying books. Russian scribes knew literature in Old Slavonic, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, but at the same time they continued to use their own language, which distinguished it from most countries of the East and West. The Russian language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature.

The unity of the national and state language was a great cultural advantage of Rus' over the Slavic and German countries, in which the Latin state language dominated. Such a broad literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant to know Latin. For the Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; this explains the widespread use in Rus' of writing on birch bark and on boards (obviously waxed). For all the patriotism of Russian literature, we will not find in it a trace of preaching aggressive actions. The fight against the Polovtsy is regarded only as a defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. A characteristic feature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of various nationalities: Have mercy not only on your own faith, but also on someone else's ... otherwise it will be a Jew, or a Saracen, or a Bulgarian, or a heretic, or a Latin, or from all the trash - have mercy on everyone and deliver from trouble (Message of Theodosius of the Caves to Prince Izyaslav, XI century). In subsequent centuries, Russian literature had a great influence on the culture of the South Slavic countries, which did not know Latin as an official language. Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries, sadly, did not come down to us completely. The medieval church, aggressively disposed to the remnants of paganism in the state, zealously destroyed everything connected with it, this did not bypass literature, therefore many writings that mentioned pagan gods were destroyed. An example is the "Word of Igor's Campaign", where the church is mentioned in passing, and the whole poem is full of Russian pagan deities. Until the 18th century only one list of “Words ...” has come down, although it is known that it was read in various Russian cities, individual quotations in surviving manuscripts, hints at an abundance of books and individual works - all this convinces us that in the fire of internecine wars, persecution of the Orthodox Church , Polovtsian and Tatar raids could perish many treasures of ancient Russian literature. But the surviving part is very valuable and interesting.

The largest works of Russian literature created in that period, but continuing their literary life for many more centuries, are: “The Word on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Mikhail Zatochnik, "The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" and, of course, Nestor's "The Tale of Bygone Years" occupies a prominent place among them. Most of them are characterized by a broad, all-Russian view of events and phenomena, pride in their state, awareness of the need for constant joint struggle against nomadic troops, the desire to stop the devastating wars of Russian princes among themselves.

The pearl of Russian literature of the pre-Mongol period is The Tale of Igor's Campaign (~ 1187), which is in the first row of masterpieces of world poetry. "The Word..." is one of the greatest monuments of ancient Russian literature. About eight centuries ago, around 1187, one of the most brilliant works of ancient Russian literature was created. “Word…” is a perennial oak, a mighty and sprawling oak. Its branches connect with the crowns of other luxurious trees in the great garden of Russian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries, and its roots go deep into Russian soil.

Russian literature from the most ancient period was distinguished by high patriotism, interest in the topics of social and state building, and an invariably developing connection with folk art. She put a person at the center of her quest, she serves him, sympathizes with him, portrays him, reflects national traits in him, looks for ideals in him. In Russian literature of the XI-XVI centuries. there was no poetry, lyricism as separate genres, and therefore all literature is imbued with a special lyricism. This lyricism penetrates chronicles, historical stories, oratorical works. It is characteristic that lyricism in ancient Russian literature is predominantly civil forms. The author does not mourn and yearn for his own personal misfortunes, he thinks about his homeland, and mainly turns to it all the fullness of his personal feelings. This lyric is not of a personal nature, although the personality of the author is expressed in it by calls to save the motherland, to overcome the turmoil in the public life of the country, with a sharp expression of grief over the defeats or civil strife of the princes.

This typical feature found one of its most striking expressions in The Lay of Igor's Campaign. “Word…” is dedicated to the theme of defending the homeland, it is lyrical, full of melancholy and sorrow, angry indignation and passionate appeal. It is epic and lyrical at the same time. The author constantly intervenes in the course of events that he talks about. He interrupts himself with exclamations of anguish and grief, as if he wants to stop the disturbing course of events, compares the past with the present, calls on the contemporary princes to take active action against the enemies of the motherland.

“Word…” is imbued with a great human feeling - a warm, tender, strong feeling of love for the motherland. This love is felt in every line of the work: and in the emotional excitement with which the author speaks of the defeat of Igor's troops:

“On the third day, by noon, the banners of Igor fell!

Here the brothers parted on the banks of the swift Kayala;

there was no bloody wine;

here the brave Russians finished the feast:

got the matchmakers drunk,

and they themselves perished for the Russian land.

The grass will droop with pity,

and the tree bowed to the ground with anguish.

And in the way he conveys the words of the lamentation of Russian wives for the dead soldiers:

“The Russian wives wept, saying:

"We already have our own sweet ways

not in thoughts to think,

don't think to think

not to be seen with eyes

but gold and silver, and even more than that, you can’t hold in your hands! ”

and in the broad picture of Russian nature and in the joys of Igor's return:

"The sun shines in the sky, -

and Igor is a prince in the Russian land.

Igor rides along Borichev

to the Holy Mother of God Pirogoshcha.

The villages are happy, the cities are cheerful.

Singing a song to the old princes,

then sing to the young:

"Glory to Igor Svyatoslavich,

Bui tour Vsevolod,

Vladimir Igorevich!

The poem was inspired by the real events of the history of that time. "Word..." was created after the events of Igor's campaign and was written under the fresh impressions of these events. This work is assembled from hints, reminders, deaf indications of what else was in the memory of each person. It served as a call to end the princely strife, to unite in the face of a terrible external danger. The merit of the author is that he managed to rise above the private interests of individual princes, understood the need to unite the Russian land and expressed this idea in vivid and vivid images and paintings. The “Word…” with brilliant force and inspiration reflected the disaster of that time - the lack of political unity of Rus', the enmity of the princes among themselves and, as a result, the weakness of its defense against the increased and more frequent pressure of the raids of nomadic peoples and the eastern neighbors of Rus'.

“The Tale of Igor's Campaign” not only tells about the events of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich - it gives an assessment and is a passionate and excited speech of a patriot, either referring to the events of modern times, or recalling the deeds of hoary antiquity. This speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but always full of faith in the motherland, full of pride in it, confidence in its future.

"The Word ..." remains a relevant work of literature today. Despite the fact that it happened about 825 years ago, it remains a great monument of Russian culture and interest in it and interest in it does not fade away, but rather increases. It shows all the love of a Russian person for his homeland, his people and his excitement for the future of his country.

The literature of that time does not fade away despite the past centuries. Thanks to her, we learn a lot of what happened at that time, the teachings of the authors of those times are vital even now. In the example of chronicles, "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and other works of that period, we can see that the Russian people were spiritually high, educated and exalted. He was interested in what was happening in the state and beyond, moreover, he knew how to correctly assess what was happening, without concealing from the reader and the black sides of that time. These were really educated people who brought a particle of themselves into the literature of pre-Mongol Rus'. A particle of the Russian heritage, feelings, moods.

Folklore

still important and vital in our time remains the folklore of Ancient Rus'. Despite the fact that proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, epics and songs began to be recorded only from the 17th century, they appeared precisely in the period of pre-Mongolian Rus. All of them are filled with meaning, teachings and ridicule of the bad qualities of people. They show us the unity of man with nature, God, his spiritual strength.

From the 10th century there was the biggest surge in the appearance of epics. Favorite epic heroes were Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Mikula Silyanovich, Volga.

Russian epic XI - XII centuries. enriched with plots dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. By the middle of the XII - XIII centuries. include the appearance of Novgorod epics about the "guest" Sadko, a wealthy merchant, descended from an ancient noble family, as well as a cycle of legends about Prince Roman, the prototype of which is Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky. Sayings of that time ridiculed lies, cowardice, human weakness, they praised work, kindness, complicity, again, unity. They taught a person to be strong in spirit and body, to honor elders, to love their homeland. A lot of sayings that appeared in ancient Rus' have survived to this day. People continue to use them, because the meaning of sayings and proverbs has remained the same. Fairy tales that appeared in that period also partially survived to our times, they were transferred from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. Most fairy tales and legends have pagan roots. Pagan gods and gods, persecuted by the Orthodox Church, found their refuge and refuge in fairy tales and still live there. In fairy tales, we see foresters, goblin, water, mermaids, brownies and other deities of pagan culture. This is a forester in “The Frog Princess”, a water man (the sea king in folk tales and epics), he also finds his own spirit and fetishism in them (a tablecloth is a self-assembly, boots are fast walkers, a magic ball).

In fairy tales, we can also observe the idea of ​​the people about the afterlife, about the eternal world of the ancestors, its relationship with the world of the living on earth. We can observe in fairy tales a vision of death, the afterlife, about the soul, as a transition to a different form of existence. They found a reflection of this belief mainly in fairy tales, especially those associated with the image of Baba Yaga, who carried out an adapter to another world. Fairy tales allow us to understand the idea of ​​the pagans about the accomplices of death, the paths leading to the other world, the boundaries between the earthly and the "eternal world", about ways to overcome it and helpers on a long and difficult journey to the "other world". But let's not forget that the theme of honesty, courage, truth was also raised in fairy tales, she cursed evil, lies, laziness, betrayal. The main villains have always been punished according to the severity of their guilt. Thus, folklore shows us the ideas of the people of that time, its moral qualities, rationality and faith in the good good feelings of that generation.

Architecture and painting

A major contribution to the history of world culture is Russian medieval architecture. Having already had experience in building fortresses, towers, palaces, wooden pagan temples, Russian architects mastered the new Byzantine brick building technique with amazing speed and decorated the largest Russian cities with magnificent monumental structures. In a number of cases, the architecture very sensitively reflected the political history of the country: the short-term rivalry between Chernigov and Kyiv affected the simultaneous construction of monumental cathedrals (Chernigov 1036, Kyiv 1037). Novgorod uprising of 1136 Suspended princely construction in Novgorod and opened the way for the boyars. Earlier, the isolation of the Principality of Polotsk was reflected in the construction of its own St. Sophia Cathedral there with an unusual layout. The full-blooded development of cities that competed with Kyiv led to the flourishing of architecture and the creation of local architectural schools in Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With all that, Russian architecture of the XII - XIII centuries. is a known unity. It cannot be said that the Russian architecture of this time was under any influence or influence, although Rus' had extensive ties with the East, West and Byzantium. Having mastered at the turn of the X - XI centuries. Byzantine form, Russian architects very quickly modified it, introduced their own features and created their own all-Russian style, which varied by region.

Appearance in the XII century. tower-like, upward-looking, slender buildings (Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Pskov) especially clearly testified to the development of the Russian national style, born as a result of the impact of wooden construction. The unstable borders of the feudal states were not barriers to mutual cultural communication. A striking example of such a commonality of style, indicating that art is not so much a geographical as a chronological concept, is the white-stone architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal land with its amazing proportions and fine decorative carvings.

The white-stone temples of Vladimir with their generous carved ornaments are rightfully compared by researchers in terms of overall harmony and richness of plots with the Tale of Igor's Campaign, where the folk, pagan also overshadows the Christian.

A careful study of the proportions of ancient Russian buildings made it possible to reveal the peculiar geometric techniques of Russian architects of the 11th - 12th centuries, which helped them create buildings that were amazing in proportion to the parts. Recent finds in old Ryazan and Tmutarakan of geometric drawings from a system of inscribed squares and rectangles made it possible to reveal another method of mathematical calculations, a method that goes back to the basis of Babylonian architecture and came to Rus' through the mediation of Transcaucasia and Tmutarakan. Diverse and rich Russian architecture for a long time retained the power of artistic influence.

The same can be said about the painting of ancient Rus'. Russian painting and drawing have come down to us in the form of frescoes, icons, book miniatures. The high level of artistic expressiveness achieved by ancient Russian painting is partly due to the fact that the perception of Byzantine craftsmanship was prepared by the development of Slavic folk art back in the pagan period.

Colorful combinations of patterns on fabrics, complex ornamental compositions of flowers, trees, birds and animals come from ancient times, when people worshiped the elements of nature and everything that this nature gives rise to: animals, birds, fish, trees, grass, stones. The bulk of the works of painting and sculpture that have survived to this day, unfortunately, belongs to only one category - to church art. Secular art is known to us only in part.

Each church building was not only the most beautiful architectural structure, but also a whole gallery of fresco painting, subordinated to a single complex design. Sacred images were arranged in several tiers, which were supposed to inspire the Slav with superstitious fear and a sense of subordination to the god of heaven and the princes of the earth. From the church frescoes, she looked at the images of Christian saints in the clothes of bishops, kings, combatants, monks, who were below the common people.

The class essence of the feudal church was fully revealed in relation to art, which the church tried to monopolize in order to influence the minds of the Russian people through its attractive power. Russian medieval cathedrals, like the cathedrals of Western European countries, were examples of a very skillful and subtle use of all types of art in order to establish the ideas of the feudal church. A Kyivian or Novgorodian, entering a church, found himself in a special world of images, separated from the noisy city bargaining. The huge head of Jesus Christ, as it were, hovered in the sky, above the smoke of incense, the space of the dome. The stern "fathers of the church" stood in a continuous row from behind the altar, ready to teach and punish. The Christian Mother of God reminded the Slav of the ancient pagan goddess of earth and fertility (Rozhanitsa, Makosh) and thus united the old and new cults in his mind. When, frightened and overwhelmed by the grandeur of the temple depicted on the walls, the Slav left it, his last impression was the picture of the Last Judgment painted over the exit. He was returning from the church to his world, and the church admonished him with images of terrible torment awaiting those who dare to disobey church laws.

The development of the class struggle and anti-church movements, “heresies”, led to the spread of certain plots in art, for example, “The Miracle of Michael the Archangel in Khony”, where Michael, “the voivode of the heavenly forces”, punishes the peasants who tried to raise an uprising. The plot of "The Assurance of Thomas" is directed against skeptics who doubted Christian legends.

Thus, we can conclude that, despite the fact that a lot of things in architecture and painting appeared with the advent of Christianity from Byzantium to Rus', they did not adopt much from him. In all manifestations of art, there is one's own, incomparable, Russian soul of man. Yes, it has changed a little, thanks to the new currents of culture and religion in Rus', its own note of art, which originated and flourished in pagan Rus', still continued to be present in everything. Also, despite the feudal fragmentation of the state and civil strife between the princes, there is still a cultural and linguistic community of all the principalities. It can even be said that the feudal split of the state had a positive effect on the development of architecture and painting in different principalities, and not in any one. This once again shows how powerful and spiritually united the state of ancient Rus' remained.

Religion

It is known that baptism in Rus' took place in 988, but at the same time, the Russian land experienced baptism for a long time.

The people did not want to part with a long-term way of life, even having joined the Christian faith.

In 990, Rostov was baptized, but the inhabitants of Rostov, who first accepted baptism, then expelled three bishops one after another. Only the fourth bishop, with the help of military force, was able to destroy the pagan sanctuary in Rostov and force people to accept Christianity. In 992, Polotsk was baptized, a few years later Turov. The Smolensk land accepted Christianity for quite a long time, and the bishopric in Smolensk was approved only in 1137. No information has been preserved about the conversion of the population of the Ryazan and Murom regions to the new faith. Apparently, the Christianization of these areas began no earlier than the 12th century.

The Eastern Slavs reacted very painfully to the demand to abandon the faith of their ancestors. The staunch pagans fled the cities. In 1024, an uprising began in Suzdal led by pagan priests. Prince Yaroslav brutally suppressed the movement of the priests. However, less than half a century later, in 1071, the priests again raised trouble in the Rostov land and in Novgorod, but it was again extinguished.

Nevertheless, if the princes could forcibly baptize, then it was impossible to force anyone to believe. The result of the religious reform of Prince Vladimir was the dual faith that dominated Rus' from the 10th-11th centuries. Christianity slowly mixed with pagan beliefs, creating a completely new type of worldview, in which the dogmas and values ​​of the old and new religion coexisted peacefully. The rural population, for the most part, remained faithful to paganism, with which all folk culture was associated. Moreover, in the cities, Christianity was entrenched only externally. This is true both for ordinary citizens and for the princely-boyar environment. The church, too, had to put up with this reality, forced to make concessions in order to instill in people at least the most important thing in the teachings. The church itself tried to get closer to the people and sometimes indulged in tricks. It is known, for example, that in Novgorod the church of St. Basil stood on Volosova Street, and the saint in it is depicted on an icon surrounded by cattle, that is, very often churches were rebuilt on the site of former pagan sanctuaries. The church also tried to make the temple of God closer and more understandable for a person by what reminded them of pagan worship: this is the worship of icons and statues (for example, pagan idols of the gods), as well as the division between the pantheon of canonized saints, each of them was assigned a certain power and they were patrons of one specific direction (for example, the division of forces between the gods in paganism), and even the fact that a candle was placed on the right saint was reminiscent of a ritual when a fire was lit in front of the right idol. This also applies to burials, as early as the 13th century. jewelry and weapons were placed in the princely burials at the temples, as required by the pagan rite.

But despite all the prairies, the church, with the advent of Christianity in Rus', did a lot, it opened a qualitatively new page in history and culture.

The new religion raised literature and architecture to a new level, thanks to which iconography appeared. But, as in other ramifications of culture, we see that Rus' not only adopted a new faith, having risen a step higher, but, as always, it brought its origins to the church, making it unlike other religions.

Conclusions

Starting from the X century. Rus' has reached great heights in culture. For the most part, this was benefited by the emergence of Christianity as a new faith and a new round in the history of Rus'. High hopes were placed on her, and as it turned out, not in vain. It helped to maintain linguistic and cultural unity in the state, which at that time had split into many small fragments - feudal principalities, but, most importantly, people did not adopt everything from other countries, completely copying already established pictures, not, they brought it into culture, into literature, architecture, painting, religion, a piece of themselves, they rebuilt everything that the same Byzantium gave them to their liking, leaving, not small, at that time, pagan culture and adapting it to the newcomer. Later in the XVIII-XIX centuries. the culture will become even more secular and lose its Christian and pagan influence, but now, which is very pleasant, people are starting to return to their roots.

Rus' XI-XIII centuries. was very high spiritually and morally. She was able, no matter what, to convey to our times everything that they thought, what bothered them, what they dreamed about and how they lived.

Now we will not be able to imagine life without the "Word ...", without cathedrals, temples, without that oral literature that appeared at that time, but continues to educate us from childhood, instruct us. This is a religion that has hardly changed since the merger of paganism and Christianity. This is folklore that has been with us since childhood, epics about mighty heroes, personifying all the mighty men of pre-Mongolian Rus'.

All this is present in our life from a young age with the first bedtime story, with the first candle placed to the icon, in the temple, with the first stories about brownies, mermaids, goblin, with the first acquaintance already at school with "The Word ...", "The Tale temporary years." And when you start to think how many centuries actually passed before you read, heard and saw, you become really joyful for your people, for your past.

This shows in everything how erroneously widespread the opinion is that Rus', in the period of feudal fragmentation, was culturally complete.

I believe that she really made an invaluable contribution to world culture in general and to the culture of today's Russia in particular.

It was a truly culturally rich state, despite all the strife and unrest that at that moment took place in it.

Bibliography

1.B.A. Rybakov "Culture of Ancient Rus'" Moscow 1956

.D.S. Likhachev "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the culture of his time "Leningrad 1985.

."The Tale of Igor's Campaign" Moscow: Enlightenment, 1984

.B.A. Rybakov "Ancient Rus': Legends. Epics. Chronicles "Moscow 1963.