Romanticism: representatives, distinctive features, literary forms. The emergence of romanticism in art and literature

Romanticism

In literature, the word "romanticism" has several meanings.

The artistic method implies a certain way of comprehending the world in art, that is, the basic principles of selection, depiction and evaluation of the phenomena of reality. The originality of the romantic method as a whole can be defined as artistic maximalism, which, being the basis of the romantic worldview, is found at all levels of the work - from the problematics and the system of images to style.

The romantic picture of the world is hierarchical; the material in it is subordinated to the spiritual. The struggle (and tragic unity) of these opposites can take on different guises: divine - diabolical, sublime - base, heavenly - earthly, true - false, free - dependent, internal - external, eternal - transient, regular - accidental, desired - real, exclusive - ordinary. The romantic ideal, in contrast to the ideal of the classicists, concrete and available for implementation, is absolute and, therefore, is in eternal contradiction with transient reality. The artistic worldview of romance, therefore, is built on the contrast, clash and merging of mutually exclusive concepts - it, according to the researcher A. V. Mikhailov, "is the bearer of crises, something transitional, internally in many respects terribly unstable, unbalanced." The world is perfect as an idea - the world is imperfect as an embodiment. Is it possible to reconcile the irreconcilable?

This is how a dual world arises, a conditional model of the romantic universe, in which reality is far from ideal, and the dream seems unrealizable. Often the link between these worlds is the inner world of romance, in which lives the desire from the dull "HERE" to the beautiful "THEHER". When their conflict is unresolvable, the motive of flight sounds: the escape from imperfect reality into otherness is conceived as salvation. Belief in the possibility of a miracle still lives in the 20th century: in A. S. Green's story "Scarlet Sails", in A. de Saint-Exupery's philosophical tale "The Little Prince" and in many other works.

The events that make up a romantic plot are usually bright and unusual; they are a kind of "tops" on which the narrative is built (entertainment in the era of romanticism becomes one of the important artistic criteria). At the event level of the work, the desire of the romantics to “throw off the chains” of classic plausibility is clearly traced, opposing it with the absolute freedom of the author, including in plot construction, and this construction can leave the reader with a feeling of incompleteness, fragmentation, as if calling for self-completion of “white spots” ". The external motivation for the extraordinary nature of what is happening in romantic works can be a special place and time of action (for example, exotic countries, the distant past or future), as well as folk superstitions and legends. The depiction of "exceptional circumstances" is aimed primarily at revealing the "exceptional personality" acting in these circumstances. The character as the engine of the plot and the plot as a way of "realizing" the character are closely related, therefore, each eventful moment is a kind of external expression of the struggle between good and evil that takes place in the soul of a romantic hero.

One of the artistic achievements of romanticism is the discovery of the value and inexhaustible complexity of the human personality. Man is perceived by romantics in a tragic contradiction - as the crown of creation, "the proud master of fate" and as a weak-willed toy in the hands of forces unknown to him, and sometimes his own passions. The freedom of the individual implies its responsibility: having made the wrong choice, one must be prepared for the inevitable consequences. Thus, the ideal of freedom (both in political and philosophical aspects), which is an important component in the romantic hierarchy of values, should not be understood as preaching and poetizing self-will, the danger of which was repeatedly revealed in romantic works.

The image of the hero is often inseparable from the lyrical element of the author's "I", turning out to be either consonant with him or alien. In any case, the author-narrator in a romantic work takes an active position; the narrative tends to be subjective, which can also be manifested at the compositional level - in the use of the “story within a story” technique. However, subjectivity as a general quality of romantic narration does not presuppose the author's arbitrariness and does not cancel the "system of moral coordinates". It is from a moral position that the exclusivity of a romantic hero is assessed, which can be both evidence of his greatness and a signal of his inferiority.

The “strangeness” (mysteriousness, dissimilarity to others) of the character is emphasized by the author, first of all, with the help of a portrait: spiritualized beauty, painful pallor, expressive look - these signs have long become stable, almost clichés, which is why comparisons and reminiscences in descriptions are so frequent, as if "quoting" previous samples. Here is a typical example of such an associative portrait (N. A. Polevoy “The Bliss of Madness”): “I don’t know how to describe Adelgeyda to you: she was likened to Beethoven’s wild symphony and the Valkyrie maidens, about whom the Scandinavian skalds sang ... her face ... was thoughtfully charming, like the face of the Madonnas of Albrecht Dürer ... Adelgeide seemed to be the spirit of the poetry that inspired Schiller when he described his Tekla, and Goethe when he portrayed his Mignon.

The behavior of a romantic hero is also evidence of his exclusivity (and sometimes - "excluded" from society); often it "does not fit" into generally accepted norms and violates the conventional "rules of the game" by which all other characters live.

Society in romantic works is a certain stereotype of collective existence, a set of rituals that does not depend on the personal will of each, so the hero here is “like a lawless comet in a circle of calculated luminaries.” It is formed as if "against the environment", although its protest, sarcasm or skepticism are born precisely by the conflict with others, that is, to some extent, are conditioned by society. The hypocrisy and deadness of the "secular mob" in the romantic depiction often correlates with the devilish, vile beginning, trying to gain power over the hero's soul. The human in the crowd becomes indistinguishable: instead of faces - masks (masquerade motif - E. A. Po. "Mask of the Red Death", V. N. Olin. "Strange Ball", M. Yu. Lermontov. "Masquerade",

Antithesis, as a favorite structural device of romanticism, is especially evident in the confrontation between the hero and the crowd (and, more broadly, between the hero and the world). This external conflict can take many forms, depending on the type of romantic personality the author has created. Let us turn to the most characteristic of these types.

The hero is a naive eccentric, who believes in the possibility of realizing ideals, is often comical and absurd in the eyes of “sane people”. However, he favorably differs from them in his moral integrity, childish desire for truth, ability to love and inability to adapt, that is, to lie. The heroine of A. S. Green's story "Scarlet Sails" Assol was also awarded the happiness of a dream come true, who knew how to believe in a miracle and wait for its appearance, despite the bullying and ridicule of "adults".

For romantics, the childish is generally a synonym for the authentic - not burdened by conventions and not killed by hypocrisy. The discovery of this topic is recognized by many scientists as one of the main merits of romanticism. “The 18th century saw in the child only a small adult.

The hero is a tragic loner and dreamer, rejected by society and aware of his alienation to the world, is capable of open conflict with others. They seem to him limited and vulgar, living exclusively for material interests and therefore personifying some kind of world evil, powerful and destructive for the spiritual aspirations of the romantic. H

The opposition "personality - society" acquires the sharpest character in the "marginal" version hero - romantic vagabond or robber who takes revenge on the world for his desecrated ideals. Examples include characters from the following works: “Les Miserables” by V. Hugo, “Jean Sbogar” by C. Nodier, “Corsair” by D. Byron.

The hero is a disappointed, "extra" person, who did not have the opportunity and no longer wants to realize his talents for the benefit of society, has lost his former dreams and faith in people. He turned into an observer and analyst, pronouncing a sentence on imperfect reality, but not trying to change it or change himself (for example, Octave in A. Musset's Confession of the Son of the Century, Lermontov's Pechorin). The fine line between pride and selfishness, consciousness of one's own exclusivity and disregard for people can explain why the cult of a lonely hero so often merges with his debunking in romanticism: Aleko in A. S. Pushkin's poem "Gypsies" and Larra in M. Gorky's story "The Old Woman Izergil" were punished with loneliness precisely for their inhuman pride.

Hero - demonic personality, challenging not only society, but also the Creator, is doomed to a tragic discord with reality and with oneself. His protest and despair are organically linked, since the Truth, Goodness, and Beauty he rejects have power over his soul. According to V. I. Korovin, a researcher of Lermontov’s work, “... a hero who is inclined to choose demonism as a moral position, thereby abandons the idea of ​​good, since evil does not give birth to good, but only evil. But this is a "high evil", since it is dictated by the thirst for good." The rebelliousness and cruelty of the nature of such a hero often become a source of suffering for others and do not bring joy to him. Acting as the "viceroy" of the devil, tempter and punisher, he himself is sometimes humanly vulnerable, because he is passionate. It is no coincidence that in romantic literature the motif of the “demons in love”, named after the story of the same name by J. Kazot, became widespread. "Echoes" of this motive sound in Lermontov's "Demon", and in "Secluded house on Vasilyevsky" by V.P. Titov, and in N.A. Melgunov's story "Who is he?"

Hero - patriot and citizen, ready to give his life for the good of the Fatherland, most often does not meet with the understanding and approval of his contemporaries. In this image, pride, traditional for romance, is paradoxically combined with the ideal of selflessness - the voluntary atonement of collective sin by a lonely hero (in the literal, non-literary sense of the word). The theme of sacrifice as a feat is especially characteristic of the "civil romanticism" of the Decembrists.

Ivan Susanin from the Ryleev Duma of the same name, and Gorky Danko from the story "Old Woman Izergil" can say the same about themselves. In the work of M. Yu. Lermontov, this type is also common, which, according to V. I. Korovin, “... became the starting point for Lermontov in his dispute with the century. But it is no longer the concept of only the public good, which is quite rationalistic among the Decembrists, and it is not civic feelings that inspire a person to heroic behavior, but her entire inner world.

Another of the common types of hero can be called autobiographical, as it represents the comprehension of the tragic fate of a man of art, who is forced to live, as it were, on the border of two worlds: the sublime world of creativity and the ordinary world of creaturehood. In the romantic frame of reference, a life devoid of the craving for the impossible becomes an animalistic existence. It is this existence, aimed at achieving the achievable, that is the basis of a pragmatic bourgeois civilization, which the romantics actively do not accept.

Only the naturalness of nature can save us from the artificiality of civilization - and in this romanticism is consonant with sentimentalism, which discovered its ethical and aesthetic significance (“mood landscape”). For a romantic, inanimate nature does not exist - it is all spiritualized, sometimes even humanized:

It has a soul, it has freedom, it has love, it has a language.

(F. I. Tyutchev)

On the other hand, the closeness of a person to nature means his “self-identity”, that is, reunification with his own “nature”, which is the key to his moral purity (here, the influence of the concept of “natural man” belonging to J. J. Rousseau is noticeable).

Nevertheless, the traditional romantic landscape is very different from the sentimentalist one: instead of idyllic rural expanses - groves, oak forests, fields (horizontal) - mountains and sea appear - height and depth, eternally warring "wave and stone". According to the literary critic, "... nature is recreated in romantic art as a free element, a free and beautiful world, not subject to human arbitrariness" (N. P. Kubareva). A storm and a thunderstorm set the romantic landscape in motion, emphasizing the inner conflict of the universe. This corresponds to the passionate nature of the romantic hero:

Oh I'm like a brother

I would be happy to embrace the storm!

With the eyes of the clouds I followed

I caught lightning with my hand ...

(M. Yu. Lermontov. "Mtsyri")

Romanticism, like sentimentalism, opposes the classic cult of reason, believing that "there is much in the world, friend Horatio, which our wise men never dreamed of." But if the sentimentalist considers feeling to be the main antidote to intellectual limitations, then the romantic maximalist goes further. Feeling is replaced by passion - not so much human as superhuman, uncontrollable and spontaneous. She elevates the hero above the ordinary and connects him with the universe; it reveals to the reader the motives of his actions, and often becomes an excuse for his crimes.

Romantic psychologism is based on the desire to show the inner regularity of the words and deeds of the hero, at first glance, inexplicable and strange. Their conditionality is revealed not so much through the social conditions of character formation (as it will be in realism), but through the clash of the supermundane forces of good and evil, the battlefield of which is the human heart (this idea sounds in the novel by E. T. A. Hoffmann “Elixirs Satan"). .

Romantic historicism is based on understanding the history of the Fatherland as the history of the family; the genetic memory of a nation lives in each of its representatives and explains a lot in his character. Thus, history and modernity are closely connected - for the majority of romantics, turning to the past becomes one of the ways of national self-determination and self-knowledge. But unlike the classicists, for whom time is nothing more than a convention, the romantics try to correlate the psychology of historical characters with the customs of the past, to recreate the “local flavor” and the “zeitgeist” not as a masquerade, but as a motivation for events and people's actions. In other words, "immersion in the era" must take place, which is impossible without a thorough study of documents and sources. "Facts colored by the imagination" - this is the basic principle of romantic historicism.

As for historical figures, in romantic works they rarely correspond to their real (documentary) appearance, being idealized depending on the author's position and their artistic function - to set an example or warn. It is characteristic that in his warning novel "The Silver Prince" A. K. Tolstoy shows Ivan the Terrible only as a tyrant, not taking into account the inconsistency and complexity of the king's personality, and Richard the Lionheart in reality was not at all like the exalted image of the king-knight , as shown by W. Scott in the novel "Ivanhoe".

In this sense, the past is more convenient than the present for creating an ideal (and at the same time, as it were, real in the past) model of national existence, opposing the wingless modernity and degraded compatriots. The emotion that Lermontov expressed in the poem "Borodino" -

Yes, there were people in our time,

Mighty, dashing tribe:

Bogatyrs - not you, -

characteristic of many romantic works. Belinsky, speaking of Lermontov's "Song about ... the merchant Kalashnikov", emphasized that it "... testifies to the state of mind of the poet, dissatisfied with modern reality and transported from it into the distant past, in order to look for life there, which he does not see in present."

romantic poem characterized by the so-called peak composition, when the action is built around one event, in which the character of the protagonist is most clearly manifested and his further - most often tragic - fate is determined. This happens in some of the "eastern" poems of the English romantic D. G. Byron ("Gyaur", "Corsair"), and in the "southern" poems of A. S. Pushkin ("Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies"), and in Lermontov's "Mtsyri", "Song about ... the merchant Kalashnikov", "Demon".

romantic drama seeks to overcome classic conventions (in particular, the unity of place and time); she does not know the speech individualization of the characters: her characters speak "the same language". It is extremely conflicting, and most often this conflict is associated with an irreconcilable confrontation between the hero (internally close to the author) and society. Due to the inequality of forces, the collision rarely ends in a happy ending; the tragic ending can also be associated with contradictions in the soul of the main character, his internal struggle. Lermontov's "Masquerade", Byron's "Sardanapal", Hugo's "Cromwell" can be named as characteristic examples of romantic dramaturgy.

One of the most popular genres in the era of romanticism was the story (most often the romantics themselves called this word a story or short story), which existed in several thematic varieties. The plot of a secular story is based on the discrepancy between sincerity and hypocrisy, deep feelings and social conventions (E. P. Rostopchina. "Duel"). The everyday story is subordinated to moralistic tasks, depicting the life of people who are somewhat different from the rest (M.P. Pogodin. “Black sickness”). In the philosophical story, the basis of the problem is the “damned questions of being”, the answers to which are offered by the characters and the author (M. Yu. Lermontov. “Fatalist”), satirical tale is aimed at debunking the triumphant vulgarity, which in various guises poses the main threat to the spiritual essence of man (V. F. Odoevsky. “The Tale of a Dead Body Belonging to No One Knows Who”). Finally, the fantastic story is built on the penetration of supernatural characters and events into the plot, inexplicable from the point of view of everyday logic, but natural from the point of view of the higher laws of being, having a moral nature. Most often, the very real actions of the character: careless words, sinful deeds become the cause of a miraculous retribution, reminiscent of a person’s responsibility for everything that he does (A. S. Pushkin. “The Queen of Spades”, N. V. Gogol. “Portrait”).

A new life of romance was breathed into the folklore genre by fairy tales, not only contributing to the publication and study of monuments of oral folk art, but also creating their own original works; we can recall the brothers Grimm, W. Gauf, A. S. Pushkin, P. P. Ershov and others. Moreover, the fairy tale was understood and used quite widely - from the way of recreating the folk (children's) view of the world in stories with the so-called folk fantasy (for example , “Kikimora” by O. M. Somov) or in works addressed to children (for example, “Town in a Snuffbox” by V. F. Odoevsky), to the general property of truly romantic creativity, the universal “canon of poetry”: “Everything poetic should be fabulous,” Novalis claimed.

The originality of the romantic artistic world is also manifested at the linguistic level. The romantic style, of course, heterogeneous, appearing in many individual varieties, has some common features. It is rhetorical and monologue: the heroes of the works are the "linguistic twins" of the author. The word is valuable for him for its emotional and expressive possibilities - in romantic art it always means immeasurably more than in everyday communication. Associativity, saturation with epithets, comparisons and metaphors becomes especially evident in portrait and landscape descriptions, where the main role is played by similes, as if replacing (obscuring) the specific appearance of a person or a picture of nature. Romantic symbolism is based on the endless "expansion" of the literal meaning of certain words: the sea and the wind become symbols of freedom; morning dawn - hopes and aspirations; blue flower (Novalis) - an unattainable ideal; night - the mysterious essence of the universe and the human soul, etc.

The history of Russian romanticism began in the second half of the 18th century. Classicism, excluding the national as a source of inspiration and subject of depiction, opposed high examples of artistry to the “rough” common people, which could not but lead to “monotony, limitation, conventionality” (A. S. Pushkin) of literature. Therefore, gradually the imitation of ancient and European writers gave way to the desire to focus on the best examples of national creativity, including folk.

The formation and formation of Russian romanticism is closely connected with the most important historical event of the 19th century - the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. The rise of national self-consciousness, faith in the great purpose of Russia and its people stimulate interest in what previously remained outside the boundaries of belles-lettres. Folklore, domestic legends are beginning to be perceived as a source of originality, independence of literature, which has not yet completely freed itself from the student imitation of classicism, but has already taken the first step in this direction: if you learn, then from your ancestors. Here is how O. M. Somov formulates this task: “... The Russian people, glorious in military and civil virtues, formidable in strength and magnanimous in victories, inhabiting the kingdom, the largest in the world, rich in nature and memories, must have their own folk poetry, inimitable and independent of alien legends.

From this point of view, the main merit of V. A. Zhukovsky is not in “discovering the America of Romanticism” and not in introducing Russian readers to the best Western European examples, but in a deeply national understanding of world experience, in connecting it with the Orthodox worldview, which affirms:

Our best friend in this life is Faith in Providence, the Blessing of the Creator of the law ...

("Svetlana")

The romanticism of the Decembrists K. F. Ryleev, A. A. Bestuzhev, V. K. Kuchelbeker in the science of literature is often called “civil”, since the pathos of serving the Fatherland is fundamental in their aesthetics and work. Appeals to the historical past are called upon, according to the authors, "to excite the valor of fellow citizens with the exploits of their ancestors" (A. Bestuzhev's words about K. Ryleev), that is, to contribute to a real change in reality, which is far from ideal. It was in the poetics of the Decembrists that such common features of Russian romanticism as anti-individualism, rationalism and citizenship were clearly manifested - features that indicate that in Russia romanticism is rather the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment than their destroyer.

After the tragedy of December 14, 1825, the romantic movement enters a new era - civic optimistic pathos is replaced by a philosophical orientation, self-deepening, attempts to learn the general laws that govern the world and man. Russian romantics-wisers (D. V. Venevitinov, I. V. Kireevsky, A. S. Khomyakov, S. V. Shevyrev, V. F. Odoevsky) turn to German idealist philosophy and strive to “graft” it onto their native soil. The second half of the 20s - 30s - the time of passion for the miraculous and the supernatural. A. A. Pogorelsky, O. M. Somov, V. F. Odoevsky, O. I. Senkovsky, A. F. Veltman turned to the genre of fantasy story.

In the general direction from romanticism to realism, the work of the great classics of the 19th century - A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol develops, and one should not talk about overcoming the romantic beginning in their works, but about transforming and enriching it realistic method of understanding life in art. It is on the example of Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol that one can see that romanticism and realism, as the most important and deeply national phenomena in Russian culture of the 19th century, do not oppose each other, they are not mutually exclusive, but complementary, and only in their combination is born the unique image of our classical literature. . A spiritualized romantic view of the world, the correlation of reality with the highest ideal, the cult of love as an element and the cult of poetry as insight can be found in the work of the wonderful Russian poets F. I. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet, A. K. Tolstoy. Intense attention to the mysterious sphere of being, the irrational and the fantastic, is characteristic of Turgenev's late work, which develops the traditions of romanticism.

In Russian literature at the turn of the century and at the beginning of the 20th century, romantic tendencies are associated with the tragic worldview of a person of the “transitional era” and with his dream of transforming the world. The concept of the symbol, developed by the romantics, was developed and artistically embodied in the work of Russian symbolists (D. Merezhkovsky, A. Blok, A. Bely); love for the exotic of distant wanderings was reflected in the so-called neo-romanticism (N. Gumilyov); the maximalism of artistic aspirations, the contrast of the worldview, the desire to overcome the imperfection of the world and man are integral components of M. Gorky's early romantic work.

In science, the question of chronological boundaries, which put a limit to the existence of romanticism as an artistic movement, still remains open. The 40s of the 19th century are traditionally called, but more and more often in modern studies these boundaries are proposed to be pushed back - sometimes significantly, until the end of the 19th or even the beginning of the 20th century. One thing is indisputable: if romanticism as a trend left the stage, giving way to realism, then romanticism as an artistic method, that is, as a way of understanding the world in art, retains its viability to this day.

Thus, romanticism in the broadest sense of the word is not a historically limited phenomenon left in the past: it is eternal and still represents something more than a literary phenomenon. “Wherever a person is, there is romanticism ... His sphere ... is the whole inner, intimate life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from where all indefinite aspirations for the better and the sublime rise, striving to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy” . “Genuine romanticism is by no means only a literary movement. He strove to become and became ... a new form of feeling, a new way of experiencing life ... Romanticism is nothing more than a way to arrange, organize a person, a bearer of culture, into a new connection with the elements ... Romanticism is a spirit that strives under any solidifying form and eventually explodes it ... "These statements by V. G. Belinsky and A. A. Blok, pushing the boundaries of the familiar concept, show its inexhaustibility and explain its immortality: as long as a person remains a person, romanticism will exist both in art as well as in everyday life.

Representatives of romanticism

Currents 1. Subjective-lyrical romanticism, or ethical and psychological (includes the problems of good and evil, crime and punishment, the meaning of life, friendship and love, moral duty, conscience, retribution, happiness): V. A. Zhukovsky (ballads "Lyudmila", "Svetlana", "The Twelve Sleeping Maidens", "The Forest King", "Aeolian Harp"; elegies, songs, romances, messages; poems "Abbadon", "Ondine", "Nal and Damayanti"), K. N. Batyushkov (messages, elegies, poetry).

2. Public-civil romanticism: K. F. Ryleev (lyrical poems, “Thoughts”: “Dmitry Donskoy”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky”, “Death of Yermak”, “Ivan Susanin”; poems “Voinarovsky”, “Nalivaiko”),

A. A. Bestuzhev (pseudonym - Marlinsky) (poems, stories "Frigate" Nadezhda "", "Sailor Nikitin", "Ammalat-Bek", "Terrible fortune-telling", "Andrey Pereyaslavsky"),

B. F. Raevsky (civil lyrics),

A. I. Odoevsky (elegies, historical poem Vasilko, response to Pushkin's Message to Siberia),

D. V. Davydov (civil lyrics),

V. K. Küchelbecker (civil lyrics, drama "Izhora"),

3. "Byronic" romanticism: A. S. Pushkin(the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila", civil lyrics, a cycle of southern poems: "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Robber Brothers", "The Fountain of Bakhchisarai", "Gypsies"),

M. Yu. Lermontov (civil lyrics, poems “Izmail-Bey”, “Hadji Abrek”, “The Fugitive”, “Demon”, “Mtsyri”, drama “Spaniards”, historical novel “Vadim”),

I. I. Kozlov (poem "Chernets").

4. Philosophical romanticism: D. V. Venevitinov (civil and philosophical lyrics),

V. F. Odoevsky (collection of short stories and philosophical conversations "Russian Nights", romantic stories "Beethoven's Last Quartet", "Sebastian Bach"; fantastic stories "Igosha", "Sylphide", "Salamander"),

F. N. Glinka (songs, poems),

V. G. Benediktov (philosophical lyrics),

F. I. Tyutchev (philosophical lyrics),

E. A. Baratynsky (civil and philosophical lyrics).

5. Folk-historical romanticism: M. N. Zagoskin (historical novels "Yuri Miloslavsky, or Russians in 1612", "Roslavlev, or Russians in 1812", "Askold's Grave"),

I. I. Lazhechnikov (historical novels "Ice House", "Last Novik", "Basurman").

Features of Russian romanticism. The subjective romantic image contained an objective content, expressed in the reflection of the public mood of the Russian people in the first third of the 19th century - disappointment, anticipation of change, rejection of both the Western European bourgeoisie and Russian arbitrarily autocratic, feudal foundations.

Striving for the nation. It seemed to the Russian romantics that, by comprehending the spirit of the people, they were joining the ideal principles of life. At the same time, the understanding of the “folk soul” and the content of the very principle of nationality among representatives of various trends in Russian romanticism was different. So, for Zhukovsky, nationality meant a humane attitude towards the peasantry and, in general, towards poor people; he found it in the poetry of folk rituals, lyrical songs, folk signs, superstitions, and legends. In the works of the Romantic Decembrists, the folk character is not just positive, but heroic, nationally distinctive, which is rooted in the historical traditions of the people. They found such a character in historical, robber songs, epics, heroic tales.

Romanticism is a trend in art and literature that arose at the end of the 18th century in Germany and spread throughout Europe and America.

Signs of romanticism:

Emphasized attention to the human personality, individuality, the inner world of a person.

The image of an exceptional character in exceptional circumstances, a strong, rebellious personality, irreconcilable with the world. This person is not only free in spirit, but also special and unusual. Most often, this is a loner who is not understood by most other people.

The cult of feelings, nature and the natural state of man. Denial of rationalism, the cult of reason and orderliness.

The existence of "two worlds": the world of the ideal, dreams and the world of reality. There is an irreparable discrepancy between them. This brings romantic artists into a mood of despair and hopelessness, "world sorrow".

Appeal to folk stories, folklore, interest in the historical past, the search for historical consciousness. Active interest in the national, folk. Raising national self-consciousness, focusing on originality among the creative circles of European peoples.

In literature and painting, detailed descriptions of exotic nature, stormy elements, as well as images of "natural" people, "not spoiled" by civilization, are becoming popular.

Romanticism completely abandoned the use of stories about antiquity, popular in the era of classicism. It led to the emergence and establishment of new literary genres - song ballads based on folklore, lyrical songs, romances, historical novels.

Outstanding representatives of romanticism in literature: George Gordon Byron, Victor Hugo, William Blake, Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann, Walter Scott, Heinrich Heine, Friedrich Schiller, George Sand, Mikhail Lermontov, Alexander Pushkin, Adam Mickiewicz.

2.1 Romanticism in Russian literature

Russian romanticism, in contrast to European with its pronounced anti-bourgeois character, retained a strong connection with the ideas of the Enlightenment and adopted some of them - the condemnation of serfdom, the promotion and defense of education, and the defense of popular interests. The military events of 1812 had a huge impact on the development of Russian romanticism. The Patriotic War caused not only the growth of civil and national self-awareness of the advanced layers of Russian society, but also the recognition of the special role of the people in the life of the national state. The theme of the people has become very significant for Russian romantic writers. It seemed to them that, comprehending the spirit of the people, they were attached to the ideal principles of life. The desire for nationality marked the work of all Russian romantics, although their understanding of the "people's soul" was different.

So, for Zhukovsky, nationality is, first of all, a humane attitude towards the peasantry and, in general, towards poor people. He saw its essence in the poetry of folk rituals, lyrical songs, folk signs and superstitions.

In the works of the romantic Decembrists, the idea of ​​the people's soul was associated with other features. For them, the national character is a heroic character, a national identity. It is rooted in the national traditions of the people. They considered such figures as Prince Oleg, Ivan Susanin, Yermak, Nalivaiko, Minin and Pozharsky to be the brightest spokesmen for the people's soul. Thus, Ryleev's poems "Voinarovsky", "Nalivaiko", his "Dumas", A. Bestuzhev's stories, Pushkin's southern poems, later - "The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov" and poems of the Caucasian cycle Lermontov are devoted to the understandable folk ideal. In the historical past of the Russian people, romantic poets of the 1920s were especially attracted by crisis moments - periods of struggle against the Tatar-Mongol yoke, free Novgorod and Pskov - against autocratic Moscow, struggle against the Polish-Swedish intervention, etc.

Romantic poets' interest in national history was engendered by a sense of high patriotism. Russian romanticism, which flourished during the Patriotic War of 1812, took it as one of its ideological foundations. In artistic terms, romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to depicting the inner world of a person. But unlike the sentimentalist writers, who sang "quiet sensibility" as an expression of "languid and sorrowful heart", the romantics preferred the depiction of extraordinary adventures and violent passions. At the same time, the undoubted merit of romanticism, especially its progressive direction, was the identification of an effective, strong-willed principle in a person, the desire for high goals and ideals that lifted people above everyday life. Such a character was, for example, the work of the English poet J. Byron, whose influence was experienced by many Russian writers of the early 19th century.

A deep interest in the inner world of a person caused romantics to be indifferent to the external beauty of the characters. In this, romanticism also radically differed from classicism with its obligatory harmony between the appearance and the inner content of the characters. Romantics, on the contrary, sought to discover the contrast between the external appearance and the spiritual world of the hero. As an example, we can recall Quasimodo ("Notre Dame Cathedral" by V. Hugo), a freak with a noble, exalted soul.

One of the important achievements of romanticism is the creation of a lyrical landscape. For romantics, it serves as a kind of decoration that emphasizes the emotional intensity of the action. In the descriptions of nature, its "spirituality" was noted, its relationship with the fate and fate of man. A brilliant master of the lyrical landscape was Alexander Bestuzhev, already in whose early stories the landscape expresses the emotional overtones of the work. In the story "The Revel Tournament" he depicted the picturesque view of Revel, corresponding to the mood of the characters: "It was in the month of May; the bright sun rolled towards noon in transparent ether, and only in the distance the canopy of the sky touched the water with a silvery cloudy fringe. The bright spokes of the Revel bell towers burned across the bay, and the gray loopholes of Vyshgorod, leaning on a cliff, seemed to grow into the sky and, as if overturned, pierced into the depths of the mirror waters.

The originality of the themes of romantic works contributed to the use of a specific dictionary expression - an abundance of metaphors, poetic epithets and symbols. So, the sea, the wind was a romantic symbol of freedom; happiness - the sun, love - fire or roses; in general, pink color symbolized love feelings, black - sadness. The night personified evil, crime, enmity. The symbol of eternal variability is a sea wave, insensibility is a stone; images of a doll or a masquerade meant falsehood, hypocrisy, duplicity.

V. A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852) is considered to be the founder of Russian romanticism. Already in the first years of the 19th century, he became famous as a poet, glorifying bright feelings - love, friendship, dreamy spiritual impulses. A large place in his work was occupied by lyrical images of his native nature. Zhukovsky became the creator of the national lyrical landscape in Russian poetry. In one of his early poems, the elegy "Evening", the poet reproduced a modest picture of his native land in this way:

All is quiet: the groves are sleeping; peace in the neighborhood

Stretched out on the grass under the bowed willow,

I listen how it murmurs, merged with the river,

A stream overshadowed by bushes.

A reed sways over the stream,

The voice of the noose, sleeping in the distance, wakes the villages.

In the grass of the stalk I hear a wild cry...

This love for the depiction of Russian life, national traditions and rituals, legends and tales will be expressed in a number of Zhukovsky's subsequent works.

In the late period of his work, Zhukovsky did a lot of translations and created a number of poems and ballads of fabulous and fantastic content ("Ondine", "The Tale of Tsar Berendey", "The Sleeping Princess"). Zhukovsky's ballads are full of deep philosophical meaning, they reflect his personal experiences, and reflections and features inherent in romanticism in general.

Zhukovsky, like other Russian romantics, was characterized to a high degree by the desire for a moral ideal. This ideal for him was philanthropy and independence of the individual. He asserted them both with his work and with his life.

In the literary work of the late 20-30s, romanticism retained its former positions. However, developing in a different social environment, it acquired new, original features. The thoughtful elegies of Zhukovsky and the revolutionary pathos of Ryleyev's poetry are being replaced by the romanticism of Gogol and Lermontov. Their work bears the imprint of that peculiar ideological crisis after the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, which was experienced by the public consciousness of those years, when the betrayal of former progressive convictions, the tendency of self-interest, philistine "moderation" and caution were revealed especially clearly.

Therefore, in the romanticism of the 30s, the motives of disappointment in modern reality, the critical principle inherent in this trend in its social nature, the desire to escape into some ideal world, prevailed. Along with this - an appeal to history, an attempt to comprehend modernity from the standpoint of historicism.

The romantic hero often acted as a person who had lost interest in earthly goods and denounced the powerful and rich of this world. The opposition of the hero to society gave rise to a tragic attitude, characteristic of the romanticism of this period. The death of moral and aesthetic ideals - beauty, love, high art predetermined the personal tragedy of a person gifted with great feelings and thoughts, in Gogol's words, "full of rage."

Most vividly and emotionally, the mindset of the era was reflected in poetry, and especially in the work of the greatest poet of the 19th century, M. Yu. Lermontov. Already in his early years, freedom-loving motifs occupy an important place in his poetry. The poet warmly sympathizes with those who actively fight against injustice, who rebel against slavery. In this regard, the poems "To Novgorod" and "The Last Son of Liberty" are significant, in which Lermontov turned to the favorite plot of the Decembrists - Novgorod history, in which they saw examples of republican freedom of distant ancestors.

The appeal to national origins, folklore, characteristic of romanticism, is also manifested in Lermontov's subsequent works, for example, in "The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young guardsman and a daring merchant Kalashnikov." The theme of the struggle for the independence of the Motherland is one of the favorite themes of Lermontov's work - it is especially brightly covered in the "Caucasian cycle". The Caucasus was perceived by the poet in the spirit of Pushkin's freedom-loving poems of the 1920s - its wild majestic nature was opposed to "captive soulful cities", "the dwelling of the freedom of the saint" - to the "country of slaves, the country of masters" of Nikolaev Russia. Lermontov warmly sympathized with the freedom-loving peoples of the Caucasus. So, the hero of the story "Izmail Bey" refused personal happiness in the name of the liberation of his native country.

The same feelings possess the hero of the poem "Mtsyri". His image is full of mystery. The boy, picked up by a Russian general, languishes as a prisoner in a monastery and passionately longs for freedom and homeland: “I knew power only by thought,” he admits before his death, “One, but fiery passion: She lived like a worm in me, Gnawed my soul and burned it. My dreams called From stuffy cells and prayers To that wonderful world of worries and battles Where rocks hide in the clouds Where people are as free as eagles...". Longing for the will merges in the consciousness of a young man with longing for his homeland, for a free and "rebellious life", to which he so desperately aspired. Thus, Lermontov's favorite heroes, like the romantic heroes of the Decembrists, are distinguished by an active strong-willed beginning, an aura of chosen ones and fighters. At the same time, Lermontov's heroes, unlike the romantic characters of the 1920s, foresee the tragic outcome of their actions; the desire for civic activity does not exclude their personal, often lyrical plan. Possessing the features of the romantic heroes of the previous decade - increased emotionality, "ardor of passions", high lyrical pathos, love as "the strongest passion" - they carry the signs of the times - skepticism, disappointment.

The historical theme became especially popular among romantic writers, who saw in history not only a way of knowing the national spirit, but also the effectiveness of using the experience of past years. The most popular authors who wrote in the genre of the historical novel were M. Zagoskin and I. Lazhechnikov.

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It originated at the end of the 18th century, but reached its greatest prosperity in the 1830s. From the beginning of the 1850s, the period begins to decline, but its threads stretch through the entire 19th century, giving rise to such trends as symbolism, decadence and neo-romanticism.

Rise of Romanticism

Europe, in particular England and France, is considered the birthplace of the direction, from where the name of this artistic direction came from - "romantisme". This is explained by the fact that the romanticism of the 19th century arose as a result of the French Revolution.

The revolution destroyed the entire hierarchy that existed before, mixed society and social strata. The man began to feel lonely and began to seek solace in gambling and other entertainment. Against this background, the idea arose that all life is a game in which there are winners and losers. The main character of each romantic work is a man playing with fate, with fate.

What is romanticism

Romanticism is everything that exists only in books: incomprehensible, incredible and fantastic phenomena, at the same time associated with the assertion of the individual through her spiritual and creative life. Mainly events unfold against the backdrop of expressed passions, all the characters have clearly manifested characters, and are often endowed with a rebellious spirit.

Writers of the era of romanticism emphasize that the main value in life is the personality of a person. Each person is a separate world full of amazing beauty. It is from there that all inspiration and lofty feelings are drawn, as well as a tendency to idealization.

According to novelists, the ideal is an ephemeral concept, but nevertheless having the right to exist. The ideal is beyond everything ordinary, therefore the main character and his ideas are directly opposed to worldly relations and material things.

Distinctive features

The features of romanticism both lie in the main ideas and conflicts.

The main idea of ​​almost every work is the constant movement of the hero in physical space. This fact, as it were, reflects the confusion of the soul, its continuously ongoing reflections and, at the same time, changes in the world around it.

Like many artistic movements, Romanticism has its own conflicts. Here the whole concept is based on the complex relationship of the protagonist with the outside world. He is very egocentric and at the same time rebels against base, vulgar, material objects of reality, which one way or another manifests itself in the actions, thoughts and ideas of the character. The following literary examples of romanticism are most pronounced in this regard: Childe Harold - the main character from Byron's "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" and Pechorin - from Lermontov's "A Hero of Our Time".

If we summarize all of the above, it turns out that the basis of any such work is the gap between reality and the idealized world, which has very sharp edges.

Romanticism in European Literature

European romanticism of the 19th century is remarkable in that, for the most part, its works have a fantastic basis. These are numerous fairy-tale legends, short stories and stories.

The main countries in which romanticism as a literary movement manifested itself most expressively are France, England and Germany.

This artistic phenomenon has several stages:

1. 1801-1815 years. The beginning of the formation of romantic aesthetics.
2. 1815-1830 years. The formation and flourishing of the current, the definition of the main postulates of this direction.
3. 1830-1848 years. Romanticism takes on more social forms.

Each of the above countries has made its own, special contribution to the development of the aforementioned cultural phenomenon. In France, the romantic ones had a more political coloring, the writers were hostile towards the new bourgeoisie. This society, according to French leaders, ruined the integrity of the individual, her beauty and freedom of spirit.

In English legends, romanticism has existed for a long time, but until the end of the 18th century it did not stand out as a separate literary movement. English works, unlike French ones, are filled with Gothic, religion, national folklore, the culture of peasant and working societies (including spiritual ones). In addition, English prose and lyrics are filled with travel to distant lands and exploration of foreign lands.

In Germany, romanticism as a literary trend was formed under the influence of idealistic philosophy. The foundations were individuality and the oppressed by feudalism, as well as the perception of the universe as a single living system. Almost every German work is permeated with reflections on the existence of man and the life of his spirit.

Europe: examples of works

The following literary works are considered the most notable European works in the spirit of romanticism:

The treatise "The Genius of Christianity", the stories "Atala" and "Rene" Chateaubriand;

The novels "Delphine", "Corinne, or Italy" by Germaine de Stael;

The novel "Adolf" by Benjamin Constant;

The novel "Confession of the son of the century" by Musset;

The novel Saint-Mar by Vigny;

Manifesto "Preface" to the work "Cromwell", the novel "Notre Dame Cathedral" by Hugo;

Drama "Henry III and his court", a series of novels about musketeers, "The Count of Monte Cristo" and "Queen Margot" by Dumas;

The novels "Indiana", "The Wandering Apprentice", "Horas", "Consuelo" by George Sand;

Manifesto "Racine and Shakespeare" by Stendhal;

The poems "The Old Sailor" and "Christabel" by Coleridge;

- "Oriental Poems" and "Manfred" Byron;

Collected Works of Balzac;

The novel "Ivanhoe" by Walter Scott;

The fairy tale "Hyacinth and the Rose", the novel "Heinrich von Ofterdingen" by Novalis;

Collections of short stories, fairy tales and novels of Hoffmann.

Romanticism in Russian literature

Russian romanticism of the 19th century was born under the direct influence of Western European literature. However, despite this, he had his own characteristic features, which were tracked in previous periods.

This artistic phenomenon in Russia fully reflected all the hostility of the foremost workers and revolutionaries to the ruling bourgeoisie, in particular, to its way of life - unbridled, immoral and cruel. Russian romanticism of the 19th century was a direct result of rebellious moods and anticipation of turning points in the history of the country.

In the literature of that time, two directions are distinguished: psychological and civil. The first was based on the description and analysis of feelings and experiences, the second - on the propaganda of the fight against modern society. The general and main idea of ​​all novelists was that the poet or writer had to behave according to the ideals that he described in his works.

Russia: examples of works

The most striking examples of romanticism in Russian literature of the 19th century are:

The stories "Ondine", "The Prisoner of Chillon", the ballads "The Forest King", "Fisherman", "Lenora" by Zhukovsky;

Compositions "Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades" by Pushkin;

- "The Night Before Christmas" by Gogol;

- "Hero of Our Time" Lermontov.

Romanticism in American Literature

In America, the direction received a slightly later development: its initial stage dates back to 1820-1830, the subsequent one - 1840-1860 of the 19th century. Both phases were exceptionally influenced by civil unrest, both in France (which served as the impetus for the creation of the United States), and directly in America itself (the war for independence from England and the war between North and South).

The artistic trends in American romanticism are represented by two types: abolitionist, which advocated emancipation from slavery, and eastern, which idealized plantation.

American literature of this period is based on a rethinking of knowledge and genres captured from Europe and mixed with a peculiar way of life and pace of life on a still new and little known mainland. American works are richly flavored with national intonations, a sense of independence and the struggle for freedom.

American romanticism. Examples of works

The Alhambra cycle, the stories The Ghost Groom, Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving;

The novel "The Last of the Mohicans" by Fenimore Cooper;

The poem "The Raven", the stories "Ligeia", "The Gold Bug", "The Fall of the House of Usher" and others by E. Alan Poe;

The novels The Scarlet Letter and The House of Seven Gables by Gorton;

The novels Typei and Moby Dick by Melville;

The novel "Uncle Tom's Cabin" by Harriet Beecher Stowe;

Poetically arranged legends of "Evangeline", "Song of Hiawatha", "Wooing of Miles Standish" by Longfellow;

Whitman's "Leaves of Grass" collection;

"Woman in the Nineteenth Century" by Margaret Fuller.

Romanticism, as a literary trend, had a rather strong influence on musical, theatrical art and painting - it is enough to recall the numerous productions and paintings of those times. This happened mainly due to such qualities of the direction as high aesthetics and emotionality, heroism and pathos, chivalry, idealization and humanism. Despite the fact that the age of romanticism was rather short-lived, this did not in the least affect the popularity of books written in the 19th century in the following decades - the works of literary art of that period are loved and revered by the public to this day.

The Problem of Romanticism belongs to the most complex in the science of literature. Difficulties in solving this problem are predetermined to some extent by insufficient clarity of terminology. Romanticism is also called the artistic method, and the literary direction, and a special type of consciousness and behavior. However, despite the debatability of a number of provisions of a theoretical and historical-literary nature, most scientists agree that romanticism was a necessary link in the artistic development of mankind, that without it the achievement of realism would have been impossible.

Russian romanticism at its inception, it was associated, of course, with the pan-European literary movement. At the same time, it was internally conditioned by the objective process of the development of Russian culture; the tendencies that were laid down in Russian literature of the previous period found development in it. Russian romanticism was generated by the impending socio-historical turning point in the development of Russia, it reflected the transition, instability of the existing socio-political structure. The gap between the ideal and reality caused a negative attitude of progressive people in Russia (and above all the Decembrists) to the cruel, unjust and immoral life of the ruling classes. Until recently, the most daring hopes for the possibility of creating social relations based on the principles of reason and justice were associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment.

It soon became clear that these hopes were not justified. Deep disappointment in educational ideals, a resolute rejection of bourgeois reality, and at the same time a misunderstanding of the essence of the antagonistic contradictions that exist in life, led to feelings of hopelessness, pessimism, disbelief in reason.

Romantics claimed that the highest value is the human person, in whose soul there is a beautiful and mysterious world; only here you can find inexhaustible sources of true beauty and high feelings. Behind all this, one can see (albeit not always clearly) a new concept of a person who cannot and should no longer submit himself to the power of estate-feudal morality. In his art work Romantics in most cases sought not to reflect the reality (which seemed to them low, anti-aesthetic), not to clarify the objective logic of the development of life (they were not at all sure that such a logic existed). At the heart of their artistic system was not an object, but a subject: the personal, subjective beginning acquires decisive importance among the romantics.

Romanticism is based on the assertion of an inevitable conflict, the complete incompatibility of everything truly spiritual, human with the existing way of life (whether it be a feudal or bourgeois way of life). If life is based only on material calculation, then, naturally, everything lofty, moral, humane is alien to it. Therefore, the ideal is somewhere beyond this life, beyond feudal or bourgeois relations. Reality, as it were, fell apart into two worlds: the vulgar, ordinary here and the wonderful, romantic there. Hence the appeal to unusual, exceptional, conditional, sometimes even fantastic images and paintings, the desire for everything exotic - everything that opposes everyday, everyday reality, everyday prose.

The romantic concept of human character is built on the same principle. The hero is opposed to the environment, rises above it. Russian romanticism was not homogeneous. It is usually noted that there are two main currents in it. The terms psychological and civic romanticism adopted in modern science highlight the ideological and artistic specificity of each trend. In one case, romantics, feeling the growing instability of social life, which did not satisfy their ideal ideas, went into the world of dreams, into the world of feelings, experience, psychology. Recognition of the inherent value of the human personality, a keen interest in the inner life of a person, the desire to reveal the richness of his spiritual experiences - these were the strengths of psychological romanticism, the most prominent representative of which was V.

A. Zhukovsky. He and his supporters put forward the idea of ​​the inner freedom of the individual, its independence from the social environment, from the world in general, where a person cannot be happy. Having not achieved freedom in the socio-political plane, the Romantics insisted all the more stubbornly on the affirmation of the spiritual freedom of man.

With this current genetically related appearance in the 30s of the XIX century. a special stage in the history of Russian romanticism, which is most often called philosophical.

Instead of the high genres cultivated in classicism (ode), other genre forms arise. In the field of lyrical poetry among romantics, the elegy becomes the leading genre, conveying moods of sadness, grief, disappointment, melancholy. Pushkin, having made Lensky ("Eugene Onegin") a romantic poet, in a subtle parody listed the main motifs of elegiac lyrics:

• He sang separation and sadness,
• And something, and a foggy distance,
• And romantic roses;
• He sang those distant countries

Representatives of another trend in Russian romanticism called for a direct fight against modern society, glorifying the civic prowess of the fighters.

Creating poems of high social and patriotic sound, they (and these were primarily Decembrist poets) also used certain traditions of classicism, especially those genre and stylistic forms that gave their poems the character of upbeat oratorical speech. They saw literature primarily as a means of propaganda and struggle. Whatever forms the controversy between the two main currents of Russian romanticism took, there were still common features of romantic art that united them: the opposition of a lofty ideal hero to the world of evil and lack of spirituality, a protest against the foundations of autocratic-feudal reality that fettered a person.

Of particular note is the persistent desire of the Romantics to create an original national culture. In direct connection with this is their interest in national history, oral folk poetry, the use of many folklore genres, etc.

d. Russian romantics also united the idea of ​​the need for a direct connection between the life of the author and his poetry. In life itself, the poet must behave poetically, in accordance with the high ideals that are proclaimed in his poems. K. N. Batyushkov expressed this requirement in the following way: “Live as you write, and write as you live” (“Something about a Poet and Poetry”, 1815). Thus, a direct connection between literary creativity and the life of the poet, his very personality was affirmed, which gave the poems a special power of emotional and aesthetic impact.

In the future, Pushkin managed to combine the best traditions and artistic achievements of both psychological and civic romanticism at a higher level. That is why Pushkin's work is the pinnacle of Russian romanticism of the 20s of the 19th century. Pushkin, and then Lermontov and Gogol, could not pass by the achievements of romanticism, its experience and discoveries.