The 17th century turned out to be surprisingly favorable for the development of artistic culture. The successes of natural science have significantly expanded and complicated the concept of the world as a boundless, changeable and contradictory unity. The feeling of the inseparable connection of a person with this world, his dependence on the surrounding reality, on the conditions and circumstances of his being prevailed.
vanity. That is why not only a person becomes the bearer of artistic creativity, but also the whole diversity of reality, its complex connections with a person. Accordingly, the themes of artistic creativity, the plot repertoire, became richer, new independent genres and styles were developed, those that had developed in previous cultural eras developed and deepened. In the 17th century, styles appeared almost simultaneously that had a national character and encompassed different types of art - classicism and baroque.
Classicism is represented in literature by such names as P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. B. Molière (France), D. Fonvizin (Russia); in painting - N. Poussin, K. Lauren (France); in sculpture - E. M. Falcone (France), Thorvaldsen (Denmark); in architecture - J. A. Gabriel, K. N. Ledoux (France); in music – K. V. Gluck, W. A. Mozart (Austria).
The prominent representatives of the Baroque style in literature were Calderon (Spain), D. Milton (England); in painting - P. P. Rubens (born in Germany), in architecture - L. Bernini (Italy); in music - J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel (Germany), A. Vivaldi (Italy).
European art of the 18th century combined two different antagonistic principles: classicism and romanticism. Classicism meant the subordination of man to the social system, developing romanticism sought to maximize the strengthening of the individual, personal principle. However, the classicism of the 18th century changed significantly in comparison with the classicism of the 17th century, discarding in some cases one of the most characteristic features of the style - ancient classical forms. In addition, the "new" classicism of the Enlightenment, at its very core, was not alien to romanticism.
An important new beginning in the art of the 18th century was the emergence of trends that did not have their own stylistic form and did not feel the need to develop it. Such a major culturological trend was primarily sentimentalism, fully reflecting the enlightenment ideas about the original purity and goodness of human nature, lost along with the original "natural state" of society, its distance from nature. Sentimentalism was addressed primarily to the inner, personal, intimate world of human feelings and thoughts, and therefore did not require special stylistic design. Sentimentalism is extremely close to romanticism, the “natural” man he sings inevitably experiences the tragedy of a collision with natural and social elements, with life itself, which is preparing great upheavals, the anticipation of which fills the entire culture of the 18th century.
One of the most important characteristics of the culture of the Enlightenment is the process of replacing the religious principles of art with secular ones. Secular architecture in the 18th century for the first time takes precedence over church architecture in almost all of Europe. Obviously, the invasion of the secular principle into the religious painting of those countries where it previously played a major role - Italy, Austria, Germany. Genre painting, reflecting the artist's daily observation of the real life of real people, is becoming widespread in almost all European countries, sometimes striving to take the main place in art. The formal portrait, so popular in the past, is giving way
intimate portrait, and in landscape painting, the so-called “mood landscape” (Watto, Gainsborough, Guardi) arises and spreads in different countries.
A characteristic feature of the painting of the XVIII century is the increased attention to the sketch, not only among the artists themselves, but also among connoisseurs of works of art. Personal, individual perception, mood, reflected in the sketch, sometimes turn out to be more interesting and cause a greater emotional and aesthetic impact than the finished work. Drawing and engraving are valued more than paintings because they establish a more direct connection between viewers and the artist. The tastes and requirements of the era have changed and the requirements for color picturesque canvases. In the works of artists of the 18th century, the decorative understanding of color is enhanced, the picture should not only express and reflect something, but also decorate the place where it is located. Therefore, along with the subtlety of halftones and the delicacy of colors, artists strive for multicolor and even variegation.
The product of a purely secular culture of the Enlightenment was the style "rococo", which received the most perfect embodiment in the field of applied art. It also manifested itself in other areas where the artist has to solve decorative and design tasks: in architecture - in planning and decorating the interior, in painting - in decorative panels, murals, screens, etc. Rococo architecture and painting are primarily focused on creating comfort and grace for the person who will contemplate and enjoy their creations. Small rooms do not seem cramped thanks to the illusion of “playing space” created by architects and artists who skillfully use various artistic means for this: ornament, mirrors, panels, special colors, etc. The new style has become, first of all, the style of poor houses, in which, with a few tricks, he introduced the spirit of coziness and comfort without underlined luxury and pomposity. The eighteenth century introduced many household items that bring comfort and peace to a person, warning his desires, making them at the same time objects of genuine art.
An equally significant aspect of the culture of the Enlightenment was the appeal to the artistic means of capturing the sensations and pleasures of a person (both spiritual and bodily). Among the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment (Voltaire, Helvetius) one can find "gallant scenes" in which the protest against the sanctimonious morality of the time sometimes develops into frivolity. In France, from the very beginning of the 18th century, both the public and critics began to demand from the new art, above all, "pleasant". Such requirements were made to painting, and to music, and to the theater. "Pleasant" meant both "sensitive" and purely sensual. Voltaire's famous phrase "All genres are good, except boring" most clearly reflects this requirement of the time.
The attraction of visual arts to entertaining, narrative and literary explains its rapprochement with the theater. The 18th century is often referred to as the "golden age of the theatre". The names of Beaumarchais, Sheridan, Fielding, Gozzi, Goldoni constitute one of the brightest pages in the history of world drama.
The theater turned out to be close to the very spirit of the era. Life itself went to meet him, suggesting interesting plots and conflicts, filling old forms with new content. It is no coincidence that it was during the Enlightenment that the famous Venetian carnival became not just a holiday, but precisely a way of life, a form of life.
Music occupies an important place in the hierarchy of spiritual values in the 18th century. If the fine arts of the Rococo seek, above all, to decorate life, the theater -
expose and entertain, then the music of the Enlightenment strikes a person with the scale and depth of analysis of the most hidden corners of the human soul. The attitude towards music is also changing, which in the 17th century was just an applied instrument of influence both in the secular and in the religious spheres of culture. In France and Italy in the second half of the century, a new secular form of music, opera, flourished. In Germany and Austria, the most "serious" forms of musical works developed - the oratorio and the mass. The achievement of the musical culture of the Enlightenment, no doubt, is the work of Bach and Mozart.
The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by a craving for adventure, adventure, travel, the desire to penetrate into a different "cultural" space. She found her manifestation in magical operas with many extraordinary transformations, in tragicomedies, fairy tales, etc.
An outstanding contribution to the history of world culture was the publication of the fundamental Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, launched D. Diderot(1713-1784) and D "Alamber. The Encyclopedia systematized the most important scientific achievements of mankind and approved a system of cultural values that reflected the most progressive views of that time.
He fully reflected in himself the signs of the time, all its complexity and inconsistency - a philosopher, naturalist, poet and prose writer - Voltaire. One of the most profound and sharply satirical works of Voltaire "Candide, or the Optimist" fully reflected the general trends in the development of educational literature.
The founder of enlightenment romanticism in literature - J. J. Rousseau. His moral and aesthetic ideals are fully reflected in the most famous and significant novel "New Eloise". The followers of Russianism were Karamzin ("Poor Lisa"), Goethe ("The Suffering of Young Werther"), Chaderlo de Laclos ("Dangerous Liaisons").
The Age of Enlightenment was a major turning point in the spiritual development of Europe, which influenced almost all spheres of socio-political and cultural life. Having debunked the political and legal norms, the aesthetic and ethical codes of the old class society, the Enlighteners did a titanic work on creating a positive system of values, addressed primarily to a person, regardless of his social affiliation, which organically entered the flesh and blood of Western civilization. Kul-134
The tour heritage of the 18th century still amazes with its extraordinary diversity, richness of genres and styles, depth of comprehension of human passions, great optimism and faith in man and his mind.
Description of work
The 17th century turned out to be surprisingly favorable for the development of artistic culture. The successes of natural science have significantly expanded and complicated the concept of the world as a boundless, changeable and contradictory unity. The feeling of man's inextricable connection with this world, his dependence on the surrounding reality, on the conditions and circumstances of his existence dominated. That is why not only a person becomes the bearer of artistic creativity, but also the whole diversity of reality, its complex connections with a person. Accordingly, the themes of artistic creativity, the plot repertoire, became richer, new independent genres and styles were developed, those that had developed in previous cultural eras developed and deepened. In the 17th century, styles appeared almost simultaneously that had a national character and encompassed different types of art - classicism and baroque.
"The Artistic Culture of the Enlightenment" - History. Adam Smith. Art culture. Toccata and fugue. Daniel Defoe. Jean Baptiste Chardin. An ideological trend based on the belief in the decisive role of reason and science in cognition. Ludwig van Beethoven. From the market. Education. Jean Antoine Houdon. An embarrassing proposition. Oath of the Horatii. Moonlight Sonata. Jonathan Swift.
"Philosophy of Modern Times" - Educational material The dispute between empiricism and rationalism. 11. Deism is the recognition of God as the root cause of the development of nature. Key concepts The problem of being in the philosophy of modern times. For all specialties. Key concepts Mechanism as a feature of ontology. Mechanism is the absolutization of the laws of mechanics. God as the impersonal cause of the world (Galileo, Kepler, Newton).
"Age of Enlightenment 18th century" - People. social contract. Limited monarchy. Forms of government. Locke. Rousseau. Montesquieu. Kingdom of Reason (common good). Astronomy Medicine Physics Mathematics. Republic. Darkness Ignorance. Hobbes. Scientific discoveries of the 17th century Reformation Renaissance. N. Copernicus I. Newton G. Galileo W. Harvey D. Bruno R. Descartes.
"New Philosophy" - Philosophy of Crisis. But! “What the believer most hates is not the free mind, but the new mind with a new faith.” A person is known to himself not only from the outside, but also from the inside. Questions for self-examination: "Insight into Nietzsche." The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones. Antithesis to Enlightenment. Georg Hegel.
"Culture 17-18" - Splendor. Mannerism (artificial): Naturalness. Ease. Baroque. The printing industry is actively developing. Baroque: designed to glorify the monarchy and the aristocracy, to exalt the church. Light and color contrast. Realistic painting. Fancifulness of lines, ornaments. Brightness of colors. Broken contour lines.
"The Age of Enlightenment" - David. The artist and his wife. Friedrich Schiller. 16. Francis Bacon. Education. Reforming Monarchies of the Enlightenment. Descartes. French writer and philosopher - educator. Dutch painter of the late Renaissance. Rembrandt. Newton. Voltaire. "Fancy" style of European art of the 17th - 18th centuries.
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The 18th century in the history of Russia was truly fateful. It was a time of fundamental change brought about by Peter's reforms. With their transformations Peter I sharply turned Russia to the West. This turn and its consequences for the development of Russia and Russian culture became the subject of a sharp dispute between scientists and thinkers, which flared up with particular force in the 19th century. and continues to this day.
For some, the changes that had begun aroused the highest appreciation, delight and admiration, while others, on the contrary, appreciated them very much. critically. seeing in them the origins of all the subsequent troubles and misfortunes of Russia. In particular, the Russian religious philosopher P.Ya. Chaadaev gives a sharply negative assessment of the deeds of Peter, believing that he "dug an abyss between our past and our present."
The French philosopher and educator D. Diderot looks at Peter just as critically, believing that with his too hasty and forced Europeanization, he caused irreparable harm to Russia, depriving it of the opportunity to successfully master Western achievements in the future. Some authors reproach Peter for destroying the former integrity of Russian culture, making it torn, contradictory and sick, splitting it into two parts, one of which - the culture of the upper strata of society - lost the originality of Russian culture, became alien to the bulk of the people.
Supporters Peter's reforms hold a different point of view. So, the authoritative historian S.M. Solovyov believes that Europeanization turned out to be quite compatible with the cultural and historical development of Russia. In his opinion. With his reforms, Peter carried out what took place in the West during the Renaissance. Approximately the same opinion was held by the historian K.D. Kavelin.
Peter's reforms difficult to assess unambiguously were of a dual nature. First of all, the choice made by Peter between East and West in favor of the latter was historically necessary and therefore correct. Attempts to preserve the former original Russia in an unchanged form were hardly feasible, or they could lead to the loss of Russia's independence and independence, and at the same time to the disappearance of its originality.
The transformations begun by Peter caused the economic growth of Russia, allowed it to significantly expand its territory - due to the annexation of Crimea. Northern Black Sea region, Northern
Caucasus and western lands, turned it into a great and mighty empire. Thanks to the victories in the Northern and Turkish wars, Russia received the status of the Baltic and Black Sea powers. New large cities arose in it - St. Petersburg, which became the capital of the state, Sevastopol, Yekaterinoslav, Yekaterinodar, Yekaterinburg, Odessa, etc.
The high economic and military potential of Russia allowed her to exert a huge influence on the course of world history. At the same time, grandiose transformations become a difficult test for the people. For the creation of a new Russia, he had to pay a huge price.
The figure of Peter is also exceptionally complex and ambiguous. He possessed incredible willpower, inexhaustible energy, a firm and persistent character, and was gifted with many talents. His vigorous activity rested not only on the will, but also on broad knowledge and rich practical experience. Peter was a man of high culture. He knew two foreign languages (Dutch and German), was fluent in 14 crafts, had a sharp mind and imaginative thinking, and was endowed with a strong aesthetic sense.
Peter regretted that he could not work with both hands at the same time: hold a sword in his right hand and a pen in his left. This would allow him to do much more. He believed that the purpose of the state is internal and external security, and it must find its glory in art and science. Turning Russia to the West, he did not renounce the national culture and ancient traditions. He showed deep respect for the past, which was expressed in the construction of new churches, in special reverence for the work of Alexander Nevsky, whose remains were transferred to St. Petersburg, to the Nevsky Lavra specially built for this.
Although the era of "enlightened absolutism" in Russia is associated with Catherine II, in reality it was Peter who was the real enlightened monarch. The same can be said about the West. Europe did not know such a ruler as Peter, although the concept of "enlightened absolutism" is usually referred to it. Peter was rightly called the "northern giant." Emphasizing the scale of his outstanding personality, Pushkin noted that Peter "alone is the whole world history."
At the same time, his personality was not without extremes. In his deeds, will and arbitrariness sometimes took precedence over measure and reason. He is starting some of his reforms! without proper preparation, and during their implementation allowed excessive haste and impatience. His favorite expressions were "do not hesitate", "do this immediately." Maximalism and uncompromisingness of Peter sometimes turned into wild fury and merciless cruelty. This happened even in relation to his relatives, in particular to his son Alexei.
Practically all areas of public life were subjected to profound reforms - the state-administrative structure, the economy, the army, the Church, science and education, and artistic culture. The main content and nature of the ongoing reforms expressed two trends: secularization, i.e. secularization. the weakening of the religious and the strengthening of the secular principle in culture. as well as its Europeanization.
In 1711, instead of the former numerous Boyar Duma (up to 190 people), Peter I establishes Senate. consisting of 9 people appointed by the king himself. The criterion for selection to the Senate was only business qualities, and the former hereditary privileges were not taken into account. The Senate will act as the highest body for legislation and public administration.
Previously existing orders have been replaced by 12 boards (ministries), who were in charge of certain areas of public administration. The country was divided into provinces and counties. Thanks to these innovations, the state reached the highest degree of centralization and turned into an absolute monarchy.
Of utmost importance was Church reform which significantly limited the place and role of religion and the Church in the life of society. The main loss of the Orthodox Church is the abolition of the patriarchate. His place was taken by the Spiritual College, or Holy Synod, headed by the chief prosecutor, appointed by the king. In fact, the Synod differed little from other state institutions.
The church lost part of its lands and income, which significantly weakened its economic foundations. The clergy were placed on a par with other estates. Priests were charged with the duty not only to promote the ongoing reforms, but also to help the authorities in the search and detention of opponents of the reforms. At the same time, they were even required to violate the secrecy of confession: under pain of execution, the priests had to report on the intentions of those confessing to commit a crime against the state. As a result of all these measures, the Church was nationalized. She was completely dependent on secular power.
The Petrine era created favorable conditions for economic recovery. Russia begins to actively develop industrial production. The number of weaving and textile enterprises is growing rapidly in the country, especially in the production of cloth and wool. Ural becomes the center for metal smelting, which since the 20s. 18th century exported abroad. For the first time the industrial production of porcelain was organized.
Significant progress is observed in all material culture, in engineering and technology. Ural heat engineer I.P. Polzunov developed a project for a universal steam engine and built a steam power plant, ahead of the English inventor D. Watt. Self-taught mechanic I.P. Kulibin invented many mechanisms - a clock, a searchlight, a semaphore telegraph, developed a project for a bridge across the Neva. In agriculture, instead of a sickle, a scythe is used, stud farms are created, and cattle breeding is successfully developing. Peter I attached great importance to trade, calling it "the supreme owner of human destiny", and in every possible way contributed to its development. On his initiative, large fairs are organized, canals are built: Vyshnevolotsky has been built, and the construction of the Volga-Donskoy has begun.
The development of material culture and economy made it possible to modernize armies, which made it one of the most modern and strong. Horse artillery appears for the first time in the Russian army, hand grenades and a bayonet begin to be used. The main achievement in military affairs was the creation of the Russian fleet - beloved child of Peter.
Russian science of the XVIII century.
XVIII century became the time of creation in Russia systems of secular education and science, which were almost non-existent before. The profound transformations taking place in all areas of public life sharply posed the problem of raising the cultural and educational level of the population, which could not be solved without a broad networks of new educational institutions. In 1701, the Navigational School was opened on the Sukharev Tower in Moscow, which in 1715 was transferred to St. Petersburg, where the Naval Academy was created on its basis. A little later, according to the type of Navigatskaya, several more schools appeared - Engineering, Artillery and Medical.
In 1703, a private general education gymnasium by E. Gluck was opened in Moscow, which had the task of training personnel for scientific activities. The basis of primary education in the provincial cities was digital schools. In special schools for clerks, various kinds of officials were trained. At the largest manufactories - in the Urals and other places - vocational schools were opened. In 1722 the first commercial school appeared.
played an important role in the formation and development of science Petersburg Academy, created on the initiative of Peter and opened in 1725. Initially, the Academy consisted mainly of foreign scientists who expressed a desire to work in Russia. Many of them were world famous: mathematicians L. Euler and D. Bernoulli, physicist F. Aepinus, botanist P. Pallas. The first Russian academicians were geographer S.G1. Krasheninnikov, naturalist and traveler I.I. Lepekhin, astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky and others.
Unlike the Western ones, the Russian Academy did not deal with theology, being an entirely secular state institution. At the same time, she was closely associated with domestic art. In 1732, an art department was organized under her. With the strong support of the state, the Academy already in the first decades created world-class works.
An exceptional role in the development of domestic and world science was played by the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov(1711-1765), who became the first Russian member of the Academy in 1745. He was not only a great naturalist, but also a poet, philologist, artist, and historian. In terms of the scale of his personality, he was in no way inferior to the European titans of the Renaissance. Emphasizing the universal nature of his personality, A.S. Pushkin noted that "Lomonosov embraced all branches of education", that "he experienced everything and penetrated everything."
The most important milestone in the formation and development of Russian science and education was the foundation in 1755 of the Moscow University. Initially, it had three faculties: philosophy, medicine and law. Then it quickly became the largest center for training specialists in all branches of knowledge. In 1783, a The Russian Academy of Sciences, the first president of which is Princess E.R. Dashkov. The Academy also played a huge role in the development of domestic science. Her first major scientific achievement was the six-volume Dictionary of the Russian Academy, which contained interpretations of basic scientific terms and concepts. In general, it can be said with good reason that in the course of one century, Russian science has made a powerful leap forward. Starting almost from scratch, she was able to rise to the world level.
XVIII century was celebrated profound changes in public consciousness, a significant revival and upsurge of social thought. This was facilitated both by Peter the Great's transformations and by the growing and expanding contacts with European countries, thanks to which the ideas of Western rationalism, humanism, etc., penetrated into Russia. One of the important features of the changes taking place in the public consciousness is the weakening of the influence of religious ideology, the strengthening of the secular, scientific and rational principles. The second essential feature is the desire to comprehend the past and present of Russia, which was accompanied by the growth of national self-awareness.
A major Russian thinker of the 18th century. was Feofan Prokopovich, contemporary and associate of Peter. In his works (“The Word of the Power and Honor of the Tsar”, “The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs”, etc.), he develops the Russian version of the concept of enlightened absolutism. Based on the European ideas of natural law, the social contract and the common good, and combining them with Russian features, Prokopovich. being an admirer of Peter, he glorified his deeds in every possible way and presented him as a model of an enlightened monarch. He was also the ideologist of reforming the Church, substantiating the need for its subordination to the state.
I.T. was an interesting and profound self-taught thinker. Pososhkov, author of The Book of Poverty and Wealth. Being a supporter of Peter, at the same time he stood in opposition to the nobility, expressing and defending the interests of the peasantry, merchants and artisans.
Works devoted to understanding the past of Russia V.N. Tatishcheva- the first major Russian historian who wrote "Russian History from the Most Ancient Times." In it, he traces the history of Russia from Rurik to Peter I.
- a writer and philosopher - occupies a special place in the spiritual life of Russia. He developed the concept of the Russian Enlightenment in its radical, revolutionary form. In his main work, Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, the writer painted a vivid picture of the terrible situation of the serfs, in which he saw the deep sources of future upheavals in Russia. Radishchev proposed a blueprint for reforms from above, which were democratic in nature and included the emancipation of the peasants.
Russian literature of the XVIII century.
Art culture Russia XVIII century. also undergoing profound changes. It is becoming increasingly secular in nature, experiencing growing influence from the West. By the middle of the century, the main European styles were fully formed in it: classicism and baroque.
In literature, classicism is represented by A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov. The first of them achieved literary fame with his satires. Because of the witticisms, jokes and sarcasm they contained, directed against those in power and the clergy, he made powerful enemies at court, which delayed their publication for three decades.
Trediakovsky is the author of the poem Tilemakhida. He also made a significant contribution to the theory of literature, having developed the principles of Russian versification, influenced the poetry of V.A. Zhukovsky. A.A. Delviga, N.I. Gnedich. Many of his subsequent works were also written in the form of odes, which had a deep philosophical content and a high civil sound. In addition, he is the author of tragedies, satires and epigrams. Some of his works are close to baroque in style.
Russian architecture of the XVIII century.
AT architecture Western influence was the strongest. The new capital of Russia - Saint Petersburg represented a sharp contrast to Moscow. The city of Petra was created on completely new principles of urban planning, which had an ensemble character, resting on the strict planning of streets, squares, administrative buildings and palaces. Until recently, it was St. Petersburg that was considered a real modern city, while Moscow was often called a “big village”. Some admirers of the handsome St. Petersburg suggested calling it the "eighth wonder of the world" - in addition to the well-known "seven wonders".
Only today, in connection with the emergence of postmodern architecture, which caused a reassessment of values, Moscow has again risen above St. Petersburg in its architectural significance.
Russian classicism in the architecture of the XVIII century. represented I.E. Sgarov, D. Quarenghi, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov. The first of them built the Tauride Palace and the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg. Quarenghi created the Concert Hall pavilion and the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo (now Pushkin), the Hermitage Theater and the Assignation Bank in St. Petersburg. Bazhenov and Kazakov worked in Moscow. The first owns the magnificent Pashkov house, and the second owns the old building of Moscow University, the Senate in the Kremlin, and the First City Hospital.
Russian baroque in architecture found a vivid embodiment in the work of D. Trezzini and V.V. Rastrelli. The first built the "building of the Twelve Collegia" (now the university), the Summer Palace of Peter I and the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg. The second is the Winter Palace (now the Hermitage) and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo.
Russian painting of the 18th century
The 18th century was the heyday of Russian painting. Russian portrait painting rises to the level of the best examples of European art. The founders of the portrait genre are A.M. Matveev and I.N. Nikitin. The first wrote "Self-portrait with his wife" and paired portraits of the Golitsyn spouses. The most famous works of the second - "Outdoor Hetman", "Peter I on his deathbed."
Portrait painting reaches its highest peak in creativity F.S. Rokotova, D .G. Levitsky and V.L. Borovikovsky. The first became famous for the paintings “Unknown in a Pink Dress” and “V.E. Novosiltsov. Levitsky created the paintings "Kokorinov", "M.A. Dyakova. Borovikovsky owns the famous painting “M.I. Lopukhin. Along with portraiture, historical painting is successfully developing. She is represented by A .P. Losenko. who painted the paintings “Vladimir and Rogneda”, “Farewell of Hector to Andromache”. The artist also worked in the portrait genre.
In the XVIII century. modern sculpture is born and successfully develops in Russia. Here, too, the leading place is occupied by a portrait. The most significant achievements are related to creativity F.I. Shubin, working in the spirit of classicism. He created bust portraits
A.M. Golitsyna, M.P. Panina, M.V. Lomonosov. Created in the Baroque style B. Rastrelli. His best work is "Empress Anna Ivanovna with a black child". In the genre of monumental sculpture, the most famous creation is the Bronze Horseman, created by E. Falcone.
In the XVIII century. significant changes are taking place in music, although not as deep as in other art forms. A new national instrument is being created - balalaika(1715). Since the middle of the century, the guitar has become widespread. Church singing continues to develop successfully. choral music. At the same time, new genres are emerging. In particular, military music appears, performed by brass bands. Chamber-instrumental, operatic and symphonic music appeared. Many aristocrats start home orchestras. The work of D.S. deserves special mention. Bortnyansky, who created wonderful choral works, as well as the operas "Falcon", "Rival Son".
In the XVIII century. the first professional Russian theater is born. Its creator was a great actor F.G. Volkov.
Profound changes affected not only the considered areas of culture, but the whole way of everyday life. Here, one of the main changes was related to introduction of a new chronology and calendar. According to Peter's decree, instead of the previous counting of the years from the "Creation of the World", it was now prescribed to count the years from the Nativity of Christ. those. from January 1, 1700, as was customary in European countries. Truth. Europe used the Gregorian calendar, and the Julian one was introduced in Russia. By Peter's decree, a new tradition was also established - solemnly celebrate the "New Year and the centenary", decorating the gates of houses with pine, spruce and juniper branches, arranging shooting, games and fun.
According to another decree of Peter, a new form of communication between people was introduced - assemblies. They gathered representatives of the upper strata of society for recreation and fun in dancing, casual conversations, playing chess and checkers. The tradition of bilingualism also enters into the daily life of the court nobility. Under Peter and Anna, the German language spread, and starting with Elizabeth, French. The influence of French culture was also manifested in that. that the ladies of the noble society begin to play music on the harpsichord.
Significant changes are taking place in clothing. Old Russian long robes are giving way to German caftans, short and narrow European clothes. Men of the upper strata of society are losing their beards. Among the court nobility, European rules of etiquette and secular manners of behavior are being established. The rules of good manners among the children of the nobility are promoted by the book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or an Indication for Worldly Behavior”, popular at that time.
Cultural transformations and innovations of the XVIII century. concerned mainly the privileged classes of Russian society. They hardly affected the lower classes. They led to the destruction of the former organic unity of Russian culture. In addition, these processes were not without costs and extremes, when some representatives of the highest circles of society completely forgot the Russian language and culture, Russian traditions and customs. Nevertheless, objectively they were necessary and inevitable. Cultural transformations contributed to the overall development of Russia. Without a modern secular culture, Russia would not be able to claim a worthy place among the advanced countries.
XVIII - XIX in. RUSSIAN CULTURE.
1. The culture of the Russian Enlightenment and the reforms of Peter 1.
2. Culture of the Petersburg period.
3. Russian culture in XIX century. The golden age of Russian culture.
The main content of the Petrine reforms was the division of the previously unified culture into secular and religious.
New phenomena in Russian life were: libraries and a public theater, a cabinet of curiosities (the first museum). Academy of Sciences, parks and park sculpture, palace architecture and navy.
However, those who carried out reforms with the too “firm” hand of the tsar acquired not only supporters (F. Prokopovich, I.T. Pososhkov, V.N. Tatishchev), but also opponents, such as Prince Mikhail Shcherbatov (1733-1790) (historian, writer) , who, after the death of Peter 1, wrote in his works “On the Damage to Morals in Russia”, the seven-volume “Russian History from Ancient Times”, that enlightenment spoils morals. He idealized the pre-Petrine antiquity as integral and pure in morals, and as a result of the historical process - the decline of faith and morals, and depravity. He saw the reason for this in the invasion of a foreign external culture.
Outstanding educator XVIII century in Russia - Princess E.R. Dashkova (1744-1810), who received a rare European education in her childhood, a supporter of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, could not agree with the cruelty and violence of the Petrine reforms. She noted the inhuman conditions of the builders of St. Petersburg, sleeping thousands who died of disease and hunger, during the construction of the Trinity Harbor near Taganrog, the construction of which was led by Peter 1. Huge human and material sacrifices during the deepening of the Kronstadt fairway, and most importantly, the humiliation of the human dignity of representatives of all classes, especially clergy.
The attitude of Peter 1 to the old church and religiosity Berdyaev compared with the Bolsheviks - "Peter ridiculed the religious feelings of antiquity, arranged an all-joke council with a jester's patriarch." The Church, after such an enormous role as it has played in the past, has occupied a modest position in political and private life. The religious schism intensified, which gave rise to a civil schism, sowing distrust in the government among the people. And as a result of this, the currents of Slavophiles and Westernizers appeared, and then the Eurasians. And as a result, an intelligentsia was formed, which, exaggerating the size and nature of the evil of the old Russian life, brought this split to the revolution and the death of the Great Russian culture.
But to deny the great significance of the reforms of Peter 1 means not to recognize statehood, which ensures Russia's two hundred years of existence among the main European powers.
The main stages of this period are;
1. The emergence of secular schools (the first navigation and artillery in 1701, medical, where teaching was equated with service, in 1714). Nobles began to be sent to study abroad, and a special decree of 1714 forbade illiterate nobles to marry. In the second half XVIII century in Russia there were about 20 vocational schools. Textbooks appeared - "Arithmetic" by Magnitsky (1703). Since 1708, a simplified civil script and Arabic numerals have been introduced for printing books. In 1714 the first State Library was created. In 1719, the first Russian museum, the Kunstkamera, was opened.
2. The growth of industry is accompanied by the rise of natural sciences: geographers studied the Caspian and Aral Seas, V. Atlasov, an Ustyug peasant, compiled the first description of Kamchatka, in 1720 the first scientific expedition of M. Schmidt was sent to Siberia, miners found coal in the Moscow region and Kuznetsk , silver and copper - in Transbaikalia.
3. The result of Peter's reforms in the field of science and education was the opening in St. Petersburg in 1725 of the Academy of Sciences, which combined research and teaching functions. Peasants M. Lomonosov, M. Golovin, soldiers' children I. Lepekhin S. Krashennikov were among the first academicians of Russian science. The discovery of M. Lomonosov was of world significance: the atomic-molecular hypothesis of the structure of matter, the law of conservation of matter and motion laid the foundations of new sciences - physical chemistry and astrophysics. M. Lomonosov created the historical work "Ancient Russian History". Textbooks on grammar, rhetoric, completed the reform of Russian versification. Science in Russia developed as part of world science.
4. Peter's inner circle consisted of people known not for their generosity, but for their business qualities (Menshikov, Kurbatov, Shakhirov).
5. Europeanization affected Russian life: the reckoning from the birth of Christ (January 1), shaving of beards, clothes of European cut, clothing material - wool from factories that were developed under Peter 1. Assemblies, which were introduced by decree of the tsar from 1718, became a symbol of the era years is a new form of communication for the upper circle of noble society: they danced, talked, played chess, drank coffee.
6. The transformation affected only the nobility, and almost did not touch the peasantry. In the era of Peter 1, a split in society and culture began into Western European culture and civilization, and folk, peasant.
7. Petrovsky Decrees regulated not only the appearance of a person, dwelling, but also his whole life from birth to death.
Each person born into the world was entered in the register of births, instituted at the church, in order to identify him in time to the school, the office, to assign a poll tax. The deceased even had to be buried in a coffin of the established pattern.
Peter embodied the idea of introducing "regularity" into everyday life - the main element of which was the military reform.
The idea of "regularity" was embodied in the organizing role of the state in relation to culture, its financing, and training.
Many cultural figures were in the public service and received a salary - M.S. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin, F.G. Volkov.
Peter 1 had the peculiarity to delve into all the details, from the reforms he was carrying out to the arrangement of gardens and parks in St. Petersburg.
2. Culture of the Petersburg period XVIII century.
The center of cultural transformations and the emergence of a new culture was the new capital of the state - St. Petersburg.
Petersburg was conceived as a model of a new culture. A city development plan was developed, for the first time a Russian city was built according to the rules: straight streets, the height of houses according to the rules of architecture of that period, semicircular squares, three-beam streets, boulevards.
Architect Leblon (student of Andre Le Nôtre, chief architect under Louis XIV ) developed a plan for the development of the city. The architect Trezzini built the Peter and Paul Cathedral. In the middle XVIII century Rastrelli, in the Baroque style, built the ensemble of the Smolny Cathedral, the Winter Palace, the Grand Palace in Tsarskoye Selo and Peterhof. Russian architect A. Kokorin, in the style of classicism, built the building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. Outstanding Russian architects V. Bazhenov, M. Kazakov in the style of classicism created many beautiful buildings in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver.
In 1757, the Russian Imperial Academy of Arts was opened, in which a new generation of artists grew up: F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovikovsky (portrait painters).
Monumental sculpture is developing: Ivan Martos creates sculptures in the style of classicism (a monument to Minin and Pozharsky). Sculptors I. Prokofiev, F. Shubin (busts of Lomonosov, Potemkin), E. Falcone (The Bronze Horseman).
AT
XVII
century
going on
secularization
culture,
those.
strengthening of secular principles in the cultural
life
1. The development of education in Russia.
Publication of textbooks, for example "Grammar"
Melenty Smotrytsky
An increase in the number of literate people among
nobility and townspeople Russian culture of the 17th-18th centuries
1687 – Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy
- the first institution of higher education
in
Russia, founders - Likhud brothers
2. Development of literature in Russia.
-historical stories: "The Tale of Azov
sitting", the first printed historical work
"Synopsis" (author I. Gizel) - a brief overview
Russian history
- the tendency of the transformation of hagiographic literature
in
autobiographical
story,
eg
"Life" of Avvakum Russian culture of the 17th-18th centuries
- Formation of a new genre in literature -
satirical, for example "The Tale of Shemyakin
court", "The Tale of Ersh Ershovich"
- Formation of versification - verses of Simeon
Polotsky
3. Architecture
- The transition from the cross-domed
tent style
temple
to
- An attempt to preserve the traditional five domes
- The emergence of a new style -
(Moscow) baroque
"Naryshkinskoe" Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl (1693-1694) Michael the Archangel Cathedral in Nizhny Novgorod (1628-1631) Church of the Intercession in Fili (1693-1694) Novodevichy Convent in Moscow Terem Palace (1635–1637) built under Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich
architects B. Ogurtsov, A. Konstantinov, L. Ushakov and T.
Sharutin. This is the first stone building in Rus', designed
for everyday life, and not for ceremonial receptions (formerly
residential buildings were built only of wood) Wooden architecture
Palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye Pokrovskaya
church in
Kizhi,
1714 Russian culture of the 17th-18th centuries
4. Painting
Icon painting by Simon Ushakov - an attempt
reflections of earthly beauty in art
Icon
Vladimirskaya
mother of God
Savior Not Made by Hands, 1676 Russian culture of the 17th-18th centuries
The formation of secular portraiture
character.
Parsuna - the transition from the icon to the secular portrait
Fedor Ivanovich
M.V. Skopin-Shuisky
Patriarch Nikon Russian culture of the 17th-18th centuries
5. Theater
1672 - the emergence of the court theater under
Pastor Gregory's guidance Russian culture of the 17th-18th centuries
First quarter of the 18th century – Europeanization “from above” –
specific feature of cultural transformations
- Leading
role
states
in
"plantation"
cultural transformation
- sharp
acceleration
formation
secular
nature of culture
-Collision
traditional
and
European modernization beginnings in the process of cultural
transformations
-Folding "two cultures" - Europeanized
the culture of the "tops" and the traditional culture of the "bottom" Europeanization
clothes
leisure
(introduction of assemblies (1718),
smoking, drinking coffee)
appearance
(shaving beards,
wearing wigs) The appearance of books about
etiquette ("Youth
honest mirror) Russian culture of the 17th-18th centuries
1. Development of education
- Schools open
A) professional (Navigation, Artillery,
Engineering)
B) "digital" - for teaching children of nobles to read and write
and officials
C) publication of textbooks ("Arithmetic" by L. Magnitsky)
- Font reform (1798 - appearance
civil font)
-The appearance of the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti"
(1702) 2. Development of scientific knowledge
A) technicians and mechanics (lathe
A. Nartova)
B) geology, astronomy, medicine,
geography, history
C) 1719 - the first Museum of the Kunstkamera
1724 – opening of the Russian Academy
Sciences
Kunstkamera building, architects
Georg Mattarnovi, N. V. Gerbel,
M.G. Zemtsov, S.I. Chevakinsky, R.R.
Marfeld, 1718-1734 2. Architecture
The formation of a common European style
architecture
- regular layout
-priority of stone architecture over
wooden
-dominance of secular principles
Construction of St. Petersburg
Building of the twelve colleges, architects Domenico Trezzini, Teodor
Schwertfeger, 1722-1742 Architectural style - "Peter's Baroque"
Summer Palace of Peter the Great
D. Trezzini
Menshikov Palace,
D. M. Fontana, G.I. Schedel 2. Painting
Becoming secular
art. domination
portrait genre
M. Matveev "Self-portrait with his wife" I. Nikitin,
outdoor portrait
Hetman
I. Nikitin,
Peter I on death
bed Mid 18th century
1) Development of science and technology
20-40s – Kamchatka
expeditions (V. Bering and
A. Chirikov confirmed the strait
between Asia and America)
1755 - opening of the Moscow
University (M.V. Lomonosov)
2) Literature
Unknown artist
Transition to classicism
"Portrait of Lomonosov"
A. Kantemir, V. Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov,
A. Sumarokov
3) Architecture
Baroque style statement Winter Palace, B. Rastrelli,
1757-1762
Anichkov Palace, M. Zemtsov,
1741-1753 Big
Catherine's
palace, B. Rastrelli,
1752-1756
Nikolsky Naval Cathedral,
S. Chevakinsky
Smolny Cathedral, V.Rastrelli Mid 18th century
4) painting
1757 – opening of the Academy of Arts
A. Argunov "Portrait
unknown in
Russian costume"
A. Antropov "Portrait
Catherine II" 5) Theater
The formation of the state professional
Russian theater
1756 – A. Sumarokov and F. Volkov
Portrait of F. Volkov,
A. Losenko, 1763 Second half of the 18th century
1. Education
The network of educational institutions is expanding
(the principle of class is preserved)
1764 – Smolny Institute
noble maidens
Educational home in Moscow for
illegitimate
children (foundlings) and orphans.
Organized by I. Betskoy
1773 – Mining School in St. Petersburg 2. Science and technology
I. Polzunov
1763 - developed the project
universal steam engine
1765 – created for factory
needs a steam engine
I. Kulibin
1773-1775 - Created a telescope
developed a single-arch project
bridge across the Neva River, created
"mirror lantern" - prototype
searchlights, designed and built
for Catherine II palace elevator 3. Architecture
In the second half of the 18th century in
architecture is dominated by the style of classicism
(strictness, clear symmetry, modest
strict external design)
4. Sculpture
Two trends have emerged:
1) Realistic (creativity of F. Shubin)
2) Classicism (creativity of E. Falcone) Saint Petersburg
M
Tauride Palace, I. Starov
marble palace,
A. Rinaldi
A.Struyskoy
V.Borovikovsky.
Portrait of E. Naryshkina
V.Borovikovsky.
Portrait of M. Lopukhina
A. Losenko, "Vladimir and Rogneda" D. Levitsky, portrait
E. Khovanskaya and E. Khrushcheva
D. Levitsky, portrait
E. Nelidova
