One of the methods of teaching languages in the 19th-20th century was “immersion” in the language, which was possible when receiving home education, when everyone from the nanny to the parents spoke a foreign language (often English, French and German) to surround a child with a foreign speech, so that he learns it from early childhood. This method was popular among representatives of the middle and upper classes, as it required, first of all, considerable funds to pay nannies, governesses, teachers and, of course, the possibility of practical application (balls, court meetings, acquaintances with foreigners, and so on) .
It should be said that the methodology and principles of teaching languages were based, to a large extent, on the work of the professors of Moscow University “Method of Teaching”, which was intended for teachers of gymnasiums, boarding schools and for home teachers.
Books that should have been used for learning languages (according to the above work):
1) Primer and alphabet;
2) Grammar book;
3) Recipe;
4) Dictionary.
How did they study languages in institutions? Take, for example, the Academic Gymnasium in St. Petersburg.
At the Academic Gymnasium, students studied German, French and Latin. The German language, for example, began to be taught in the 5th grade, students learned to read (for example, the Bible), write in German and studied German grammar. From the 6th grade, students have already begun to translate simple texts. The most popular textbooks for learning the German language were those by Ivanov, Shvanovich and Sharmint. For example, in Ivanov's book, which, unlike Charmint's book, each page was divided into two columns, with parallel text in Russian and German (Sharmint's book was entirely in German) and was divided into four main chapters: “Orthographia ”, “Etymologia”, “Syntaxis” and “Prosodia”. Therefore, it could be used not only to teach the rules of grammar, but also spelling and pronunciation. German calendars were also used for reading and translation. As for oral practice, the book “School Dialogues” (“Schul-Gespräche, Dialogues”) was used. As homework assignments, the students had to memorize parts of German works and poetry.
In the 19th-20th centuries, special attention, when studying a language, was paid to grammatical correctness, the practical study of grammar, and the translation of not individual words, but coherent texts. Students should be able to retell and ask questions about the text.
The idea of how foreign languages should be taught was expressed by Wilhelm Fietor in his pamphlet "The teaching of foreign languages must be radically changed" in 1882, where it is said:
1. The language does not consist of letters, but of sounds, therefore, it is necessary to put oral speech, and not written language, as the basis for teaching a foreign language. Particular attention should be paid to pronunciation;
2. The language consists of sentences, not words, so the original should be a sentence, not individual words;
3. Learning should be based on a coherent text, not isolated sentences;
4. Grammar should be acquired practically, inductively, by observing the text, learned first orally;
5. The main way of learning a new language is imitation, and not the construction of sentences from words according to the rules of grammar based on translation from the native language into a foreign one;
6. Translation is an art, it has nothing to do with school.
In the 19th century, throughout the century, disputes continued about what should be considered the basis of the Russian national language, what role should Church Slavonic play in the development of its styles, how to relate to the common language and vernacular?
Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (an outstanding historian, the largest Russian writer of the era of sentimentalism, an honorary member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (1818), the creator of the History of the Russian State (volumes 1-12, 1803-1826) - one of the first generalizing works on the history of Russia.), his followers and Slavophiles, headed by Alexander Semenovich Shishkov (writer, public figure, minister of public education).
N. M. Karamzin believed that the Russian language is too difficult to express thoughts and needs to be processed. The transformation of the language, according to Karamzinists, requires its release from the consequences of the influence of the Church Slavonic language. Focus should be on new European languages, especially French. The Russian language must be given lightness, made simple and understandable to a wide range of readers. To do this, it is necessary to exclude archaic and professional Slavic and clericalisms, special terms for various crafts and sciences, and rude vernacular. On the other hand, the language needs to create new words, to expand the semantics of old words to designate concepts introduced into everyday life, mainly in secular society. Karamzin created and put into circulation the words: love, public, future, industry, humanity, generally useful, achievable, perfect, which are still relevant today. Karamzin's statements reveal his predilection for the aestheticism of the word, his unwillingness to broadly democratize literary speech.
The Slavophiles, their inspirer A. S. Shishkov, considered Old Slavonic as the primitive language of all mankind and believed that it should become the basis of Russian literary speech. According to him, there are only stylistic differences between Church Slavonic and Russian. As proof, Shishkov suggested comparing the expressions: "the young maiden trembles" and "the young maiden trembles»; "bending his head on the hand" and "lowering his head on the palm of».
Representatives of the democratically minded Russian intelligentsia, expressing their attitude to the activities of Karamzin and Shishkov in the field of reforming the Russian literary language and its styles, emphasized that the issue of a new literary language should not be resolved without taking into account the problem of nationality, without determining the role of living folk speech in the structure of the national language . In this regard, the work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century is indicative, they proved what inexhaustible possibilities live folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is. A. S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator contemporary Russian literary language. A. S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle proportionality and conformity. Therefore, unlike the Karamzinists and Shishkovists, he did not reject Old Slavonicisms, did not oppose the use of words borrowed from the French language, did not consider it impossible or shameful to use common and colloquial words. The 19th century is called the golden age of Russian literature and the Russian language.
Features of the formation of the modern Russian language in the XIX century.
1. Unprecedented flourishing of Russian literature. The work of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others is gaining universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. Achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are receiving worldwide recognition.
2. The development of literature, journalism, science contributes to the further development and enrichment of the Russian national language. The vocabulary is replenished with new socio-political, philosophical, economic, technical terminology: worldview, integrity, self-determination, proletariat, humanity, education, isolation, reality, lack of rights, feudal lord, serfdom, owner, self-control, self-government, impressionability, agrarian, articulation, agglomeration, crystallization, horizon, copy and many others. others Phraseology is enriched: center of gravity, bring to one denominator, negative value, reach apogee, enter a new phase, along an inclined plane and etc.
3. Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology: agitate, intelligentsia, intellectual, conservative, maximum, minimum, progress, international, communism, culture, civilization, real, individual and many others. others
4. Fiction serves as the basis for replenishing Russian phraseology and the formation of new words. For example: And the chest just opened; The tit did glory, but did not light the sea; Ay, Pug, know that she is strong, that she barks at an elephant; And Vaska listens and eats; A helpful fool is more dangerous than an enemy; I did not even notice the elephant; The bad songs of a nightingale in the cat's claws; Like a squirrel in a wheel (Krylov); Woe from the mind; We make noise, brothers, we make noise; Went into a room, got into another; Carriage for me, carriage; Well, how not to please your dear little man; Is it possible to choose a nook for walking further away (Griboyedov); administrative delight (Dostoevsky); bunglers, crucian idealist, watchful eye, stupidity, Judas, soft-bodied intellectual (Saltykov-Shchedrin).
5. The rapid development of science, the steady growth of magazine and newspaper production contributed to the formation of functional styles of the literary language - scientific and journalistic.
6. One of the most important features of the literary language as the highest form of the national language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, the process of processing the national language was going on in order to create unified grammatical, lexical, spelling, orthoepic norms. These norms are theoretically substantiated in the works of Vostokov, Buslaev, Potebnya, Fortunatov, Ovsyaniko-Kulikovskiy, Shakhmatov; are described and approved in the grammars of Vostokov, Grech, Kalaidovich, Grot, etc.
7. The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries(historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words) that appear in the 19th century. For the first time questions of the theory of lexicography are developed.
Branch of St. Petersburg State University of Engineering and Economics in Cherepovets
Department of Socio-Humanitarian Disciplines
TEST
In the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech"
Topic No. 2 "Russian national language of the 18th - 19th centuries"
StudentsIcourse
Group 4 FCC-08
Lyubavicheva V.E.
Cherepovets
Russian national languageXVIII - XIX centuries…..…………………………..……………….….3
References……………………………………………………………………………..11
The Russian national language belongs to the Slavic group of Indo-European languages. In the language in the fullest way - and, moreover, in the understanding of the people themselves - all stages of the history of the people from further times are imprinted, all the steps along which the movement of its culture was directed. Therefore, the rich past of the people, the intensive development of its culture is the key to the rich and powerful development of the very language of this people.
An indispensable component of a person's national identity is a sense of pride in their native language, which embodies the cultural and historical traditions of the people.
The state of the Russian language is currently a real problem for the state, for the whole society. This is explained by the fact that the entire historical experience of the people is concentrated and represented in the language: the state of the language testifies to the state of the society itself, its culture, its mentality. Disorder and vacillation in society, the decline of morality, the loss of characteristic national features - all this affects the language, leading to its decline.
The development of the Russian language in different eras took place at different rates. An important factor in the process of its improvement was the mixing of languages, the formation of new words and the displacement of old ones. The Russian literary language began its formation in Kievan Rus. In the ancient Russian state, during the period of fragmentation, territorial dialects and adverbs developed, and the Old Church Slavonic language became such a language. The history of its origin and formation in Russia is connected with the Byzantine policy of the Russian princes and with the mission of the brothers - monks Cyril and Methodius. The interaction of Old Slavonic and Russian spoken language made possible the formation of the Old Russian language.
A new significant stage in the development of the language is associated with the development of the Russian people into a nation - during the period of the growing role of the Muscovite state and the unification of Russian lands. At this time, the influence of the Church Slavonic language weakened, the development of dialects ceased, and the role of the Moscow dialect increased.
The preservation of the language, concern for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture. It is necessary to have an idea about the development and position of the Russian language in different periods of its existence, since the present is deeply and comprehensively comprehended, known only in comparison with the past.
The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, who formed the Old Russian people within the Kievan state in the 9th century. In the XIV-XV centuries, as a result of the collapse of the Kievan state, on the basis of a single language of the ancient Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which, with the formation of nations, took shape in national languages.
The Russian national language begins to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development of capitalist relations and the development of the Russian people into a nation. The phonetic system, grammatical structure, and the main vocabulary of the Russian national language are inherited from the language of the Great Russian people, which has developed in the process of interaction between the northern Great Russian and southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north and the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. It was the Moscow business vernacular that had a significant impact on the development of the national language. During the period of its formation, firstly, the development of new dialect features in dialects stops, although the old dialect features turn out to be very stable. Secondly, the influence of the Church Slavonic language is weakening. Thirdly, a literary language of a democratic type is developing, based on the traditions of the business language of Moscow.
An important stage in the development of the Russian national language was the 18th century. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. The democratization of the language was required, the introduction of elements of live colloquial speech into its structure.
Of greatest interest for understanding the formation and development of the literary language is the 18th century, when progressive-minded circles of society tried to raise the authority of the Russian language, to prove its viability as the language of science and art.
In society, there is an understanding of the role of the Russian language as a distinctive feature of the Russian people. main role in the theoretical substantiation of the meaning of the Russian language played by M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a "Russian grammar", which has theoretical and practical meaning: ordering of the literary language and development rules for the use of its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have a need for grammar. Stupid oratorio, tongue-tied poetry, unfounded philosophy, incomprehensible history, dubious jurisprudence without grammar. Lomonosov pointed to two features of the Russian language, which made it one of the most important world languages:
"the vastness of the places where he reigns"
"your own space and contentment."
Possessing talent, vast knowledge, passionately desiring to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he creates the first in Russian "Russian Grammar", in which for the first time he presents the scientific system of the Russian language, creates a set of grammatical rules, shows how to take advantage of its rich potential. It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language as a means of communication, he constantly emphasized what people needed for “consistent common affairs of a flow that is controlled by the combination of different thoughts”, i.e. necessary for joint activities, its organization. According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and dormant, which makes their very “existence vain and useless.”
Wishing to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable for most students, M.V. Lomonosov argued that Russian professors should also teach in Russian at the first Russian university.
About the superiority of the Russian language over others, about the undeserved disdain for the Russian language, about its underestimation on the part of not only foreigners, but also Russians themselves, M.V. Lomonosov wrote in the preface to the Russian Grammar: “The master of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where he dominates, but also by his own space and contentment, he is great before everyone in Europe. Incredibly, this will seem foreign to some natural Russians, who applied more to foreign languages than to their own. And further: “Charles V, the Roman emperor, used to say that it was decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with women. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would add to that that it was decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would find in it the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, richness and strength in images brevity of Greek and Latin.
In the 18th century, the Russian language was updated and enriched at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language, its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical. However, excessive enthusiasm for foreign words did not contribute to the clarity and accuracy of the expression of thought. Peter the Great was forced to issue an order according to which "it was prescribed to write everything in Russian, without using foreign words and terms," since "it is impossible to understand the matter itself" from the abuse of other people's words.
Thus, an emotionally rich stream of Western European gallant phraseology flows into the Russian literary language of the early 18th century, which corresponded to the changed secular etiquette and Europeanized forms of secular manners, especially in the relationship between a man and a woman in secular society. Phraseology in its lexical composition reveals the forms of a motley, inorganic mixture of different languages and styles typical of the Petrine era. The lexical basis of both the lyrical and narrative style continues to be Church Slavonicisms and, in general, the words and expressions of the old church-literary language. The morphology of this language also adjoins here - archaic forms of declension with softening of back-lingual ones: forms of declension of non-member participles and the comparative degree of adjectives. This language does not do without the participation of command vocabulary.
And finally, the Russian colloquial and everyday vernacular and the reflection of folk poetry appear in a very peculiar form. In fact, the vernacular of the city plays a prominent role in this new style - a secular expression of chivalry and erotic languor.
The struggle against the dominance of foreigners in the highest government and bureaucratic apparatus, the growth of national self-consciousness in Russian society in the 40s of the 18th century were reflected in the understanding of the literary functions of the Church Slavonic language, especially in the sphere of high syllable.
The desire to limit the increase in "Europeanisms", to eradicate the distortion of the Russian language into German or French, led to a reassessment of the historical role of the Church Slavonic language in the system of the national Russian literary language. The question of the regulation of literary styles on the basis of mixing in various doses and proportions of the Church Slavonic language with the Russian people acquired unusual urgency.
With his numerous scientific works, M.V. Lomonosov contributes to the formation of a scientific language. A scientist who made many discoveries in various fields of knowledge, he was forced to create scientific and technical terminology. He owns the words that have not lost their significance and the present: atmosphere, fires, degree, air pump, matter, circumstance, shaking, electricity, thermometer and others.
In 1771, the Free Russian Assembly was established in Moscow. Its members are professors, university students, writers, poets, for example, M. M. Kheraskov, V. I. Maikov, D. I. Fonvizin, A. N. Sumarokov. The main task of the society is to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. In addition, it sought to draw attention to the Russian language, to promote its dissemination and enrichment.
The propaganda of the Russian language was helped by the magazine Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word, the first issue of which was published in 1783. It published works only by Russian authors, there were no translations. The purpose of the magazine is to serve for the benefit of native speech.
By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century preferred use of native Russian elements oral and written speech of the Russian language becomes a sign of patriotism, respect for one's nation, one's culture. This is precisely what the publicist F.N. Glinka, a participant in the Patriotic War of 1812, emphasizes, speaking of Suvorov: “Suvorov knew French very well, but he always spoke Russian, he was a Russian commander.” Favorite heroes of Leo Tolstoy, living at that time (“War and Peace”), mostly speak their native, Russian language.
The writer, historiographer N.M. Karamzin in “Letters of a Russian Traveler” writes with bitter irony “... in our so-called good society, without the French language, you will be deaf and dumb. Aren't you ashamed? How not to have national pride? Why be parrots and monkeys together? Our language for conversations, really, is no worse than others. In another article “On love for the fatherland and national pride”, he connects the attitude towards the native language with citizenship, respect for one’s country, one’s people:
“Our language is expressive not only for lofty eloquence, for loud pictorial poetry, but also for gentle simplicity, for the sounds of the heart and sensitivity. It is richer in harmony than French, more capable of outpouring the soul in tones, represents more similar words, i.e. consistent with the expressed action: the benefit that only indigenous languages have! Our misfortune is that we all want to speak French, and do not think of working on working on our own language; Is it any wonder that we do not know how to explain to them some subtleties in a conversation? One foreign minister said in my presence that our language must be very obscure, because the Russians speak to them, according to his remark, they do not understand each other and must immediately resort to French. Are we not ourselves giving rise to such absurd conclusions? Language is important for a patriot."
Karamzin's opponent was Slavophil A.S. Shishkov, who thought that Old Church Slavonic should become the basis of the Russian national language. dispute over language Slavophiles and Westerners was brilliantly resolved in the work of the great Russian writers of the early 19th century. A.S. Griboedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of live colloquial speech, the originality and richness of Russian folklore. The creator of the national Russian language was A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportion and conformity”: any element will be appropriate if it accurately conveys thought or feelings.
In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing a common language in order to create unified orthoepic, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I.Dal.
Academician V.V. Vinogradov in his work “The main stages of the history of the Russian language” deeply and comprehensively identified the weaknesses of Karamzin’s activity in creating a “new style of the Russian language”: “The absence of broad democracy and nationality, disregard for the “common” language and its poetic colors, too straightforward denial of the Slavic-Russian linguistic culture, which still continued to supply the language of science and technology with vocabulary material, and the styles of artistic prose and especially verse with images and phraseology, an excessive predilection for Europeanisms in the field of phraseology and syntax, finally, the annoying lightness, smoothness and mannerism of presentation in the language of Karamzin - dissatisfied with the various strata of modern Russian society. The need for democratization and comprehensive original national development of the language of literature - scientific, political and artistic - in accordance with the growing breadth and depth of social needs has already been recognized by wide circles.
The 19th century is the "silver age" of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, an unprecedented dawn of Russian literature takes place. The works of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov - Shchedrin, Chekhov and others are gaining universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are receiving worldwide recognition.
Representatives of the democratically minded Russian intelligentsia, expressing their attitude to the activities of Karamzin and Shishkov in the field of reforming the Russian literary language and its styles, emphasized that the issue of a new literary language should not be resolved without taking into account the problem of nationality, without determining the role of living folk speech in the structure of the national language . In this regard, the work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century, Griboedov and Krylov, is indicative, they proved what inexhaustible possibilities live folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is.
And all this is expressed in such original - Russian, images and phrases that are not transmitted by any language in the world; all this is such an inexhaustible wealth of idioms, Russianisms that make up the folk physiognomy of the language, its original means and original, native wealth - that Pushkin himself is not complete without Krylov in this respect.
A.S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language. His contemporaries wrote about the reformist nature of Pushkin's work.
N.V. Gogol: “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns. It, as if in a lexicon, contains all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than all, he further than all pushed the boundaries for him and more showed all his space.
V. G. Belinsky: “Pushkin killed the illegal dominion of French pseudoclassicism in Russia, expanded the sources of our poetry, turned it to the national elements of life, showed countless new forms, made friends with Russian life and Russian modernity, enriched it with ideas, recreated the language to such an extent that even the illiterate could no longer fail to write good poetry.
I.S. Turgenev: “Pushkin's services to Russia are great and worthy of people's gratitude. He gave the final processing to our language, which is now recognized even by foreign philologists in terms of its richness, strength, logic and beauty of form, perhaps the first after ancient Greek.
A.S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle proportionality and conformity. He wrote: "true taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn, but in a sense of proportion and conformity." Therefore, unlike the Karamzinists and Shishkovists, he did not reject Old Slavonicisms, did not oppose the use of words borrowed from the French language, did not consider it impossible or shameful to use common and colloquial words. Any word is acceptable in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. Folk speech is especially rich in this respect.
Acquaintance with his works shows how creatively, original Pushkin will include colloquial words in poetic speech, gradually diversifying and complicating their functions. No one before Pushkin wrote in such a realistic language, no one so boldly introduced ordinary everyday vocabulary into a poetic text.
Russian literary language - a form of the Russian national language, as a written and oral language of educated people - acquired by the end of the 19th - early 20th centuries, all the qualities of a fairly normalized, multi-genre and stylistically diverse, i.e., statistically free language. At the same time, in those social conditions, within the literary language itself, a great fragmentation of social and speech varieties was observed. On the other hand, the literary language of that time, in the conditions of a sharply class, socially emphasized dismemberment of society, was amorphously opposed by numerous folk dialects and socially limited - petty-bourgeois, merchant, etc. n.p. - urban speech (traditional vernacular), slang and jargon of the so-called unprivileged classes. Unfortunately, the stubborn unwillingness to understand that the modern Russian literary language is not a synchronously stable language of the early 19th - 20th centuries leads to the fact that assessments of the linguistic state of the 19th century. unhistorically transferred to the linguistic state of our time.
Literature:
- "Russian language and culture of speech": a textbook for universities / L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva edition 22 - e. - Rostov - on - Don Phoenix 2008.
- "Russian language and culture of speech": textbook by N.V. Nefedov - Rostov - on - Don Phoenix 2008
- Russian language and culture of speech”: examination answers for university students / L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva Phoenix 2003.
- "Russian language and culture of speech": a course of lectures by G.K. Trofimov Moscow publishing house "Flinta" 2007
- "Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th - 19th centuries" V.V. Vinogradov Moscow "Higher School" 1982
Modern so-called nation-states are formed for the most part in the 19th century, due to the rapid development of ground means of communication, primarily railway transport. Accordingly, the need arose for the unification of writing, as the most important means of communication for managing large territories.
]]> When the German language was created. Hochdeutsch ]]> . The written form of Standard German (Hochdeutsch) was created at the II Spelling Conference held in Berlin from 17 to 19 July 1901. The desire to create a single German language became especially clear after the creation of the German Empire in 1871. In 1876, at the initiative of the Prussian Minister of Culture Aldaberk Falk, the First Orthographic Conference was convened, at which "negotiations were held towards a greater agreement in spelling." However, it was not possible to agree on a single spelling of the Reich at that time.
]]> Lower German ]]> . Lower German ( Plattdeutsch or Niederdeutsch) the language is now common only in some areas of Northern Germany and northeastern Holland. It differs significantly from Hochdeutsch (the official language of Germany) and High German dialects. They are essentially different languages. But until now, Lower German shows great similarity with English and Dutch, which indicates the commonality of their origin.
By today, Lower German has lost its meaning. In the Middle Ages, it dominated the Baltic Sea region, where it served as the language of interethnic communication there. It was an important literary language. It, along with Latin, was used to draw up trade and legal documents. Theological books were written on it. There are several ancient translations of the Bible into this language.
]]> When the Dutch language was created ]]> . Linguistic diversity reigned in the medieval Netherlands. In every city, or even village spoke their own language. The dialects can be divided into five large groups: Flemish, Brabandish, Dutch, Limburian and Low Saxon. Attempts to standardize the language were made as early as the 16th century in Brabant. However, for various reasons, they were unsuccessful. Managed to create a single language in the 17th century. Subsequently, the proper Dutch and Belgian versions of the standard Dutch language diverged significantly. This happened because Belgium had no official Dutch status until the 20th century. The language of administration there was French.
]]> When Swedish was created ]]> . Until recently in the Kingdom of Sweden there was no official language. Only in 2008 In the same year, parliament passed a law giving the Swedish language official status. True, by that time the Swedish language had been the main language in the kingdom for quite a long time. The Swedish language began to play a leading role in Sweden at the end of the 19th century. Previously, other languages dominated the country. So in the 18th century, French became the language of the upper classes. King Gustav III (1771-1792) was a true Francophile, and French was the main language spoken at his court. And in 1818, the French Marshal Bernadotte ascended the throne under the name Charles IV John. Before, in the 17th century, Low German was popular, which was the commercial language and the lingua franca of the Hanseatic trade union. The language of the Catholic Church was Latin. Scientists also wrote their works on it. In particular, Carl Linnaeus published his most famous works in Latin. Apparently, the Russian language also played an important role in medieval Sweden.
]]> When the Norwegian language was created ]]> . In the middle 19th century young self-taught linguist Ivar Aasen set about creating the Norwegian language proper. He traveled all over the country, compared local dialects, studied the Icelandic language. As a result, in 1848 he introduced a new written language - Landsmol("rural language"). The main feature of this language was that words from Danish and Low German were excluded from it, as far as possible. They are replaced by synonyms, supposedly inherited from "Old Norse". AT 1885 Landsmål was adopted as the official written language, along with the Norwegian version of Danish.
At the same time, Knud Knudsen proposed to bring the spelling of Norwegian-Danish closer to the popular pronunciation. For example, replace the letters "c" and "q" with "f". (Later, the letters "p", "t" and "k" were proposed to be replaced by "b", "d" and "g"). Thus was born a new written language, with the light hand of Bjornstjerne Bjornson, called "riksmol". In 1892, spelling reforms were officially enshrined in law.
]]> When the English language was created ]]> . In principle, English is not much different from most other Western European languages. In the sense that it is the same remake just like them. It should be said right away: until 1733, the official language of the English state was Latin. In the 17-18 centuries there was an intensive growth of vocabulary. Borrowed from many languages. Mostly from Latin. The creation of the English language was completed in 1755 the year Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary. The greatest contribution to the creation of the English language, having introduced more than three thousand new words into it, was made by W. Shakespeare.
]]> When the English language was created. Part 2 (Samuel Johnson Dictionary) ]]>
]]> When the Polish language was created ]]> . There is no evidence for the existence of the Polish language before the 16th century. Apart from a couple of books with prayers of dubious origin and even more dubiously dated. About this period in scientific circles they speak only as about the "period of the origins of the formation of the literary language." The Polish language suddenly appears in 16th century, exactly after the merger of Poland with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. And then his "golden age" begins. And that Polish is indistinguishable from Russian the same time. It is believed that Latin was the state language in Poland, according to some sources, until the end of the so-called "Saxon period" - 1783, and, according to other sources, until 1795.
]]> First attempt at creating a Bulgarian language ]]> . “Since the mid-30s of the XIX century. Bulgarian society is seized by the idea of creating a single standardized literary language for the nation, developing a "common grammar for the whole of Bulgaria," which everyone should follow in their writings. This idea was first clearly formulated neophyte Rylsky in "Philological pre-notice" to his "Bulgarian Grammar" (1835), which contains the theoretical substantiation of the practical solutions proposed by the author to create the norms of the literary language of the new time.
"The well-known journey to the Transdanubian lands, undertaken in 1830-1831. Yu.I. Venelin, on the instructions of the Russian Academy, with the aim, in particular, of in-depth study of the Bulgarian language and the creation of its grammar, came at a time of serious shifts in the historical, cultural, literary and linguistic situation in Bulgaria, associated with the progressive development of social thought in the course of the Bulgarian Renaissance. ]]> E.I. Demin “On the first experience of codification of the Bulgarian literary language of the Renaissance. The concept of Yu.I. Venelina ]]> )
]]> The first Bulgarian awakeners ]]> . The first cry in the spirit of new European trends is also heard from the monastery cell - a cry for national awakening and enlightenment, for the protection of the native language, native way of life. It was a call Hieromonk Paisios, pro-abbot of Hilandar. “You don’t like Bulgarians, know your clans ї ıazik and ѹchi this in your own ıazik”, - he convinced in his "History of the Slavo-Bulgarian", completed by him in the Zograf Monastery in 1762. He intended it for those denigrators “who do not love their kind and ıazik”, as well as “to you, who are jealous of the nobility and listen for your kind ї ıazik napїsah yes you know”.
]]> When the Serbian language was created ]]> . Back in the beginning 19th century The official language in Serbia was Church Slavonic. Moreover, Russian his option. Literary in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries was the so-called Slavic-Serbian language. Occasionally it is called Slovenian. Not to be confused with another Slovene language, now the official language of the Republic of Slovenia.
]]> About Romanians and the Romanian language. ]]> In the 19th century, the self-name, for the sake of prestige, was slightly corrected to "romyn" (român). So the "serfs" turned into "Romans". At the same time, writing was translated into the Latin alphabet. And in the second half of the 19th century, after the declaration of independence, when Romania and Moldova formed a single state, a major language reform was carried out. All Slavic, German, Turkish and other words have been replaced Italian. It would be more accurate to say that the Romanians completely torn for themselves the Italian language, which in Italy was just beginning to come into its own, with all its rules. As a result, now Romanians can understand Italians without an interpreter...
]]> When the Bashkir language was created ]]> . The modern literary Bashkir language arose after October Revolution, based on the concentration of Kuvakan and Yurmatian dialects. Prior to this, the Bashkirs used the Tatar literary language, in which Bashkir literature originally developed. The Bashkirs used the Arabic alphabet, from 1928-29 - Latin and from 1939 - Russian ... "
]]> When the Lithuanian language was created (Part 1) ]]> . For a long time, the Lithuanian language was considered insufficiently prestigious for written use. There was no single language. Linguistic differences were significant between regions. There were Aushtaitian and Samogitian dialects (or separate languages) and their numerous dialects. There were expectations that the Lithuanian language was about to die out on the territory of modern Lithuania. Many people used Polish and Belarusian in everyday life. At the beginning of the 19th century, the use of the Lithuanian language was largely limited to Lithuanian rural areas.
]]> When the Lithuanian language was created (Part 2) ]]>
]]> When the Lithuanian language was created. Part 3 (beginning) ]]>
]]> When the Lithuanian language was created. Part 3 (continued) ]]>
]]> When the Lithuanian language was created. Part 3 (end) ]]>
]]> When Turkish was created ]]> , ]]> How Turkish was created ]]> . Before 1839 years in the Ottoman Empire, the forerunner of modern Turkey, there was no official language. The Great Porte was a multinational and multilingual state. A mixture of Turkish folk dialects, Arabic and Persian, the so-called Ottoman language in 1839, during the period of transit (political reforms), was declared the state language. In 1851, the historian Ahmed Cevlet Pasha and the future Grand Vizier Mehmed Fuat Pasha published the first grammar of the Ottoman language.
Throughout the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, passions were in full swing in the Ottoman Empire about improving the language. (Let me remind you that from the middle of the 19th century, the official language of the empire was the Ottoman language, consisting of 70-80, and according to some estimates, all 90 percent, of borrowings from Arabic and Persian.) Disputes ended already in republican Turkey with a language reform 1928 year after which it was created, in fact, brand new turkish language.
]]> When was the Greek language created? ]]> There is a state in Europe Greece. It appeared on the political map in the first half of the 19th century, breaking away from the Ottoman Empire. Greece was created with the military assistance of Great Britain and France with the connivance of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I.
The separatist-minded Greek intelligentsia, based, as happens in such cases, abroad, had long dreamed of their own independent country. The basis of the new state, according to their plan, was to be the Orthodox faith and the Greek language. If everything seemed to be in order with faith, then the language had yet to be invented.
Believe it or not, no, but at the turn 18th-19th centuries the Greeks did not have their own single national language in which to write the Constitution and other laws, to conduct office work. The Turkish language, which was understood by all Greeks, did not seem solid to use for these purposes. Many common Greeks never knew Greek at all.
]]> How the Greek language was created (Part 1) ]]> . The dispute about how the language should be in an independent Greek state (then not yet created) first flared up at the end of the 18th century. At that time, complete chaos reigned in the language issue in Greece. There were many languages. They were divided into "folk colloquial", which differed from region to region, and into "archaic", that is, old. Moreover, which of the old languages \u200b\u200bis “Ancient Greek”, and which is “Middle Greek” (Byzantine), and which language comes from which, the Greeks themselves did not know then. This will tell them later. "father of Greek linguistics" Georgios Hatzidakis (1843-1941). All these languages existed at the same time. Cultivated in different circles and schools, and have not been "scientifically studied".
A compromise solution was proposed by Adamantios Korais, who created a new language, with the light hand of Nicephorus Theotokis, called "kafaverusa" (purified). Theotokis first mentioned the term in one of his works in 1796. The name became generally accepted from the middle of the 19th century. Modern linguists politically correct name "semi-artificial".
]]> How the Greek language was created (Part 2) ]]>
]]> How the Greek language was created (Part 3) ]]>
]]> How the Greek language was created. Part 4 (Adamantios Korais and Kafaverusa) ]]>
]]> How the Greek language was created. Part 5 (Hope for the Resurrection of Ancient Greek) ]]>
]]> How the Greek language was created. Part 6 (Drift to the archaic and the Olympic Games) ]]>
]]> When Hebrew was created. ]]> Itzhak Perlman Eliezer (real name - Ben-Yehuda) was born in the Russian Empire, on the territory of the modern Vitebsk region of Belarus. Ben-Yehuda's parents dreamed that he would become a rabbi and therefore helped him get a good education. Even in his youth, Eliezer was imbued with the ideas of Zionism and in 1881 he emigrated to Palestine. Here Ben Yehuda came to the conclusion that only Hebrew can revive and return it to its “historical homeland”. Influenced by his ideals, he decided to develop a new language that could replace Yiddish and other regional dialects as a means of everyday communication between Jews.
Simultaneously with the introduction Hebrew, there was a campaign to discredit the Yiddish language. Yiddish was declared "jargon" and "non-kosher". In 1913, one of the writers declared: "speaking Yiddish is even less kosher than eating pork." The peak of the confrontation between Hebrew and Yiddish was 1913, when the so-called "war of languages" broke out.
]]> When the Hungarian language was created ]]> . In the end 18th century the Hungarian intelligentsia suddenly awakened. Awakened by Georg Bessenei (Bessenyei György). In 1765, he was at the court of Empress Maria Theresa as part of the newly created detachment of Hungarian bodyguards. Here he became interested in reading the masterpieces of French literature. He unwittingly drew a parallel between Western and Hungarian culture. And experienced pain and shame. After all, the Hungarians did not have any national culture then. In fact, they did not have their own language. The aristocracy spoke and wrote in French and German. Middle class - in Latin. Latin was the official language in Hungary and in the Holy Roman Empire, of which it was a part. The Hungarian language was rarely used and mostly in the villages.
]]> The East is a dark matter, or when the Azeri language was created ]]> . Can someone explain why 1956 years, the Azerbaijani language was not used in Azerbaijan in state institutions and was little known even to the Azerbaijanis themselves?
]]> The East is a dark matter or when the Hindi and Urdu languages were created ]]> . After the fall of the Mughal Empire in 1837 power passed to the British East Indies campaign. Along with English, the British proclaimed the official language "urdu". This is the same Persian language with a large number of borrowings from numerous local languages and dialects. Separation of "Urdu" (Horde) and "Hindi"(Indian) began in 1867.
When the British government, to please the Hindu communities, in some northwestern provinces (now the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) changed the writing of the Urdu language from Persian to the local Devanagari. Hindus soon demanded that "Hindi" replace "Urdu" as the official nationwide.
In 1900, the British government issued a decree formally equalizing the rights of "Hindi" and "Urdu". After that, language disputes arose with renewed vigor. Languages began to diverge linguistically. Until that moment, they were essentially one language, differing only in writing. Hindus began to diligently clean out "Hindi" from Persian words, replacing them with their Sanskrit counterparts.
]]> A Brief History of Sanskrit ]]> . By 1773, the British had finally captured India, removing all competitors from the road. India received the official status of a colony, and the British prepared properly for this event - ten years later, in 1783, a grandiose discovery of the ancient and mysterious Indian culture took place, Sanskrit was discovered and all the main literary works of the Hindus were printed for the first time. All these pleasant discoveries were made by one person - the founder of modern philology Sir William Jones... And off we go, after the discovery of unknown Sanskrit, an avalanche of amazing discoveries began, masses of ancient texts were discovered that had been passed by Hindus from mouth to mouth for thousands of years and only among the elite - they were not known to anyone else either in India or those over in Europe. Worked in an office Jones a huge team of leading philologists and writers of England under the personal guidance of the Governor General, so they managed to translate a lot of amazing texts.
]]> About Sanskrit and its predecessor ]]> . What is now in use and is considered Sanskrit, in fact, was “brought” to Europe by the so-called Indologists only in the 19th century. But how did this so-called Sanskrit "travel" around Europe? Who opened it? Where? When? The search for answers to these questions in historical facts sheds light on this problem. First time February 2 1786 year, the founder and leader of the Society of Orientalists in Calcutta announced his discovery, speaking of himself as a discoverer.
]]> About Sanskrit and its predecessor (continued) ]]> . But what is interesting is that in the circles that employees of the East India Company, no one taught Sanskrit. At the same time, interest in this language was growing rapidly in Europe. Why so? The results of a psychosocial analysis of this problem would probably be explosive.
The 19th century produced many Sanskrit scholars. If only these people were interested in studying authentic Sanskrit. According to the documents, the new scientists grew like mushrooms after the rain. They were mostly Europeans. Mostly Germans, but the soil for their "growth" was in London and Paris. Why? Yes, because in the local museums there was an unsorted dump of ancient books and manuscripts. These new students of Sanskrit studied the language in a very peculiar way...
]]> About Sanskrit and its predecessor (end) ]]> . And in 1823 another "William Jones" appeared. It was Friedrich Maximilian Muller, originally from Dessau...
]]> When was the French language created? ]]> Work on the invention of a single French language began in the first half of 17th century. AT 1635 The French Academy was founded (not to be confused with the Paris Academy of Sciences). According to the official website of the academy www.academie-francaise.fr from the first days of its existence, a mission was entrusted to it, I quote: « create french language, give it rules, make it clean and understandable for everyone".
The French language was introduced into France by administrative measures, first under the influence of the Parisian royal family. After the French Revolution, a strong oppression of vernacular languages began. Their study was prohibited by law. Common French was seen as a key factor in the formation of a single French nation. The ban, and even then formally, was lifted only in 1982 the year when indigenous languages were allowed to be taught as electives in schools.
]]> The language of the troubadours and Albigensians. ]]> In the Middle Ages, people living in what is now France did not know French. The regions spoke their own languages. So, in the south, the language now called Occitan dominated. However, this is a rather late term. Introduced, apparently, in the 19th century by the Felibre literary group and its leader Frederick Mistralem who tried to revive the literary tradition of this language.
]]> When the Italian language was created ]]> . In general, no such Italy did not exist in the Middle Ages. There were many independent states on the Apennine Peninsula. The linguistic palette of the peninsula was very diverse. In fact, every city, and even a village, had its own language ... Most of the spoken languages originated from Latin. Latin itself was also widely used. She conducted office work in the offices of states, church services. In addition, some languages were of Germanic and Slavic origin. In some places, dialects of the Byzantine Empire were preserved.
]]> When Spanish was created ]]> . Spanish, also known as the Castilian language, was created during the reign of the King of Castile and Leon Alfonso X. Initially, the sphere of influence of the Castilian language was limited to the Kingdom of Castile and Leon, which occupied a small territory in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Other Catholic kingdoms of the peninsula had their own languages: Galician-Portuguese, Aragonese, Catalan and others. The Basques spoke their ancient language. In most of the Iberian Peninsula, in the country of Al-Andalus, the Moors ruled. The Mozarabic language dominated here.
]]> Mozarabic ]]> . Mozarabic was the language spoken by Christians in the Muslim dominions in Spain during the Middle Ages. Basically, it was used by urban residents who adhered to Christianity. Although at the same time they perceived Arab customs and culture. Peasants more often converted to Islam. It seems that the Arabs also used it.
It is curious that the Spanish scientists began to call the "Mozarabic" language in the 19th century. The word comes from the Arabic mustarab, which means Arabized. Another, Arabic, name of the language - al-ajamiya(foreign, unfamiliar). The native speakers themselves called it ... Latin. Now Mozarabic belongs to the Romanesque group. Meanwhile, he was an explosive mixture of Arabic and Latin. About 40% of his vocabulary consisted of Arabic words, and 60% of Latin. Writing, unlike most other Romance languages, was based on the Arabic alphabet. Occasionally, Jewish graphics were also used.
]]> When the Khmer language was created ]]> . The "ancient" Khmer language was created at the beginning 20th century learned Buddhist monk Chuon Nath (Chuon Nath).
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The preservation of the language, concern for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture.
The position of the Russian language in the 18th century. M. V. Lomonosov played a special role in strengthening the spread of the Russian language during this period. He creates the first in Russian "Russian Grammar" and a set of grammatical rules.
Wishing to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable to most students, M. V. Lomonosov argued that Russian professors should also teach in Russian at the first Russian university. There were only two Russian professors: N.N. Popovsky and A.A. Barsov. N.N. Popovsky began to lecture in Russian. In fiction, official business documents, scientific treatises, the so-called Slavic-Russian language was widely used. It was the Russian language, which absorbed the culture of the Old Slavonic language. Therefore, the paramount task was to create a single national Russian language.
The concentration of national elements is planned due to the selection of the most common features of the South Russian North Russian dialects.
In the 18th century, there was an update, enrichment of the Russian language at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language, its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical.
In 1771, the Free Russian Assembly was established in Moscow. Its members are professors, students, writers and poets. The main task of the society is to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. It sought to draw attention to the Russian language, to promote its dissemination and enrichment.
By the end of the 18th century, the preferred use of the Russian language in oral and written speech became a sign of patriotism, respect for one's nation, one's culture.
In the 19th century, throughout the century, disputes continue about what should be considered the basis of the Russian national language. N.M. Karamzin believed that the Russian language was too difficult to express thoughts and needed to be processed. The transformation of the language, according to Karamzinists, requires its release from the consequences of the Church Slavonic language. Focus should be on new European languages, especially French. The Russian language must be given lightness, made simple and understandable to a wide range of readers. On the other hand, the language needs to create new words, to expand the semantics of old words to designate concepts introduced into everyday life, mainly in secular society.
The Slavophiles, their inspirer A. S. Shishkov, considered Old Church Slavonic as the primitive language of all mankind and believed that it should become the basis of Russian literary speech. According to him, there are only stylistic differences between the Church Slavonic Russian languages.
The work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century, Griboedov and Krylov, is indicative, they proved what inexhaustible possibilities live folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is.
A. S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator of the modern Russian language. The reformist nature of Pushkin's work was written by his contemporaries: N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky and I.S. Turgenev. A.S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity.
The 19th century is the silver age of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, there is an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature. The work of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others is gaining universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky, and others are receiving worldwide recognition. The development of literature, journalism, and science contributes to the further development and enrichment of the Russian national language. Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology. Fiction serves as a basis for replenishing Russian phraseology and forming new words. One of the most important features of the literary language as the highest form of the national language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, the process of processing the national language was going on in order to create unified grammatical, lexical spelling, orthoepic norms. The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries (historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words) that appear in the 19th century. The largest event was the publication in 1863-1866. the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl. The dictionary was highly appreciated by contemporaries. Its author in 1863 received the Lomonosov Prize of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences and the title of honorary academician.
