Buffoons amused the people with songs and dances, and also played funny scenes. At the fairs, booth-makers invited the people. And in the squares, wandering artists sang, danced and recited, entertaining the public.
Two branches of art
Theater in Russia in the 18th century developed in two directions. Folk art continued the traditions of buffoons. Performances were held in the open air or in a special room - a booth.
The performances of the court theater were first documented during the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the founder of this dynasty on the Russian throne. The initiator of the new entertainment was the boyar Artamon Matveev. This man did a lot for Russian statehood. He was the head of the Posolsky Prikaz - the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of that time. Artamon Matveev often traveled abroad. He was deeply fascinated by the culture of many countries and tried to instill in Russia some European traditions. Artamon Matveev is considered the first Westerner.
Founder of dramaturgy and directing
Theater in Russia in the 18th century would not have taken place without this multifaceted person. On his behalf, a professional troupe was organized. And the first play shown in Russia was the biblical story of Artaxerxes. A separate room was built for royal entertainment. The sovereign liked the performance, and its author was generously awarded. So who was the first Russian playwright and director? History has preserved his name. This is a German living in Moscow, Johann Gregory.
The new entertainment caught on very quickly. In many rich houses of that time, both free people and serfs worked.
great era
Theater in Russia in the 18th century is associated with the name of Peter the Great. During his reign, art flourished. Peter often invited foreign touring troupes to Russia. They not only showed new performances, but also carried progressive ideas, inspiring Russian authors. Peter built a theater on Red Square. It was later destroyed.
Theater in Russia in the 18th century developed not only in Moscow, but also in St. Petersburg. An institution with Russian actors was opened at the court of Anna Ioannovna. Plays for him were written by the famous playwright Alexander Sumarokov.
Further development
Under Elizabeth Petrovna, the so-called imperial theaters appeared. These state institutions existed at the expense of the treasury. The director of the imperial island was Sumarokov.
The theater of the 18th century in Russia continued its development during the reign of Catherine II. Several professional troupes worked at her court. Italian opera singers occupied a special position. A Russian drama troupe also worked. During this period, the theater ceased to be purely palace entertainment. Public entertainment establishments were opened in the city, in which both Russian and foreign artists worked.
Creativity of Ivan Dmitrevsky
The theater of the 18th century in Russia knows the names of famous entrepreneurs: Titov, Belmonti, Medox. At this time, landlord troupes continue to exist in the provinces, where serf artists play. Ivan Dmitrevsky was a wonderful actor. He has had an outstanding career. In Volkov's first professional Russian troupe, young Dmitrevsky played female roles. Later he became the main actor of the Imperial Theater on Vasilyevsky Island. Catherine II sent Dmitrevsky abroad to improve his skills. In Paris, he studied the game of the famous tragedian Leken, and in London he watched performances with the participation of the great Garrick. Returning to St. Petersburg, Dmitrevsky opened a theater school. He later became the chief inspector of the imperial entertainment establishments.
Main development trends
Theater in the 18th century in Russia can be briefly described as classicist. This trend dominated Europe in the 17th century. In the subsequent period, classicism was replaced by more democratic creativity of the Enlightenment. Russian art of the 18th century gravitated towards rationality, genre hierarchy and strict canons. Theatrical plays were strictly divided into tragedies and comedies. Their mixing was not allowed.
Theater and music of the 18th century in Russia were inextricably linked. Opera has become perhaps the most popular entertainment. appeared at the court of Anna Ioannovna. The first libretto in Russian was written by Alexander Sumarokov. Classicist opera, like drama, tended to a strict division of genres. Tragic works were composed in the Italian tradition and were distinguished by sublime music. Comedies, considered a minor genre, were associated with the Russian traditions of the fair booth. Distinctive features of such cheerful operas are colloquial dialogues and song musical numbers. Works for the theater were written by composers Sokolovsky, Pashkevich, Bortnyansky. The operas were performed in French and Russian.
New trends
The theater of the 18th-19th centuries in Russia developed in line with it. In 1782 Denis Fonvizin's comedy The Undergrowth saw the stage. The satire on modern Russian society was first shown so talentedly by the author. Fonvizin described the types of the upper class of that time with amazing accuracy. The evil Prostakova, her stupid husband and son Mitrofanushka brought fame to the author in his lifetime. The wise reasoning of Starodum about honor and dignity excites the audience even today. Despite the conventions of the characters, they have sincerity and expressiveness. read by Pushkin, Gogol and other writers. She is admired by many generations of viewers. "Undergrowth" even today occupies an honorable place in the repertoire of the country's leading theaters. This work is inscribed in gold letters in
Until the end of the 19th century, the dramatic art of Germany was much better known in Russia than Russian in Germany. Intensive touring activities of drama theaters began to develop from the 80s of the 19th century. The most significant for the development of cooperation between the German and Russian theater were the performances in Russia of such outstanding actors from Germany as L. Barnay, E. Possart, an ensemble of actors led by director Max Reinhardt.
As in Germany, the number of theaters increased. Moscow and St. Petersburg remained the places of concentration of theatrical activity. All theaters were under the control of officials, which did not give freedom to creativity.
The Russian theater in its history has sufficiently absorbed the Western European foundations and in the 19th century began to look for its own ways of development. This time is also important in relation to social and cultural changes in society - the Russian intelligentsia is being formed. The first scientific works devoted to theatrical art appear in Russia. In 1861, the Chronicle of the Russian Theater was published, the author of which was the first Russian theater historiographer, Pimen Nikolaevich Arapov. The first theatrical magazines also appeared (Dramatic Bulletin, Dramatic Magazine, etc.). Theater critics occupy an important place in the cultural life of society (VV Stasov). New generations of playwrights, directors, actors focus on the need to transform the theater - the theater becomes a means of expressing national ideas and social problems.
However, the acting style of the actors, which was characterized by loud, passionate monologues, spectacular poses and gestures, and striking demonstrative exits from the stage, required reforms. A.N. Ostrovsky (1823-1886). His fresh ideas found application in the Maly (Moscow) and Alexandria (Petersburg) theaters, and after that they gradually moved from the imperial stages to private ones - from the capitals to the provinces. Creativity Ostrovsky - the most important stage in the development of the Russian national theater. In 1874, the Society of Russian Drama Writers and Opera Composers was formed, Ostrovsky remained chairman of the Society until his death (1886). In 1881, a commission was organized "to review the legal provisions in all parts of the theater management." Ostrovsky carried out a number of important reforms for Russian theatrical art:
1) betting on more than one actor;
2) "people go to watch the game, not the play itself - you can read it";
3) the actor is required to detach himself from his personality.
We give here only some of the changes introduced by the reformer. Talented actors P.M. Sadovsky, S.V. Vasiliev, S.V. Shumsky and others, who previously performed exclusively the characters of Shakespeare and Moliere, coped with the embodiment of Ostrovsky's characters.
Such transformations in dramaturgy were not accepted by everyone positively - Ostrovsky's work was criticized both in the 19th century (Dobrolyubov, Grigoriev) and in the 20th (Lobanov).
In the 80-90s of the 19th century, after the assassination of Alexander II, censorship intensified. Theaters are going through a difficult period, only the plays of recognized classics remain in the repertoire. At the end of the 19th century, two great events took place in theatrical life, radically changing the position of Russian drama. The first is the birth of A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904). The second is the organization and opening of the Art Theater.
Chekhov's first play "Ivanov" (1887-89) has new features:
1) there is no division into positive and negative heroes;
2) unhurried rhythm of action;
3) semantic richness;
4) hidden tension.
In 1895, the play "The Seagull" appears, but the performance did not find success with the public and critics. Chekhov's dramaturgy demanded revolutionary transformations in theatrical business. Theater teacher, playwright V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko appreciated the play. Nemirovich-Danchenko at first (from 1882 to 1901) wrote for the theater himself, the best of his plays had significant stage success, two of them ("New Business" and "The Price of Life") were awarded the Griboyedov Prize. But Nemirovich-Danchenko's hopes for the renewal of the theater were not connected with his own dramaturgy. The task of creating new forms of theatrical art is identified for him with the task of correctly embodying Chekhov's plays on the stage. It cost Nemirovich-Danchenko an effort to make Chekhov himself believe in the new theater, who, after the failure of The Seagull, refused to continue to write and stage his own plays. And one more merit of Nemirovich-Danchenko is invaluable: he helped the great director K. S. Stanislavsky understand and feel Chekhov, combining in the joint production of The Seagull his understanding of the inner essence of Chekhov's play with a wonderful sense of stage courage and novelty that Stanislavsky carried.
In 1898 V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko and K.S. Stanislavsky (by this time Stanislavsky was already known as an actor, theatrical figure, director) created a new Moscow Art Theater, since 1919 - academic (MKhAT), which laid the foundation for the psychological Russian theater. The program of the new Moscow Art Theater was founded by Nemirovich-Danchenko and Stanislavsky on the same principles as Otto Brahm's Free Stage:
1) low ticket prices ensure the popularization and democratization of the tetra;
2) the subordination of all components of the production corresponds to a single plan;
3) creation of historical and everyday authenticity;
4) protest against pathos declamation;
5) inadmissibility of playing;
6) the new theater does not accept the old repertoire, but advocates the promotion of modern dramaturgy.
Most of the troupe were students of the drama department of the Music and Drama School of the Moscow Philharmonic Society, where acting was taught by V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko (I. Moskvin, O. Knipper, V. Meyerhold, M. Germanova, M. Savitskaya, M. Roksanov , N. Litovtseva), and participants in performances directed by K.S. Stanislavsky of the Society of Lovers of Art and Literature (M. Andreeva, M. Lilina, V. Luzhsky). A. Vishnevsky was invited from the province, in 1900 V. Kachalov was accepted into the troupe, in 1903 L. Leonidov.
The success of the staged The Seagull (December 17, 1898) became a symbol of the birth of the Art Theater and a personal triumph for Nemirovich-Danchenko, recognized by Chekhov himself: “You gave my Seagull life. Thanks!" . The staging of the play "Uncle Vanya" finally approved the new theater and Chekhov's dramaturgy. Along with the tragedies of A. K. Tolstoy - "Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich" and "The Death of Ivan the Terrible", with Stanislavsky in the title role, plays by A.M. Gorky (“At the bottom”, “Petty bourgeois”) and foreign modern playwrights G. Hauptmann and G. Ibsen. Soon, the new play "Three Sisters" began to be called the best performance of the Art Theater. Nemirovich-Danchenko accepted Chekhov's last play, The Cherry Orchard, with reservations, but recognized it as "the brightest, most expressive symbol of the Art Theater."
HISTORY AND AESTHETICS OF THE THEATER
19th century European theater (until 1871)
Introduction
Theatrical art has always sharply reacted to the state of society - to the political and social processes taking place in it. Therefore, the periodization of the development of the theater was associated with revolutionary situations that arise in certain countries and affect world socio-political development. So, the historical frontier of the theater new time was the Great French Revolution of 1789-1793. BUT latest The era in the development of theatrical art is determined by the Great October Revolution of 1917 in Russia.
At the end of the 18th century, as you know, within the dominant artistic direction - classicism - new stylistic trends were born: sentimentalism, romanticism, enlightenment realism, rococo . And by the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism turned out to be an already formed artistic direction, influencing the development of all art.
Of course, it is impossible to consider the development of theatrical art and artistic trends in isolation from socio-political events in society.
The contradictions in the social life of the 19th century determined the character of the theatrical culture of that period. Economic and political dependence on the masters of the bourgeois world created unfavorable conditions for the development of the theater. But at the same time, the ideology of democratic circles fruitfully influenced all spheres of the spiritual life of society, including the theater.
Two main artistic trends in the art of the XIX century. - romanticism and realism- represented various forms of critical perception of the world. The development of literature and theater in this era went through two stages, the boundary between which was 1848. At the first stage, romanticism was the dominant artistic trend; in the 1930s and 1940s critical realism was asserted; after 1848 - 1871 entertaining, ideologically low dramaturgy predominates. Theater of the second half of the XIX century. experiencing a crisis.
The romantic trend in literature and in all forms of art expressed the social moods born of the results of bourgeois revolutions and the social changes that they caused.
The main feature of the Romantic worldview was the idea of a tragic gap between the ideal and real life. Hence the denial of reality, the desire to escape from it into a world transformed by the will and imagination of the artist. The forms of romantic denial of everyday life in creativity were both going into history and creating images of exceptional heroes, symbolic and fantastic characters. Romantics did not set themselves the task of objective knowledge of life and its laws; they asserted the complete freedom of creativity of the artist, who creates his own special poetic world, not similar to the existing one.
Romantics opposed the enlightenment cult of reason with the pathos of the affirmation of passions and feelings. They called for the rejection of the normative aesthetics of classicism, of its rules and canons.
In romanticism, two trends were clearly manifested, which determined the two directions of the romantic current - progressive romanticism and conservative romanticism.
Progressive Romanticism expressed the mood of the democratic strata of society: disappointment in the results of the revolution of 1789 and rejection of the political regime were combined with a protest against the social vices of the new, bourgeois world.
conservative romanticism expressed the sentiments of the noble aristocracy, who felt their historical doom; hence the desire to escape from reality as a reaction to the revolution and a manifestation of the rejection of bourgeois relations.
The most significant and fruitful in the literary and theatrical life of Western Europe in the first half of the 19th century. was progressive romanticism associated with revolutionary ideas and sentiments and the national liberation movement. This romanticism is represented by the names of Byron, Shelley and Keane in England; Hugo, Bocage and Dorval in France; Heine, Gutskov, Buchner, Devrient in Germany; Mickiewicz and Slovak in Poland; Decembrist writers, young Pushkin, Lermontov and Mochalov in Russia. This romanticism had an active life-affirming character. His hero was a rebel, an avenger, a fighter for human dignity, a denouncer of social evil.
The types of romantic heroes were varied. For them, it was not necessary to have a high position in society, they were not the embodiment of goodness. Rootless plebeians, executioners and jesters, lackeys and robbers, they were often marked by the seal of gloomy disappointment, but each in his own way carried the theme of rebellion.
Anti-bourgeois tendencies were also permeated with some works conservative romanticism, for example, de Vigny's drama "Chatterton", some national-patriotic dramas by Kleist, Tieck, which are characterized by an interest in the past of their people, in folk art.
Romanticism was a natural stage in the development of the European theater. But at the same time, the uniqueness of the historical path of each country, the nature of the relationship between class forces, the predominance of progressive or reactionary principles in the spiritual life of society - all this determined the characteristics of the romantic theater of various countries.
In France social contradictions were notable for their acuteness and were resolved by revolutionary explosions, and romanticism was associated with a turbulent social and political life. Literary and theatrical "fights" between romantics and classicists were one of the forms of political struggle, because they perceived classicism as a courtly aristocratic style. And this revolt reflected the growth of revolutionary sentiment.
English romanticism, due to the relative stabilization of the country's social forces, was deprived of an open political sound. But England went further than all European countries along the path of development of capitalist relations, and therefore social contradictions gave rise in the democratic strata of society, in the worldview of artists, a sense of tragic trouble and protest against the injustice of life. In the most significant works of English romantics - in the dramas of Byron and Shelley - the struggle against bourgeois practicality, deceit and hypocrisy of Church Puritan morality was expressed in the formulation of the philosophical and moral problems of good and evil, in the affirmation of the images of heroes who rise up against this deceit and hypocrisy.
Romanticism had a special character in Germany . In an economically and politically backward country that has preserved numerous remnants of the Middle Ages, the opposition between progressive and conservative tendencies manifested itself much weaker than in the romanticism of other countries. The peculiarity of German romanticism, which developed during the years of the Napoleonic wars, can be expressed as follows: it is characterized by a combination of the spirit of rebirth with the spirit of reaction (K. Marx).
The German romantics raised the contradiction between the political weakness of the third estate and the high level of the country's spiritual culture to the level of eternal and absolute truth. Being critical of modern German life, they saw in its squalor only a manifestation of the eternal conflict between the lofty aspirations of the human spirit and reality. This conflict received its illusory resolution in the retreat into the world of history and fairy-tale fantasy, or in the romantic irony of the depiction of the vulgar philistinism and wretched practicality of German petty-bourgeois customs.
The nature of German romanticism manifested itself in a tendency to develop the philosophical and aesthetic foundations of this trend. The problem of nationality, criticism of French classicism, the cult of Shakespeare created by the German romantics - all this had a great influence on the development of romantic drama and romantic theater in other countries.
Before the revolutionary events of 1848-1849. in European romanticism, realistic tendencies are increasingly beginning to appear. The romantic theme of the discord between dreams and reality is replaced by a more acute theme of the plight of the people, the denunciation of bourgeois mores.
The development of romantic drama and melodrama at this time began to be influenced by the ideas of utopian socialism (Saint-Simon, Fourier, who sharply criticized modern bourgeois society). A vivid example of melodrama, depicting social contrasts, was the play of the French democratic public figure and playwright F. Pia "The Parisian rag-picker".
Along with romanticism, realistic direction, who was destined to play a decisive role in the development of dramaturgy and performing arts in the second half of the 19th century.
Realism modern times, who set the task of knowing the objective laws of reality and the historical pattern of its development, was imbued with a critical attitude towards modernity. This was a similarity between realism and romanticism. But, in contrast to the romantics' interest in the exceptional, realism presupposes, "in addition to the veracity of details, the veracity of the reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances" (F. Engels).
The method of depicting life in its typical manifestations, its contradictions, the historical and social conditioning of human characters and destinies created the great realistic literature of the West (Balzac, Stendhal, Flaubert, Dickens, Mérimée). A critical attitude to reality is an important distinguishing feature of this literature.
critical realism created his own dramaturgy - plays by Balzac, Merimee, Buchner, etc. However, this dramaturgy, imbued with a critical spirit, could not become the basis of the repertoire. The dominant bourgeois ideology needed works that affirmed the “reasonableness” of the bourgeois world order, its ideas, moral principles, and way of life. A gap arose between the theater and great literature, giving rise to a certain ideological inferiority of theatrical art, especially noticeable in comparison with the mighty flowering of critical realism in literature.
This expressed the general pattern of the development of stage art. It was most fully expressed in the life of the French theater. The type of bourgeois theater of the 19th century finally took shape. after 1848, the bourgeoisie that came to power created its own art. The rebellious spirit of romanticism is now being replaced by the preaching of bourgeois "common sense". This realism, being devoid of a critical attitude to life, did not provide a deep disclosure of the essence of life phenomena and replaced the genuine truth with superficial plausibility. Such a theater influenced the viewer not so much by the truth of the characters and passions depicted, but by the highly developed technique of dramaturgy and acting skills (dramas by Dumas the son, Sardou, etc.). The entertaining role of the theater is growing, vaudeville and operetta are becoming the predominant genres. Among the many funny, but empty comedies-vaudevilles, clever and subtle, not without satirical sharpness and virtuoso in technique, vaudevilles by Eugene Labiche stand out.
Acting art developed during this period with greater independence, having passed a long and difficult path from romanticism to realism. The search for new expressive means to achieve the social, psychological and emotionally rich truth of the image was most fully embodied in the work of the great romantic actors - Lemaitre, Bocage, Dorval, Keene, Devrient. The desire for the authenticity of the stage existence, for the truthful transmission of the complex, contradictory, stormy passions of the spiritual world of the characters led to the breaking and destruction of the old classical methods of acting and the establishment of a new type of actor, who perfectly mastered the art of impersonation, which was further developed in subsequent years.
PENZA STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY IM. V. G. BELISKY
Historical Department of National History and Faculty of Methods of Teaching History
Thesis on the topic
Theatrical culture of Russia in the 19th century
Student Omarova K.T.
Scientific adviser Kuzmina T.N.
Head Department Kondrashin V.V.
Penza - 2011
Introduction
Chapter I. Russian theater of the 1st half of the 19th century
§ 3. The transition of the serf theater to a commercial basis. Vicegerent and governor's theaters
§ 4. Theater in Nicholas Russia: artistic culture in the conditions of political reaction
§ 5. Theatrical life of the province
§ 6. Stage art and the ideological search of society in 1850 - 1860: the establishment of the principles of critical realism
Chapter II. Russian theater of the second half of the 19th century
§ 1. Russian theater in the era of the “Great Reforms”
§ 2. Private and club theaters of the capitals, the provincial theater of the 1860s - 1870s of the XIX century
§ 3. Metropolitan and provincial theaters in 1880-1890
§ 4. Abolition of the monopoly of the imperial theaters. First private theater in Moscow
Conclusion
List of used sources and literature
Introduction
The theme of this thesis is "Theatrical culture of Russia in the 19th century." This problem is the most important component of Russian culture and its history.
Relevance of the research topic. Theatrical art was born in ancient times. The creators and masters of Russian scenic folk art were parsleys, bahari, storytellers, guslyars, buffoons, who amused honest people on holidays. At different times, stagecraft was called upon to entertain, educate and preach morally significant truths.
The greatest power of influence, diverse possibilities - this is why the theatrical art has been placed at the service of kings and princes, emperors and ministers, revolutionaries and conservatives.
In the Middle Ages, the stage space was thought of as a model of the universe, where it was necessary to play, to repeat the mystery of creation.
During the Renaissance, the theater was most often entrusted with the task of correcting vices.
And in the era of enlightenment, theatrical art was valued very highly "as cleansing morals" and encouraging virtue. (These ideas were later developed by the Russian writer and playwright N.V. Gogol). For him, the stage is "such a pulpit from which one can say a lot of good to the world."
The aesthetic thesis “the theater is a university of folk culture” remains relevant today. After all, comprehending the meaning of the performance, the viewer comprehends the meaning of life.
The object of the study is Russian culture of the 19th century in the process of its development. The subject is the process of formation and development of the Russian theater in the context of the evolution of the political regime in Russia in the 19th century.
The purpose of this thesis is to study the Russian theater in the 19th century and reveal its features.
Based on the goal, the main objectives of the study are:
- to identify the factors influencing the development of theatrical art of the 19th century;
- trace the influence of the Decembrist ideology on the Russian theater;
- to characterize the state of stage art in the conditions of the crisis of classicism;
Analyze the ideological foundations and trends in the development of theatrical art;
Show the theatrical life of Russia in the 19th century;
To reveal the features of the theatrical life of the province.
The chronological framework of the study covers the 19th century. At the beginning of the 19th century, the role of the theater in social and cultural life grew. The theatrical repertoire becomes the subject of discussion in the press, persistent wishes were expressed to create a national dramaturgy that would reflect Russian folk life and history. By the end of the first quarter of the 19th century, Russian dramaturgy and Russian stage art rise to classical heights: in tragedy - Pushkin's "Boris Godunov" and the art of actress E. S. Semyonova, in comedy - Griboedov's "Woe from Wit" and the work of actor M. S. Shchepkina. Following this, Gogol's "natural school" brings to life the humanistic art of the artist of the St. Petersburg stage A. E. Martynov, and the brilliant actor P. S. Mochalov shocks his contemporaries, revealing the tragedy of his time in Shakespeare's tragedy. As early as the middle of the century, the unprecedented intensive development of dramatic literature and stage art led to the creation by the writer A. N. Ostrovsky of a new type of drama (“plays of life”) and to the creation of a powerful national school of realistic acting. This paved the way for the revolution in art, which was made by such writers as A. P. Chekhov and A. M. Gorky, directors K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, a revolution that had a huge impact on the entire course of world artistic culture of the 20th century.
Historiography of work. The first attempts to write the history of the Russian theater date back to the end of the 18th century. Already in 1779, the work of Academician Jakob Stehlin appeared “Brief news about theatrical performances in Russia from their beginning to 1768”, and in 1790 “notes belonging to the history of the Russian theater” were published by the archeographer and translator A. F. Malinovsky 1 History of the Russian Drama Theater // In 7 volumes - V.1. - P.6 .. Extensive work on the history of the Russian theater is undertaken by one of the associates of F. G. Volkov, the outstanding Russian actor I. A. Dmitrevsky, but his work was not published, and the manuscript was lost. S. P. Zhikharev, S. T. Aksakov, A. A. Shakhovsky refer to the information gleaned from this manuscript in their theatrical memoirs. In 1864, the playwright, critic and publisher of the theatrical magazine F. A. Koni published an article "The Russian Theatre, its fate and admirers", which, according to him, was written on the basis of the manuscript of I. A. Dmitrevsky. In 1883 it was published, also with references to this manuscript, "The Chronicle of the Russian Theater", compiled by a retired actor, later assistant director and librarian Ivan Nosov.
Among the early attempts to write the history of the Russian theater, the Chronicle of the Russian Theater, written by the playwright and theater official P. N. Arapov, should be noted. The Chronicle of the Russian Theater covers the history of the theater from 1673 to 1825 and contains a lot of factual material, however, theater art researchers believed that it could not be called a truly scientific work. P. 6. The author, obviously, did not check the facts cited, especially those relating to the initial period of the theater's formation, and made serious mistakes; the last section of the "Chronicle" is the author's personal reminiscences, hence the subjectivity of assessments, the lack of information about many paramount phenomena, the mention of unimportant events Vsevolodsky-Gengross V.N. History of the Russian theater // In 2 volumes - L. - M., 1929. - S. 9 ..
Since the second half of the 19th century, major Russian historians and philologists have shown great interest in the study of the history of the Russian theater - P. P. Pekarsky, I. E. Zabelin, N. S. Tikhonravov, A. N. Veselovsky, I. A. Shlyapkin , S. K. Bogoyavlensky, V. N. Peretz and others. However, in the works of historians, the theater was considered mainly from an ethnographic point of view, as one of the forms of everyday life; scholars-philologists focused their interests not so much on theatrical art itself, but on dramatic literature; the limitations of the comparative methodology of scientists of the comparative historical school did not allow revealing the original national character of Russian theatrical art. At the same time, the attention of researchers is attracted almost exclusively by the early period of the formation of the theater in Russia.
The only attempt in pre-revolutionary Russian theater studies to give a general description of the entire theatrical process, including the art of the 19th and early 20th centuries, was B.V. Varneke's History of the Russian Theater Questions of the History of Russian Culture in Russian and Foreign Literature. - M .. 1986. - S. 53 .. This book contains a huge amount of factual material. According to a number of researchers of theatrical art, the author failed to reveal the driving forces of theatrical history, limiting himself to an empirical presentation of the facts and refusing to analyze their social analysis, to comprehend the ideological problems of dramaturgy and acting.
It can be said without exaggeration that theater studies as a special branch of the social sciences were formed only in the post-revolutionary years. In pre-revolutionary Russia there was not a single scientific institution dealing with the history and theory of theatrical art, not a single educational institution that trained theater critics. From the first years of its existence, the young Soviet state has paid great attention to the organization of theater science. Already in 1918, the Historical and Theater Section of the People's Commissariat for Education was established, in 1920 the Theater Section of the State Academy of Arts was created in Moscow, in Petrograd in the same year the so-called "Theatrical Discharge" of the Russian Institute of Art History was organized. A whole network of higher theatrical educational institutions is being formed in the country, headed by the A. V. Lunacharsky State Institute of Theatrical Art in Moscow; in most of them, theater studies faculties are being created, where a lot of research work is carried out on the history and theory of the theater. In 1944, the Institute of Art History was organized in Moscow, which became one of the centers for studying the history and theory of the theater.
The first attempt to cover the entire history of the Russian theater, from its origins to the first years of the Soviet theater, was made by V. N. Vsevolodsky-Gengross in 1929 in his two-volume History of the Russian Theatre, Problems of the History of Russian Culture in Russian and Foreign Literature. P. 54. This work convincingly showed the advantage of the sociological method of studying theater over the empirical method characteristic of pre-revolutionary theater studies.
In 1939, a new, revised edition of The History of the Russian Theater was published by B.V. Varneke Ibid. S. 55. . This book, approved as a manual for theater educational institutions, considered the history of the theater in it, as before, outside the general historical process, outside public life.
In the postwar years, the study of Russian theater has expanded significantly. Valuable collections of materials and documents dedicated to the work and theatrical views of outstanding Russian playwrights, actors and directors have been published. Monographic studies on the life and work of the largest artists of the Russian stage of the 19th century have been published. The processes of formation and development of Russian theatrical art of the 19th century are studied in such generalizing works as “Russian theatrical art at the beginning of the 19th century” by T. M. Rodina, “Russian Drama Theater of the first half of the 19th century” by S. S. Danilov, “Russian Drama Theater the second half of the 19th century” by S. S. Danilov and M. G. Portugalova, “The Maly Theater of the second half of the 19th century” and “The Maly Theater in the late 19th and early 20th centuries” and in a number of other works.
The methodological basis of the work is the principle of historicism. The paper examines the process of development of the Russian theater in close connection with the key problems of the life of Russian society. The consistent historical approach allows revealing the internal patterns and contradictions in the development of theatrical art; to show its place in the artistic and - more broadly - the spiritual life of society in each given period; discover its diverse and changing from stage to stage relationship with other arts and with other forms of social consciousness. The work attempts to reveal the dynamics of the formation, struggle, mutual influence and change of various creative methods and stylistic trends - from enlightenment classicism and sentimentalism, through romantic theatrical forms, to the gradual establishment and development of critical realism. At the same time, special attention is paid to critical, turning points, when new trends begin to mature within the existing artistic systems, which are associated with the establishment of new aesthetic principles and style in the theater.
The practical significance of the thesis lies in the fact that the materials of the work can be used by students to write reports and prepare for seminars on this topic, as a teaching aid for organizing extracurricular activities in historical circles and in history lessons at school.
Chapter 1. Russian theater of the first half of the 19th century
§ 1. Stage art in the conditions of the crisis of classicism
The socio-political life of Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries was distinguished by an unusually turbulent character. The French bourgeois revolution, its political echoes in different countries, the Napoleonic wars, national liberation and anti-feudal movements - all this gave the era a very special look. Although the upheavals that many European states experienced during this period did not always end with the fall of feudal-despotic regimes, the stream of philosophical ideas and artistic images that came from the progressive literature of the 18th century continued to revolutionize public consciousness at the beginning of the next century. Art, in particular dramaturgy and theater, were active conductors and transformers of these ideas in various national conditions. But it sought to develop its own holistic ideas about reality, relying on the rich and diverse experience of the surrounding life in its new forms and trends. Here, art inevitably came into conflict with certain aspects of the Enlightenment tradition, sought to rework it and rise above it.
Both processes found their expression in the development of Russian social and artistic thought at the beginning of the 19th century.
Speaking about the factors that influenced the development of theatrical art in the first decade of the 19th century, it is necessary to take into account some foreign policy circumstances. From 1804 to 1807, Russia was at war with France, acting on the side of the Austro-Prussian coalition. Semi-feudal states, such as Austria and Prussia at that time, could not resist the united onslaught of the Napoleonic army and its victorious spirit. The military-political coalition was defeated. The patriotic feelings of Russian society were sharpened and wounded at the same time. The peace of Tilsit, experienced as shameful, aroused the need for revenge. Historically, the dual figure of Napoleon in some circles of society caused condemnation of the Great French Revolution, which gave birth to him, while for others this figure personified a tyranny that encroaches on the national independence of European peoples, a betrayal of the principles of freedom and equality proclaimed by the Enlighteners.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the French Revolution gave impetus to reflections on the further ways of Russia's development. Its implementation in Russia, in the then only nationally possible form of a mass peasant revolution, is not wanted by anyone among the noble intelligentsia of this period. But at the same time, it would be wrong to underestimate the importance of the French Revolution of 1789-1794 for Russian social thought, Russian culture - it was no less than for other European countries.
No matter how tangibly the limited freedom of the nobility made itself felt in dramaturgy and criticism, it is impossible not to notice that obvious strengthening of democratic tendencies, which affected the entire state of theatrical art.
The speed with which the Russian theater is saturated with the beginnings of social, historical, psychological truth is largely due to the fact that the conflicts typical of Russian feudal-serf reality, for all their national character, no longer appear in the light of the experience of the bourgeois era, although learned and experienced, reflected.
For the theater, the period that ended with the Patriotic War of 1812 was in many respects a transitional one. The artistic traditions of the 18th century in the new social conditions gradually disintegrated, pouring into new forms, although not as decisively as it would be in the pre-Pushkin and Pushkin times. It is also important that some tendencies contained in these traditions, but then, as it were, clamped down, crushed by the course of the social process and breaking through only occasionally beyond the possibility of their full flowering, now manifested themselves as part of other genres and trends that were just emerging.
The connections of the theater with the social environment are also becoming freer, more direct, the theater responds to modern life more vividly than before; its cultural role is growing. The nature of the era is such that the very concept of the social environment is expanding, influencing the development of the theater, drama, acting, and the criteria for theater criticism. Both socio-politically and artistically, the theater is under the influence of heterogeneous and multidirectional factors.
In the theater of the beginning of the century, the traditions of classicism and sentimentalism continue to operate - artistic systems that were formed in Russian art in the middle and in the second half of the 18th century. These traditions carried with them not only formal stylistic skills, not only asserted the authority of a taste formed in a certain way - they were associated with a stable range of problems, common ideas, conflicts, with a special understanding of the goals of theatrical art and its place in public life.
The tradition of Russian classicist drama, the classicist theater as a whole as a world phenomenon, also possessed such mobility, although we sometimes, contrary to artistic practice, underestimate this mobility. The classicist tradition was polymorphic, like any other tradition born of a complex artistic system. Quite often, however, the theoretical prejudice against classicism as a rational and normative art leads us to exaggerate the stability of its forms, methods, and content itself. The tradition of classicism at the beginning of the 19th century is manifested not only in the repetition of conceptual and stylistic features, fixed by theory and the most “pure” examples of creative practice. She lives (which is much more important) in an attempt to solve similar artistic problems on material that is close in subject matter, but with different historical premises. Stylistic repetitions that involuntarily and spontaneously arise in such cases will testify both to the intensity of the artistic process, constrained by the given “conditions of the game”, and to the fact that the forces needed to rebuild these conditions are accumulated by a whole generation of artists.
Speaking about the traditions of classicism in the theater, drama and acting art of the early 19th century, it must be taken into account that Russian classicism was a late and in many ways a peculiar branch of the great pan-European artistic system. Let us touch on the questions of the general methodology of classicism only to the extent that they are connected with the theatrical processes of the early 19th century and help to clarify their essential aspects.
After all, one of the main and socially significant genres of the theater of that time - tragedy - grew entirely out of this peculiar classicist tradition.
Classical theater clearly sought to limit and curb the means of normative poetics (Renaissance, Shakespearean) the beginning in the human character, and yet it could not fully cope with this task. He made the impetuous, changeable element of feelings the subject of rationalistic analysis, putting the human mind above his own emotions, so that if not to keep the hero from harmful deeds, then, in any case, to immerse him in the understanding of the full measure of his guilt and responsibility.
The crisis of classicism was also reflected in the conservative-protective dramaturgy, which is becoming more and more difficult to defend the monarchy and challenge the rights of individual self-consciousness from the standpoint of reason and social necessity. For all its orientation towards tradition, the conservative drama is essentially unable to follow it. It departs from the cardinal classicist problematics and more and more loses the characteristic features of style, replacing the analytical basis of the action with its inevitable sequence, arbitrary plot fiction, complicated intrigue, striving for entertainment and effects. Both in tragedy and in comedy, these tendencies reveal themselves quite clearly.
The artistic processes of the period under study cannot be clearly understood without taking into account all that the activity of the largest representative of Russian sentimentalism, an advocate of the sentimentalist theater, N. M. Karamzin, brought into them.
Karamzin acted a lot as an art theorist, and at the beginning of his literary activity - as a theater critic. He was the first in the Moscow Journal published by him in 1791-1792 to regularly publish reviews of Moscow performances, as well as of some plays performed on the Parisian stage. This rapprochement between Moscow and Paris productions had its own symbolic meaning, expressing Karamzin's firm conviction of the need to consider the Russian theater in line with European cultural life as an integral and important part.
Sentimentalism, whose role in the Russian theater at the turn of the two centuries was extremely great, was not, however, the main trend that determined the development of Russian stage art. It would be more accurate to admit that his own development was influenced by an even more powerful force - realistic tendencies.
These trends, originating in the aesthetics of Novikov and the work of Fonvizin, were defended with the greatest energy and brilliance at the turn of the century by the playwright and critic, later the famous fabulist Ivan Andreevich Krylov.
Enlighteners, and, above all, Novikov and Fonvizin, taught him to judge the phenomena of life, applying to them the assessment of high reason. For Krylov, first of all, it is essential: “What subject did the author have?”, “What did he want to ridicule?”. The concept of truth, the principle of "following nature", which Krylov defends at this time along with many other writers, for him is firmly combined with the requirement of a critical attitude to reality. This is the most significant feature of the theatrical aesthetics of Krylov, one of the most prominent representatives of Russian Enlightenment realism of the 18th century.
In his articles, speaking about the theater, Krylov puts forward the accusatory direction of the Russian drama Vsevolodsky-Gengross V.N. The history of the Russian theater // In 2 vols. revealing the truth and educating public opinion. The primary force of influence on the viewer for him is moralization (he, like Karamzin, sharply rebels against the teachings that overload contemporary plays), and the truth of the image of life itself. In everything that Krylov writes about the theater, the democratic nature of his convictions is clearly felt.
The creative work of A. N. Radishchev had a huge impact on the development of progressive Russian theater at the beginning of the 19th century. Ibid. P. 271 .. Radishchev's traditions turned the artist, first of all, to the real contradictions of social life, to the problem of serfdom, while demanding from him to give up hope to correct the serf-owner and tyrant by the power of verbal persuasion and moral example, that is, demanding the rejection of enlightenment illusions, formed in the West even before the French Revolution, and in Russia - before the peasant war and government reaction. Radishchev rethought the educational program in the light of the experience of the class struggle that unfolded in Western Europe and Russia in the 1870s-1890s. He was the only one among the major literary figures of the late 18th century who drew consistently revolutionary conclusions from contemporary social experience.
At the beginning of the 19th century, one of the most important artistic ideas of the era was born, namely, the idea of the nationality of any truly national-original art. Of course, the advanced criticism of that time, relying on certain traditions of the previous development of art, in particular, on the theoretical statements of Novikov and Krylov, takes only the first steps towards placing the problem of nationality on a truly democratic basis. A particularly large place will be occupied by the discussion of this problem in Decembrist criticism, moving from there to Belinsky and Gogol Vsevolodsky-Gengross V.N.
Despite all the limiting moments, the idea of the nationality of art will become an active force in the development of drama and theater already in the pre-Pushkin period. But even at the beginning of the century, contrary to the conservative-noble interpretation of nationality as “common people”, there was a desire to put forward this problem as a central one, to connect the successes and tasks of modern Russian drama with it. In this regard, it is extremely important that Russian dramaturgy, even in the years preceding the Patriotic War of 1812, takes practical steps towards becoming a national drama, folk in its very content. At the same time, she has to regain the ideological positions that were largely lost with the crisis of classicism. And she succeeds in this to the extent that she becomes a conductor of the historically progressive and generally significant trends of her time.
The rise of patriotism during the years of Russia's participation in the wars against Napoleonic France is clearly reflected in the Russian theater, in the developed themes and genres of Russian drama. The theater refers to the plots of national history, to the themes of the heroic past of the Russian people. Western European history, the struggle of other peoples for their national independence also attracted Russian playwrights during these years.
The movement of ideas and artistic tendencies acts as the main moment that determines the development of the genres of drama, their mutual connection and predominant development in the circle of one or another problem. As the main pattern in this regard, the process of displacement of the classicist tradition of the 18th century by sentimental drama is traced, and then the flourishing of the tragic genre in the second half of the decade and the connection with the arrival of a new tragic theme in the theater. The conflict between the humanistically interpreted personality and the real world, based on the power of unjust, unnatural orders, comes to the fore more and more sharply. Having stepped over the stage at which the moral-emotional equalization of the slave and the master seemed to be a sufficiently convincing argument in favor of social equality, the theater puts forward a hero who no longer accepts this kind of resolution of contradictions. The principle of emotional interpretation of the image, affirmed by the aesthetics of sentimentalism, naturally turned under such conditions into a source of pre-romantic and at the same time socially oppositional tendencies in the theater.
Already on the eve of the Patriotic War of 1812, ideological processes were taking place, preparing the Decembrist movement. The influence of these processes is tangible in the literature and theater of the end of the first decade of the 19th century. The drama of F. N. Glinka, L. N. Nevakhovich, F. F. Ivanov, and some other writers of the progressive direction opposes the Ozerovsky hero, who is prone to melancholy and lyrical isolation, with a hero capable of active social struggle and heroic selflessness in the name of a lofty ideal. Democratic ideology, love of freedom, civic pathos connect this drama with the Radishchev tradition, as well as interest in the individual, reliance on his moral intransigence to social evil.
However, in the work of these writers, tragedy is not freed from stylistic eclecticism, which comes from its insufficiently formalized ideological and artistic structure at a new stage in the development of the genre, its attachment to the sentimentalist tradition - in substantiating the inner truth of the hero, and to the classicist - in characterizing his relationship with society, its ideological and political position.
Thus, it should be concluded: if during the years of the war between Russia and France, patriotic motifs in their progressive, democratic interpretation are widely included in dramaturgy and theater, then at the same time, monarchical, conservative-protective tendencies in drama, criticism, features of official splendor are also intensifying. in style and performance. In the press, there are often sharp attacks on the traditions of enlightenment art, on Russian satirical comedy of the 18th century, on the works of such foreign playwrights as Mercier, Beaumarchais, and Schiller. But, on the other hand, it was during these years that the significance of the work of Fonvizin and Kapnist was realized, Krylov's last comedies were created, and a voice was raised in defense of the progressive Western European drama. The repertoire of the Russian theater includes works by Schiller and Shakespeare, a struggle is unfolding for the ideological and creative rethinking of the dramaturgy of Molière, Racine, Voltaire. New, deeply fruitful trends are revealed in the field of acting History of Russian Art / Ed. M. Rakova, I. Ryazantsev. - M., 1991. - S. 29 ..
§ 2. Theatrical life in Russia in the era of liberal reforms of Alexander I
The development in large cities at the end of the 18th century of interest in the theater not only on the part of the nobility, but also on the part of a part of the merchant class is confirmed by more than one cited fact. The journal Urania, which was published at that time in Kaluga, testifies that with the advent of the theater in the city, Kaluga residents, and especially merchants, were significantly enlightened, while “before this, it was considered a miracle” to see young merchants in some cultural public meetings Karskaya T. Ya. Great traditions of Russian classical theater. - L., 1955. - S. 48 ..
The period that began with the Patriotic War of 1812 and ended with the uprising on Senate Square on December 14, 1825, gave a lot of new things both in the social and cultural development of the country. At this time, the general picture of the artistic life of Russia changed markedly. The balance of forces fighting and interacting in art is becoming different than in the previous decade. The tendencies caused by the spread of liberation democratic ideas in Russian society come to the fore.
The circle of future Decembrists and a significant stratum of the intelligentsia adjoining them are the environment where the formation of new views on art, in particular on the theater, takes place first. And just as the social aspirations of the Decembrists grow out of the urgent needs of the country's development, so their aesthetic views, their artistic innovation have a real basis.
The revival of public life after the victory over Napoleonic France took place not only in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but also in many cities of the province, where the fighting Russian officers who had seen a lot and changed their minds returned. Liberation ideas gradually penetrate into very remote corners of the Russian Empire, exerting their influence on the stage.
At the same time as the political ideas of Decembrism are taking shape, the freedom-loving ideals of Griboedov and Pushkin are being formed, the love of freedom of Shchepkin, Semyonova, Mochalov Kulikov K. F. The first actors of the Russian theater are maturing. - M., 1991. - P.133.. Coming from the serf environment, from the "lower classes" of society, the largest Russian actors perceive the liberal trends of the time through the prism of their own social experience. It is in the theater that the spontaneous democratism of the people's intelligentsia merges with the democratism of advanced Russian literature, which has grown on European soil. This is the inner strength of the theater, the reason for its rapid creative growth, its ever-increasing significance in national culture.
One of the most important phenomena characterizing the artistic life of the period is the formation of Russian romanticism, which widely influences theatrical practice.
The theoreticians and propagandists of Russian romanticism are, first of all, the Decembrist writers. They give this direction a politically progressive content and associate it with the struggle for the national identity of Russian art, for the development in it of the principles of nationality and historical concreteness.
The contradictions of the political ideology of the Decembrists are also manifested in their theatrical aesthetics. However, her positive impact on the theater is enormous. The theater is entering a period when the protection of the rights of the individual becomes on the stage the ideological basis of civic valor and heroism. Moreover, this heroism itself ceases to be a simple expression of an abstract ideal, more and more acquiring motivation in political and moral necessity. On this basis, the beginnings of historicism develop in the romantic drama of the Decembrist trend, and the entire system of its artistic expression is rebuilt (despite the force of resistance of traditional creative skills that hindered this restructuring).
“The main task of the romantic reform of the theater was to replace the story, that is, the description, with the show, that is, the action,” B. Reizov rightly noted Reizov B.V. The French historical novel in the era of romanticism. - M., 1958. - S. 401 .. The interaction of characters with the environment developed. People took to the stage. Instead of a conventional place of action, a historical epoch arose on the stage. From the truth of feelings to social and psychological truth in the depiction of the environment and characters, from the conceptual and speculative construction of a political conflict to the disclosure of socio-historical necessity - this is the most important direction in the development of Russian theater and drama in the period 1813-1825.
The composition of the theatrical repertoire is changing significantly and becoming more complex. A new trend of the time, which largely determined the repertoire of the theater, was the translated melodrama, which rushed to the Russian stage in a wide stream. Interest in her was natural. The most popular genre of Western European romantic theater, melodrama was close to the Russian audience for its democratic, humanistic, socially critical tendencies. However, the limited outlook, which determined its artistic inferiority, puts the melodrama under fire from critics.
In the early 1820s, realistic tendencies in the Russian theater were already quite significant. Griboedov and Pushkin create their plays, being in the very center of the theatrical interests of the time, being closely connected with the theatrical environment, the acting world, participating in disputes around the phenomena of theatrical life Reader on the history of Russian theater of the XVIII - XIX centuries. - L., 1940. - S. 230 ..
The Decembrists wanted to see in the actor a progressively thinking artist, capable of influencing the minds and feelings of his contemporaries, awakening in them the consciousness of moral and civic responsibility. Such an understanding of the purpose of the actor will be deeply assimilated by Shchepkin, and will form the social and ethical basis of his school. Belinsky and Gogol would later develop a similar point of view, contributing to the strengthening of one of the main traditions of the national theatrical culture.
Under the conditions of political reaction, with the dominance of obscurantists in the government, the persecution of everything that oppositional sentiments could only see as an insult to religion and religious morality intensified. In 1819, theatrical censorship, together with the Ministry of Police, was transferred to the Ministry of the Interior and came under the jurisdiction of its "special office".
"Woe from Wit", created in the midst of the rise of the Decembrist movement, was completed by Griboedov in 1824. Comedy was strictly forbidden for the theatre. Griboyedov died without seeing her on the professional stage. On the eve of the Decembrist uprising, the autocratic-feudal state, with the help of the censorship system, tried in every possible way to block the path of progressive social thought and the liberation movement. In 7 volumes - M., 1977. - V.3. - P. 224 .. The ban was canceled only by the censorship charter, approved on April 22, 1828 Morov A. G. Three centuries of the Russian stage. - M., 1978. - S. 74 ..
A special mission in subordinating theaters to the ideological tasks of the government was entrusted to censorship. In 1826, a new censorship charter was introduced, which received from writers the apt definition of "cast iron". True, two years later it was replaced by another, but this one turned out to be no less difficult. Plays, even passed by the general censorship for publication, in case of desire to put them on the stage, were submitted for a new consideration to the III department. And this, the last, by banning the play, did not even explain the reasons for the ban. Often the tsar intervened directly in the affairs of dramatic censorship. Nikolai could not indifferently hear about any manifestation of public initiative. It was forbidden to depict any kind of popular unrest on the stage. Censorship did not allow Pushkin's Boris Godunov and Pogodin's Martha the Posadnitsa to be staged, in particular because they portrayed people raising their voices.
The censorship categorically forbade bringing the clergy on stage, subjecting the military, high-ranking officials, and policemen to any kind of criticism. Having learned from his own experience what censorship is, Gogol wrote on May 15, 1836 to Pogodin: “To say about a rogue that he is a rogue is considered by them to undermine the state machine; to say any only living and true trait means, in translation, to disgrace the entire estate and arm others or his subordinates against him. Drizen N.V. Dramatic censorship of two eras (1825 - 1881). - M., 1905. - S. 33. .
Anything reminiscent of the French Revolution was immediately subjected to a censorship veto. The censor, after reading the translation of the innocent French comedy “Lunch at Barras”, made by N. A. Polev, wrote in horror in his report: “At the sight of this play, my hair stood on end. Is it possible that the Russian writer will choose a play for translation, where in the title we find the name of one of the monsters of the French revolution, namely Barras, the regicide who gave his vote for the death of Louis XVI: what can this serve to acquaint our good Russian people with revolutionary expressions : equality and freedom?...” Quote from the book. Drizen N.V. Dramatic censorship of two eras (1825-1881) .. - S. 35 ..
The chief of staff of the corps of gendarmes Dubelt, to whom the censorship department was subordinate, said: “Dramatic art, like the whole branch of literature, should have a beneficent goal: instructing people, amuse them together, and this will be achieved incomparably sooner with high pictures than with descriptions of baseness and depravity” Herzen A.I. Full Op. Op. In 30 volumes - M., 1954-1960. - T. 8. - S. 121. .
The situation of the people in Nicholas Russia was difficult, entire provinces were starving, frank administrative arbitrariness reigned. But the ruling circles demanded from the theater to give life to the Ennobled, to create the impression of the prosperity of Russia, the happiness of all those living in it, and the loyalty of the people to the throne. As for even the slightest manifestations of criticism, they met with hostility.
Over the years, this monarchical, protective tendency has been widely represented in the repertoire. But of course, it was not she who determined the main direction in Russian theatrical art. It was determined by artists who sought to express in their work the pressing problems of the era and were looking for new forms in art for this.
It should also be noted that at the time under consideration, professional theater criticism is being established, which has an increasing impact on the theater. True, of the newspapers, only the "Northern Bee" had the right to give reports on performances, and then each time in agreement with the III branch. But then there was, it seems, not a single literary and artistic journal that would not publish reviews, reviews, theoretical articles devoted to theatrical art. In 1839, the theater magazine "Repertoire of the Russian Theater" began to appear, and since 1840 the magazine "Pantheon of Russian and all European theaters" began to appear. In 1842, both magazines merged under the title "Repertoire of the Russian and the Pantheon of all European theaters."
Beginning in 1831, V. G. Belinsky constantly turned to the theater, having written up to one hundred and eighty articles and notes on various theatrical topics. Of course, during the course of Belinsky's critical activity, his views changed; starting with a passionate defense of revolutionary romanticism, he later became a theorist and leader of the "natural school". Belinsky defends the lofty social purpose of the theatre, fighting against relegating it to empty entertainment. He consistently opposes the protective ideas of the official nationality, for the genuine democracy of theatrical art, for the triumph of life's truth on the stage. Arguing that the repertoire, first of all, determines the ideological direction of the theater, he at the same time considers the actors as independent creators, full-fledged co-authors of the playwright. Belinsky was one of the first to talk about directing, about the ensemble as an urgent need for contemporary theater.
S. T. Aksakov acts as a theater critic. Despite the well-known conservatism of his worldview, Aksakov, in his journal articles (Vestnik Evropy, Moskovsky Vestnik, Athenaeus, Galatea, and others), consistently defends the realistic principles of art, combining spiritual truth and depth of feelings.
In the Moscow Telegraph magazine, the theater department is led by V. A. Ushakov, who defends romantic positions close to the magazine's publisher, N. A. Polevoy.
Beginning in the 1840s, N. A. Nekrasov, I. I. Panaev, F. A. Koni and other writers of the democratic direction often turned to theater criticism.
On the other hand, reactionary journalists are no less active in the field of theater criticism. The newspaper "Northern Bee" preaches autocracy, Orthodoxy and nationality, trying to introduce this formula in the theater.
Thus, ideological and aesthetic disputes are being waged around theaters, certain performances, and actors' performances. The theater at this time is in the center of attention of a thinking society.
§ 3. The transition of the serf theater to a commercial basis. Vicegerent and governor's theaters in the province
The theatrical life of the late 18th and early 19th centuries was permeated with acute struggle, which, under the conditions of serfdom, took unusually dramatic forms. Serfdom, the reactionary policy of the autocratic government, bureaucratic arbitrariness and the legal dependence of actors retard the natural process of the artistic development of stage art. The government establishes police and censorship control over theaters, seeks to centralize their management in the capitals and in the provinces, to make the theater a conductor of the autocratic-feudal ideology. These efforts are manifested consistently from the very moment of the emergence of professional public theaters, penetrate into all spheres of their organizational and creative life, and are carried out through the entire theater management system.
In the narrow forms of the government theatrical system, shackled by direct manifestations of feudal violence (as it was in the serf theater), democratic principles are revealed in the work of stage artists - playwrights and actors - despite these unfavorable circumstances, in a constant and intense struggle with them.
At the beginning of the 19th century, in fact, there was not a single theatrical undertaking in the provinces, the origins of which would not go back to those phenomena that arose and developed in the previous century. Both the serf and the “free” theaters of the early 19th century were the result of the development and crisis of the serf large-land, noble and vicegerent theater that functioned in parallel with it.
After the establishment of the court theater in St. Petersburg, the provincial nobility began to show interest in the city's theatrical "undertakings". There are deaf mentions that in 1764-1765 an "opera house" was created in Omsk, which was intended mainly for "polishing" the noble youth. In 1765, the governor of Novgorod, Yakov Efimovich Sievers, at a dinner with the heir Pavel, said "that he had a masquerade in Novgorod and that a theater was being started there." In the Elizavetgrad Theater in 1770, the comedy The Coffee House, composed by V. A. Chertkov, was staged. However, until the mid-70s of the XVIII century, these initiatives were of an accidental nature, having neither support among the urban population, nor any consistent support in the ruling circles.
In 1793, with the sanction of the governor, the theater of "noble lovers" was opened in the city of Penza. A special building for a hundred people was built for the theater in the city center. The theater existed until 1797 - as long as the famous theater-goer, playwright, amateur actor I. M. Dolgorukov remained the Penza vice-governor. Little information has been preserved about the governor's theater in Voronezh. We only know that the theater was "noble - amateur", that its initiator was the Voronezh governor V. A. Chertkov. The Pantheon magazine reports that "entrance to the theater was ... free", and "the best audience was invited to each performance by tickets, and the paradise was filled with people of the lower classes." After the death of Chertkov, in 1793 the "noble" theater was closed. Levanidov, who took the vicegerent post in 1796, tried to revive the stalled theater, but with the liquidation of the post of governor-general, the “noble” performances finally stopped.
Similar processes took place in a city as remote from central Russia as Irkutsk. The population of this city consisted mainly of merchants and bourgeoisie. But the circle of the urban nobility, for all its small number, was distinguished by solidarity and influence; it was formed almost exclusively from large officials, who made up the retinue of the Irkutsk governor. To meet the theatrical needs of this very narrow circle of the nobility, two theatrical undertakings were undertaken in Irkutsk, with the explicit patronage of the governor. The first is the "noble" amateur theatre, which has given performances since 1787; its organizer was the wife of a local official. The second undertaking is connected with the opening of the Noble Assembly in Irkutsk in 1799. Until 1803, theatrical performances were given here. They were also designed for an extremely narrow audience: only members of the assembly had the right to attend performances, and the last could be only the most eminent and wealthy citizens who paid an entrance fee of twenty rubles, a very significant amount at that time.
The beginning of the process, which received its true development only in the 19th century, is given the concept of two vicegerent theaters: Kaluga and Kharkov. The first was created by general-in-chief M.P. Krechetnikov, after the Kaluga province was transformed into a vicegerency by decree of August 24, 1776, which included the cities of Kaluga and Tula. Kaluga was an uncultured, but rich merchant city with a large number of Old Believers. Krechetnikov sets as his task to turn this city into a stronghold of the local nobility, scattered over various, sometimes very remote counties. He celebrates the beginning of his reign with balls, fireworks, masquerades, to which all local nobles are invited from the estates. In addition, Krechetnikov is considering the creation of a governor's theater, which would be under his personal supervision.
This theater was still very far from fulfilling the functions of a truly urban theater, that is, a theater designed to serve a wide circle of citizens. Being personally subordinate to the governor, he was used mainly to lure the county landed nobility. This is evidenced not only by the above excerpt from A. T. Bolotov’s Notes, but also by another of his testimonies: the memoirist reports that when Krechetnikov moved from Kaluga to Tula, the theater followed him.
Another provincial theater, about which we have some information - Kharkov - was also created in connection with the establishment of the governorship. On this occasion, on September 29, 1780, there was a festivity, fireworks and a theatrical performance on the University Hill. In 1781, the first regularly operating theater appeared in Kharkov. There is little information about him, but no doubt, and he was in full charge of the governor.
In the 80s of the XVIII century, the government did not interfere with the initiative of the local nobility to organize theaters in provincial cities. In the decree of Catherine II to Olsufiev of June 12, 1783, it is said, among other things, about the royal permission “everyone to start entertainment decent for the public, keeping only state laws and regulations in the Police Charter ...” Reader on the history of the Russian theater of the XVIII - XIX centuries .. - C 241.. It is interesting to compare this decree with another document signed by Catherine, which followed it in 1785 - "Charter of Letters to the Cities", which contributed to the development of local administrative and cultural centers. Catherine's decree strengthened the significance of the city, gave it a coat of arms, certain rights, encouraged the development of schools, theaters, etc. Rybakov Yu. S. Epochs and people of the Russian stage. 1823 - 1917. - M., 1989. - S. 118 .. Along with the main ruling class of nobles in cities, the concept of "city dweller" is officially introduced, which included all of its non-noble, but "free" population, which is given some rights.
The development of theater in the province is characterized in the period under review by the expansion of the network of theaters. Interest in the theater in the provinces was also revived by the fact that with the approval, and sometimes at the initiative of the central and provincial authorities in 1813-1814, a wave of charitable amateur performances swept through literally all Russian cities. The participants of these performances were nobles, officials and landowners. In almost all such performances, the recent victory of Russian weapons was glorified. All proceeds from the collection usually went to the families of the fallen soldiers or to the families of those devastated by the war.
The current situation in the country required, however, not only a quantitative increase in theaters and performances. It also demanded new forms of organization of theatrical work, more flexible, more capable of expressing the demands of the time than the old serf type of theater could do.
The revival of city life, the growth of entrepreneurship prompted some actors to create more or less independent profitable commercial theaters, free from direct subordination to the landowner or city official. This does not mean at all that already in the initial period of its existence, the new type of theater immediately and completely replaced the old, serf theater. In the period under review, in various cities of the province, in addition to numerous small traveling troupes, there were at least fifteen more or larger, or at least partially stationary theaters. Of these, six theaters were serfs (sometimes with civilian artists) and nine theaters were civilians (some of the actors in which were quitrent serfs).
It was the young free theatre, which was sometimes in dire need, that was destined to play a significant role in spreading theatrical culture throughout the vast territory of Russia. It was he who contributed to the rooting of the urgent need for theater among the general population. At the same time, it is significant that the disintegration of serfdom relations also concerns the fate of the serf theater. His ties with private estate life are increasingly weakening, performances are increasingly acquiring a public and paid character. The maintenance of a serf troupe or the exploitation of the talents of individual serf actors very often acquires a commercial character.
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