Salons of painting and sculpture For the first time - "Evening Moscow", 1927, August 10 and 11, No. 180, 181. I arrived in Paris when three huge Salons were open. About one of them - about the Salon of Decorative Arts - I have already written; the other two are devoted to pure painting and sculpture. In general, in a large

Chapter V. Enlightenment, Classicism, Sensibility: German Literature and "German" Art In the literary process of her era, Catherine participated simultaneously in several capacities. First, in the letter to Voltaire mentioned at the end of the previous chapter, she

Baroque and Classicism During the past few years, before the King gave up the Louvre with nobility and generosity, there had been much controversy about the purpose of this palace. Colbert had no doubt: the completion of the Louvre would strengthen the reputation of the young monarch, by that time already

In the painting of Italy at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. there are two main artistic directions: one is associated with the work of the Carracci brothers and received the name "Bologna academicism", the other - with the art of one of the largest artists of Italy in the 17th century. Caravaggio.

Bologna academicism- a direction that arose at the end of the 16th century. and took in the XVII century. significant place in Italian painting. Attitudes towards its representatives have changed over time. Contemporaries considered academicians to be outstanding masters, but a century later they were completely forgotten, and in the 19th century. accused of imitating the weaknesses of Renaissance painting.

“The Academy of those who have entered the right path” was the name of a small private workshop created in Bologna in 1585 by the artists cousins ​​Lodovico (1555-1619), Agostino (1557-1602) and Annibale (1560-1609) Carracci. Hence the name - "Bologna academism". They wanted to educate masters who would have a true idea of ​​​​beauty and were able to revive the art of painting, which, in their opinion, had fallen into decay.

This point of view was well founded. In the second half of the XVI century. The painters were greatly influenced by the theorists of Mannerism, a trend that arose in the art of Italy as early as the 1920s and 1930s. They argued that there are no artistic ideals that are common to all. The artist creates his works on the basis of divine inspiration, by its nature spontaneous, unpredictable and not limited by craft rules. Paints cannot convey the fullness and subtlety of the plan that God put into the soul of the artist, and therefore it is impossible to judge the value of a painting by its technical execution. Mastery training was not considered such a big deal.

The Academy opposed these views. There is an eternal ideal of beauty, the Carracci brothers said, it is embodied in the art of antiquity, the Renaissance, and above all in the work of Raphael. At the academy, the focus was on constant exercise in technical skill. According to the Carracci brothers, his level depended not only on the dexterity of the brush, but also on the education and sharpness of the intellect, so theoretical courses appeared in their program: history, mythology and anatomy.

The principles of the Bologna Academy, which was the prototype of all European academies of the future, can be traced in the work of the most talented of the brothers - Annibale Carracci (1560-1609). Carracci carefully studied and studied nature. He believed that nature is imperfect and needs to be transformed, ennobled in order for it to become a worthy subject of depiction in accordance with classical norms. Hence the inevitable abstraction, rhetoric of Carracci's images, pathos instead of genuine heroism and beauty. The art of Carracci turned out to be very timely, corresponding to the spirit of the official ideology, and was quickly recognized and spread.

The Carracci brothers are masters of monumental and decorative painting. One of the first works of the Bolognese academicians and their most famous work was made by Annibale and Agostino Carracci and several students in 1597-1604. - painting of the gallery of the Palazzo Farnese in Rome on the subjects of Ovid's "Metamorphoses" in the Palazzo Farnese in Rome. In their design, one can feel the strong influence of the monumental painting of Michelangelo. However, unlike him, the Carracci brothers in the first place are the abstract beauty of painting - the correctness of the drawing, the balance of color spots, a clear composition. The perfection of the form occupied them much more than the content. Annibale Carracci was also the creator of the so-called heroic landscape, that is, an idealized, fictional landscape, because nature, like man (according to the Bolognese), is imperfect, rude and requires refinement in order to be represented in art. This is a landscape deployed with the help of curtains in depth, with balanced masses of clumps of trees and an almost obligatory ruin, with small figures of people serving only as staffing to emphasize the greatness of nature. The color of the Bolognese is just as conditional: dark shadows, local colors clearly arranged according to the scheme, light sliding through the volumes.

At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries, the Bolognese painter Annibale Carracci (1560 - 1609), like Caravaggio, he became a reformer of Italian painting. Unlike the Lombard rebel, he was a zealous guardian of the old cultural traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, was the court painter of Cardinal Odoardo Farnese, was a brilliant decorator who created fresco paintings along with easel works. Going in different ways, both of them had a great influence on painting, not only Italian, but also other art schools that were being formed in the 17th century.

The works of Annibale Carracci convey a new attitude to the national tradition, which became necessary for the artist, when a different sense of nature and history was born at the end of the Renaissance style. The task of a new incarnation of reality was acute for Carracci, as well as for Caravaggio. But his elevated, and not free and spiritually relaxed, like a Lombard, attitude to the past, to tradition, takes on the character of an ideal, which the artist seeks to imitate. Naturalness and idealization, reality and myth intertwined in Annibale's art. And this principle of correlating nature with the ideal, the intellectual adjustment of the real image will form the basis of the activity of the masters of the classicism style, at the origins of which was the art of Annibale Carracci.

Annibale was the most gifted painter among the three Carracci brothers. He studied painting with his cousin Lodovico (1555 - 1619), engraving - with his brother Agostino (1557 - 1602). He traveled through the cities of Italy, visiting Venice, Parma, possibly Florence, and from 1582 he worked in Bologna. In the same year, the Carracci brothers founded here the "Academy of those who entered the true path" - one of the pictorial academies that existed in Italy since the end of the 16th century. From its walls came such famous masters of the Bologna school as Guercino, Domenichino, G. Reni, J. Lanfranco. The principles of education, as in all academies, were based on copying old Italian masters, studying nature, on subordinating the last idea of ​​selection, that is, correlation with some ideal samples that embodied the highest achievements of the masters of the 16th century. However, this method of embodying nature did not mean an eclectic combination of individual elements borrowed from different artists, did not detract from the poetic merits of the painting of each of the brothers and, especially, Annibale. A tragic role in the subsequent assessment of the activities of the Carracci brothers was played by the fake of their biographer Malvasia, who attributed the sonnet composed by him to Agostino and the letters to Annibala, in which the brothers' method was presented as eclectic, based on the theory of selection. This made it difficult for a long time to find out the true value of achieving a synthesis of reality and the ideal of Annibale.

During the Bolognese period (1582-1594), altar images, paintings of mythological content, landscapes, portraits, and several depictions of scenes of reality were created. The beauty of an idyllic world with mythological characters immersed in an environment shrouded in a delicate haze of light and air is conveyed in the canvases of the 1590s “Adonis Finds Venus” (1595, Vienna, Museum of the History of Art) and “Bacchante with Cupid and Two Satyrs” (Florence, Uffizi Gallery ). The images of deities, correlated with ancient plastic art and Renaissance painting as a kind of cultural tradition of the past, embody the elemental sensual fullness of life. This is facilitated by the color energy of the canvases, the bright coolish luminous colors of Annibale's Bolognese palette.

A different, not ennobled and hedonistic, but rough world of reality is depicted by Annibale in the painting "The Butcher's Shop" (early 1580s, Oxford, Christ Church). The meat carcasses written in intense red color, the common type of people working in a butcher's shop, however, does not evoke a feeling of frightening brutal naturalism. The writing of such "market scenes" was common among the masters of Northern Italy.

The grotesque side of Annibale's talent was revealed in his portrait-types "The Bean Eater" (early 1580s, Rome, Colonna Gallery), "Young Man with a Monkey" (Late 1580s, Florence, Uffizi Gallery). Annibale notes everything that does not correspond to the ideal, emphasizing the rudeness, inferiority, characteristic nature, conveying it truthfully, without correlation with artistic ideals. A wealth of unexpected connections with specific life situations manifested itself in Annibale's self-portraits: "Self-portrait with Antonio's nephew" (Milan, Brera Pinacoteca), "Self-portrait on a palette" (1590s, St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum; repetition - 1595 ?, Florence, Gallery Uffizi), revealing his keen interest in nature.

Ideal and nature appear in reconciled high harmony in the works Landscape with Flight into Egypt (c. 1603, Rome, Doria Pamphilj Gallery) and Rest of the Holy Family on the Flight into Egypt (c. 1600, St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum). ). Panoramas reproducing a huge universal picture of the world with ideal nature - hills, gorges, castles, visible in the distance by the river and the sea - include individual, chamber-sounding figures of saints, a shepherd, a boatman, a herd of animals. This ideal cosmic world and the concrete world are combined plastically and emotionally, giving rise to a feeling of a quiet idyllic flow of life. Annibale Carracci became the creator of the classic, so-called heroic, image of nature.

And at the same time, a sense of academic coldness in the perception of the classical heritage is palpable in the canvases (“Where are you coming?”, ca. 1600, London, National Gallery) and “Hercules at the Crossroads” (Naples, Capodimonte Gallery) with large, sculpture-like figures of biblical and mythological characters.

The murals in the gallery of Cardinal Farnese were the most significant work of the Roman period (1595-1609). The program of murals for the vault, end walls and lunettes was drawn up by Cardinal Agukchi and inspired by Ovid's Metamorphoses. A space opens up before the audience, in which the boundaries between illusion and reality are shifted. The transitions from framed paintings to the illusory architectural decoration of the wall are continuous, changing the ratio of "real" and "illusory", changing the roles of reality and decoration. Dynamic movement permeates the decorative rhythm of the paintings. And the principle of the spontaneous, as if uncontrolled flow of this movement, consistently carried out by Annibale, anticipates the principles of monumental baroque painting. The world of beauty and love, recreated by the artist's imagination, breathes with hedonistic sensuality - from the depicted breakthroughs into the open sky in the corners of the hall, it seems to be fanned by air and illuminated by the sun, giving a luminous dullness to bright saturated colors. "Ideal" and "real" in their inseparable synthesis regain inspirational sound in this painting.

The tragic themes of the burial and mourning of Christ, the Flood, the execution of saints excite the artist in his later work. The Pieta Farnese (1599-1600, Naples, Capodimonte Gallery) was written for the cardinal's family. The appeal to the traditional iconographic scheme did not prevent Annibale from filling the scene with deeply truthful feelings; giving the scene pathos, sincerely convey the grief of Mary, supporting the body of Christ.

Among the first generation of academy graduates, Guido Reni (1575-1642), Domenichino (real name Domenico Zampieri, 1581 - 1641) and Guercino (real name Francesco Barbieri, 1591 - 1666) were especially popular. The works of these painters are distinguished by a high level of technology, but at the same time, emotional coldness, a superficial reading of the plots. Nevertheless, each of them has interesting features.

Thus, in Domenichino's painting The Last Communion of St. Jerome (1614), a very expressive landscape attracts the viewer much more than the main action, pompous and overloaded with details.

"Aurora" (1621 - 1623), Guercino's plafond in the Roman villa Ludovisi, amazes the viewer with the breathtaking energy with which the goddess of dawn moves on a chariot and other characters. Guercino's drawings are interesting, as a rule, they are made with a pen with a light wash with a brush. In these compositions, the virtuosity of technique has become no longer a craft, but a high art.

A special place among academicians is occupied by Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). His landscapes have nothing to do with beautiful antiquity. Usually these are images of dense forest thickets, lonely rocks, desert plains with abandoned ruins. People are certainly present here: soldiers, vagabonds, especially often robbers (in Italy in the 17th century, gangs of robbers sometimes kept cities and entire provinces in fear). The robber in the works of Rosa symbolizes the presence in nature of some kind of gloomy, elemental force. The influence of academic traditions manifests itself in a clear, orderly composition, in an effort to "ennoble" and "correct" nature.

For all their inconsistency, the Bologna academicians played a very important role in the development of painting. The principles of artist education developed by the Carracci brothers formed the basis of the academic system of education that still exists today.

There are two views on academic painting. Until now, there are heated debates between connoisseurs. The main difference between painting and drawing (graphics) is that painting uses complex colors. Linocut, for example, may contain several prints in different colors, but still remain graphics. Monochrome painting (grisaille) is also not considered painting in the academic sense, although it is a preparatory stage for real painting.

Real painting, ideally, should contain a full-fledged complex color solution.

Requirements for academic painting: sculpting the form in tone and color, accurate reproduction of color balance, beautiful composition (arrangement on the canvas), displaying color and tonal nuances: reflections, halftones, shadows, textures, overall solid and harmonious range. The image must be complete, solid, harmonious and consistent with the setting (still life or sitter). In the Russian classical school of painting, it is not customary to fantasize and go beyond what nature is.

The controversy comes from the fact that not every artist manages to move away from the quality of dyed grisaille (like how black and white photographs used to be tinted), and fill the picture with the play and power of color, which the Impressionists once discovered. Some artists are naturally not given this. Not all painters have this interpretation, which does not prevent them from being quite successful graphic artists and illustrators.

Non-state educational institution

higher professional education

"Russian-British Institute of Management" (NOUVPO RBIM)

Faculty of full-time (correspondence) education

Chair Design

Direction (specialty) Environmental design

COURSE WORK

On the topic: " European academic art of the 19th century»

Completed by: Student of group D-435

Kryazheva E.I

Checked by: E.V. Konysheva,

candidate of pedagogical sciences,

Associate Professor of the Department of History of Foreign Countries

Chelyabinsk 2011

Introduction

The formation of academism. Bologna school - one of the schools of Italian painting

The painting of Bologna occupied a prominent place in Italian art already in the 14th century, standing out for its sharp specificity and expression of images. But the term "Bologna School" is associated mainly with one of the trends in Italian painting during the formation and flourishing of the Baroque.

The Bologna school arose after the founding by the Carracci brothers in Bologna around 1585 of the "Academy of those who entered the right path", where the doctrines of European academism and the forms of activity of future art academies were first formed.

In the 19th century, academism, led by A. Canova in Italy, D. Ingres in France, F. A. Bruni in Russia, relying on the emasculated tradition of classicism, fought against the romantics, realists and naturalists, but he himself perceived the external aspects of their methods, reborn into eclectic salon art

The study of nature was considered in the Bologna school a preparatory stage on the way to creating ideal images. The same goal was served by a strict system of rules of craftsmanship, artificially derived from the experience of the masters of the High Renaissance.

Artists of the Bologna School of the late 16th - 17th centuries. (Carracci, G. Reni, Domenichino, Guercino) performed mainly compositions on religious and mythological themes, bearing the stamp of idealization and often magnificent decorativeness.

The Bologna school played a dual role in the history of art: it contributed to the systematization of art education, its masters developed types of altarpieces, monumental and decorative painting, “heroic” landscapes characteristic of the Baroque, and in the early period they sometimes showed sincerity of feeling and originality of design (including hours in a portrait and genre painting); but in the future, the principles of the school, which spread in Italy (and later beyond its borders) and turned into dogma, gave rise in art only to cold abstraction and lifelessness.

Academism (French academisme) in the visual arts, a trend that developed in the art academies of the 16th-19th centuries. and based on dogmatic adherence to the external forms of classical art.

Academism contributed to the systematization of art education, the consolidation of classical traditions, which they turned, however, into a system of "eternal" canons and prescriptions.

Considering modern reality unworthy of “high” art, academism opposed it with timeless and non-national standards of beauty, idealized images, plots far from reality (from ancient mythology, the Bible, ancient history), which was emphasized by the conventionality and abstraction of modeling, color and drawing, theatricality of the composition, gestures and postures.

Academism arose at the end of the 16th century in Italy. The Bologna school, which developed rules for imitating the art of antiquity and the High Renaissance, as well as French academicism of the 2nd half of the 17th-18th centuries, mastered a number of principles and techniques of classicism, served as a model for many European and American art academies.

In the 19th century, academicism, relying on the emasculated tradition of classicism, fought against the romantics, realists and naturalists, but itself perceived the external aspects of their methods, degenerating into eclectic salon art.

Under the blows of the realists and the bourgeois-individualist opposition, academism disintegrated and only partially survived at the end of the 19th century and in the 20th century in a number of countries, mainly in the updated forms of neoclassicism.

The term "Academism" is also understood broadly - as any canonization, conversion to the immutable norm of the ideals and principles of the art of the past. In this sense, they speak, for example, of the academicism of some schools of Hellenistic and ancient Roman sculpture (which canonized the heritage of the ancient Greek classics) or a number of contemporary artists who sought to revive the concepts of historically obsolete schools and trends.

Representatives of academicism include: Jean Ingres, Paul Delaroche, Alexandre Cabanel, William Bouguereau, Jean Gerome, Jules Bastien-Lepage, Hans Makart, Marc Gleyre, Fedor Bruni, Karl Bryullov, Alexander Ivanov, Timofey Neff, Konstantin Makovsky, Heinrich Semiradsky

Academicism - the art of the "golden mean"

The art of the 19th century as a whole at first glance seems to be well studied. A large amount of scientific literature is devoted to this period. Monographs have been written about almost all major artists. Despite this, quite a few books have recently appeared containing both studies of previously unknown factual material and new interpretations. The 1960s and 1970s in Europe and America were marked by a surge of interest in the culture of the 19th century.

Numerous exhibitions have taken place. Especially attractive was the era of Romanticism with its blurred boundaries and different interpretations of the same artistic attitudes.

The previously rarely exhibited salon academic painting, which occupied in the history of art written in the 20th century, the place assigned to it by the avant-garde - the place of the background, the inert pictorial tradition, with which the new art struggled, came out of oblivion.

The development of interest in the art of the 19th century went, as it were, in reverse: from the turn of the century, modernity - in depth, to the middle of the century. The recently despised art of the salon has come under intense scrutiny from both art historians and the general public. The trend of shifting emphasis from significant phenomena and first names to the background and the general process has continued in recent times.

Huge exhibition “Romantic years. French Painting 1815-1850, which was displayed at the Grand Palais in Paris in 1996, represented Romanticism exclusively in its salon form.

The inclusion of layers of art that were not previously taken into account in the research orbit led to a conceptual revision of the entire artistic culture of the 19th century. Awareness of the need for a new look allowed the German researcher Zeitler back in the 1960s to title the volume devoted to the art of the 19th century, "The Unknown Century". The need to rehabilitate the academic salon art of the nineteenth century was emphasized by many researchers.

Perhaps the main problem of the art of the 19th century is academicism. The term academism is not clearly defined in the art literature and must be used with caution.

The word "academism" often defines two different artistic phenomena - academic classicism of the late 18th - early 19th centuries and academism of the mid-second half of the 19th century.

For example, such a broad interpretation was given to the concept by I.E. Grabar. He saw the beginning of academicism as early as the 18th century in the Baroque era and traced its development to his own time. Both of these directions really have a common basis, which is understood by the word academicism - namely, reliance on the classic tradition.

The academism of the 19th century, however, is a completely independent phenomenon. The end of the 1820s - 1830s can be considered the beginning of the formation of academism. Alexandre Benois was the first to note that historical moment when the stagnant academic classicism of A.I. Ivanova, A.E. Egorova, V.K. Shebuev received a new impetus for development in the form of an injection of romanticism.

According to Benois: “K.P. Bryullov and F.A. The Bruni poured new blood into the depleted, dry academic routine, and thus extended its existence for many years.

The combination of elements of classicism and romanticism in the work of these artists reflected the fact of the emergence of academism as an independent phenomenon of the middle - second half of the 19th century. The revival of academic painting, which "carried on their shoulders two strong and devoted strong men", became possible due to the inclusion of elements of a new artistic system in its structure. Actually, one can talk about academism from the moment when the classicist school began to use the achievements of such an alien direction as romanticism.

Romanticism did not compete with classicism, as in France, but easily united with it in academicism. Romanticism, like no other direction, was quickly adopted and assimilated by the general public as well. "The first-born of democracy, he was the darling of the crowd."

By the 1830s, the romantic worldview and romantic style had become widespread in a slightly reduced form adapted to the tastes of the public. According to A. Benois, "romantic fashion spread in the academic editorial board."

Thus, the essence of 19th century academicism is eclecticism. Academism became the basis that proved able to perceive and process all the changing stylistic trends in art of the 19th century. Eclecticism as a specific property of academicism was noted by I. Grabar: "Thanks to its amazing elasticity, it takes on a wide variety of forms - a real artistic werewolf."

In relation to the art of the mid-19th century, one can speak of academic romanticism, academic classicism and academic realism.

At the same time, a consistent change in these tendencies can also be traced. In the academicism of the 1820s, classical features predominate, in the 1830s-1850s - romantic ones, from the middle of the century realistic tendencies begin to prevail. A.N. Izergina wrote: “The big, perhaps one of the main problems of the entire 19th century, by no means only romanticism, is the problem of the “shadow”, which was cast by all alternating currents in the form of salon-academic art.

In line with academicism, there was an approach to nature, characteristic of A.G. Venetsianov and his school. The classic roots of Venetsianov's work have been noted by many researchers.

MM. Allenov showed how in the Venetian genre the opposition of “simple nature” and “graceful nature” was removed, which is the fundamental principle of the classic way of thinking, however, the Venetian genre does not contradict historical painting as “low” - “high”, but shows “high” in a different , a more natural incarnation."

The Venetian method did not contradict academicism. It is no coincidence that most of Venetsianov's students developed in line with general trends and at the end of the 1830s came to romantic academism, and then to naturalism, like, for example, S. Zaryanko.

In the 1850s, very important for the subsequent development of art, academic painting mastered the methods of realistic depiction of nature, which was reflected in the portraits, in particular, of E. Plushar, S. Zaryanko, N. Tyutryumov.

The absolutization of nature, the rigid fixation of the external appearance of the model, which replaced the idealization that was the basis of the classic school, did not completely supplant it.

Academism combined the imitation of a realistic depiction of nature and its idealization. The academic way of interpreting nature in the mid-19th century can be defined as "idealized naturalism".

Elements of the eclectic style of academism arose in the works of academic painters of the 1820s and especially of the 1830s and 40s, who worked at the intersection of classicism and romanticism - K. Bryullov and F. Bruni, due to the ambiguity of their artistic programs, in the open eclecticism of students and imitators K. Bryullov. However, in the minds of contemporaries, academicism as a style was not read at that time.

Any interpretation offered its own specific version of the interpretation of the image, destroyed the original ambivalence of style and diverted the work into the mainstream of one of the pictorial traditions - classic or romantic, although the eclecticism of this art was felt by contemporaries.

Alfred de Musset, who visited the Salon of 1836, wrote: “At first glance, the Salon presents such a variety, it brings together such different elements that one involuntarily wants to start with a general impression. What strikes you first? We do not see anything homogeneous here - no common idea, no common roots, no schools, no connection between artists - neither in plots, nor in manner. Everyone stands apart."

Critics used many terms - not only "romanticism" and "classicism". In conversations about art, there are words "realism", "naturalism", "academism", replacing "classicism". The French critic Delescluze, considering the current situation, wrote about the amazing "elasticity of the spirit" inherent in this time.

But none of his contemporaries speaks of a combination of different tendencies. Moreover, artists and critics, as a rule, theoretically adhered to the views of any one direction, although their work testified to eclecticism.

Very often, biographers and researchers interpret the views of the artist as a follower of a particular direction. And in accordance with this conviction, they build his image.

For example, in the monograph by E.N. Atsarkina, the image of Bryullov and his creative path are built on playing up the opposition of classicism and romanticism, and Bryullov is presented as an advanced artist, a fighter against obsolete classicism.

While a more dispassionate analysis of the work of artists of the 1830s and 40s allows us to get closer to understanding the essence of academicism in painting. E. Gordon writes: “The art of Bruni is the key to understanding such an important and in many ways still mysterious phenomenon as the academicism of the 19th century. With great care, using this term, erased from use and therefore indefinite, we note as the main property of academicism its ability to "adjust" to the aesthetic ideal of the era, "grow" into styles and trends. This property, inherent in the full extent of Bruni's painting, just gave rise to enrolling him in romance. But the material itself resists such a classification... Should we repeat the mistakes of our contemporaries, attributing some definite idea to Bruni's works, or should we assume "that everyone is right", that the possibility of different interpretations - depending on the attitude of the interpreter - is provided for in the very nature of the phenomenon.

Academism in painting expressed itself most fully in a large genre, in a historical picture. The historical genre has traditionally been considered by the Academy of Arts as the most important. The myth of the priority of the historical picture was so deeply rooted in the minds of the artists of the first half - the middle of the 19th century that the romantics O. Kiprensky and K. Bryullov, whose greatest successes relate to the field of portraiture, constantly experienced dissatisfaction due to the inability to express themselves in the "high genre" .

Artists of the middle-second half of the century do not reflect on this topic. In the new academicism, there was a decrease in ideas about the genre hierarchy, which was finally destroyed in the second half of the century. Most of the artists received the title of academicians for portraits or fashionable plot compositions - F. Moller for "The Kiss", A. Tyranov for "Girl with a Tambourine".

Academism was a clear rational system of rules that worked equally well in portraiture and in the big genre. The tasks of the portrait, of course, are perceived as less global.

In the late 1850s, N.N. Ge, who studied at the Academy, wrote: “It is much easier to make a portrait, nothing is required except execution.” However, the portrait not only dominated quantitatively in the genre structure of the mid-19th century, but also reflected the most important trends of the era. This was the inertia of romanticism. The portrait was the only genre in Russian art in which romantic ideas were consistently embodied. Romantics transferred their high ideas about the human personality to the perception of a particular person.

Thus, academism as an artistic phenomenon that combined the classic, romantic and realistic traditions became the dominant trend in 19th century painting. He showed extraordinary vitality, having existed up to the present day. This tenacity of academism is explained by its eclecticism, its ability to catch changes in artistic taste and adapt to them without breaking with the classicist method.

The dominance of eclectic tastes was more obvious in architecture. The term eclecticism refers to a large period in the history of architecture. In the form of eclecticism, a romantic worldview manifested itself in architecture. With the new architectural direction, the word eclecticism also came into use.

“Our age is eclectic, in everything its characteristic features are a smart choice,” wrote N. Kukolnik, surveying the latest buildings in St. Petersburg. Architectural historians experience difficulties in defining and distinguishing between different periods in the architecture of the second quarter - the middle of the 19th century. “An increasingly close study of the artistic processes in Russian architecture of the second half of the 19th century showed that the fundamental principles of architecture, which entered the special literature under the code name “eclecticism”, originated precisely in the era of romanticism under the undoubted influence of its artistic worldview.

At the same time, the signs of the architecture of the era of romanticism, while remaining rather vague, did not allow us to clearly distinguish it from the subsequent era - the era of eclecticism, which made the periodization of the architecture of the 19th century very conditional, ”says E.A. Borisov.

In recent years, the problem of academicism has attracted more and more attention from researchers around the world. Thanks to numerous exhibitions and new research, a huge amount of factual material that had previously remained in the shadows was studied.

As a result, a problem was posed that seems to be the main one for the art of the 19th century - the problem of academicism as an independent stylistic direction and eclecticism as the style-forming principle of the era.

The attitude towards academic art of the 19th century has changed. However, it has not been possible to develop clear criteria and definitions. The researchers noted that academism remained in a sense a mystery, an elusive artistic phenomenon.

The task of conceptual revision of the art of the 19th century was no less acute for Russian art historians. If Western art history and Russian pre-revolutionary criticism rejected the art of the academic salon from an aesthetic standpoint, then the Soviet one mainly from a social standpoint.

The stylistic aspects of academism in the second quarter of the 19th century have not been studied enough. Already for the critics of the World of Art, who stood on the other side of the line dividing the old and the new, the academic art of the middle - the second half of the 19th century became a symbol of routine. A. Benois, N. Wrangel, A. Efros spoke in the sharpest tone about the “endlessly boring”, in the words of N. Wrangel, academic portrait painters P. Shamshin, I. Makarov, N. Tyutryumov, T. Neff. S.K. was especially hard hit. Zaryanko, the "traitor" of A.G. Venetsianov. Benois wrote “... licked portraits of his last period, reminiscent of enlarged and colored photographs, clearly indicate that he could not resist, lonely, abandoned by everyone, in addition, a dry and limited person from the influence of general bad taste. His whole testament was reduced to some kind of real “photographing” of no matter what, without inner warmth, with completely unnecessary details, with a rude attack on the illusion.

Democratic criticism treated academicism with no less disdain. In many ways, a just negative attitude towards academism not only made it impossible to develop objective assessments, but also created disproportions in our ideas about academic and non-academic art, which in fact constituted a very small part in the 19th century. N.N. Kovalenskaya, in her article on the pre-peredvizhniki everyday genre, analyzed the genre and ideological and thematic structure of Russian painting in the mid-19th century, from which it is clear that socially oriented realistic painting accounted for only a small proportion. At the same time, Kovalenskaya rightly notes that "the new worldview had undoubted points of contact with academicism."

Subsequently, art historians proceeded from a completely opposite picture. Realism in painting had to defend its aesthetic ideals in a constant struggle with academicism. Wandering movement, which was formed in the fight against the Academy, had much in common with academism. N.N. wrote about the common roots of academicism and new realistic art. Kovalenskaya: “But just as the new aesthetics, being the antithesis of the academic one, was simultaneously connected with it dialectically in an objective setting and in apprenticeship, so the new art, despite its revolutionary nature, had a number of successive ties with the Academy that naturally followed from its essence. composition, in the priority of the drawing and in the tendency towards the predominance of man. She also showed some forms of concession of academic genre painting to emerging realism. The idea of ​​a common basis for academicism and realism was expressed in the early 1930s in an article by L.A. Dintses "Realism of the 60-80s" Based on the materials of the exhibition in the Russian Museum.

Speaking about the use of realism by academic painting, Dintses uses the term "academic realism". In 1934 I.V. Ginzburg was the first to formulate the idea that only an analysis of the reborn academism can finally help to understand the most complex relationship between academism and the Wanderers, their interaction and struggle.

Without an analysis of academicism, it is impossible to understand an earlier period: the 1830s-50s. In order to compile an objective picture of Russian art, it is necessary to take into account the proportion of the distribution of artistic forces that really existed in the middle - second half of the 19th century. Until recently, in our art history there was a generally recognized concept of the development of Russian realism in the 19th century with well-established assessments of individual phenomena and their correlation.

Some of the concepts that make up the essence of academism were given a qualitative assessment. Academicism was reproached with the features that made up its essence, for example, its eclecticism. The literature of the last decades on Russian academic art is not numerous. The works of A.G. Vereshchagina and M.M. Rakova devoted to historical academic painting. However, in these works, the view of the art of the 19th century according to the genre scheme is preserved, so that academic painting is identified with the historical picture par excellence.

In the book on historical painting of the 1860s, A.G. Vereshchagina, without defining the essence of academism, notes its main features: “However, the contradictions between classicism and romanticism were not antagonistic. This is noticeable in the work of Bryullov, Bruni and many others who went through the classicist school of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. It was then that a tangle of contradictions began in their work, which each of them will unravel all his life, in a difficult search for realistic imagery, not immediately and not without difficulty breaking the threads that connect with the traditions of classicism.

However, she believes that academic historical painting is still fundamentally opposed to realism and does not reveal the eclectic nature of academicism. In the early 1980s, monographs by A.G. Vereshchagina about F.A. Bruni and E.F. Petinova about P.V. Basin.

Opening the forgotten pages of the history of art, they also make a significant step in the study of the most important problem of art in the 19th century - academism. The dissertation and articles of E.S. Gordon, in which the development of academic painting is presented as the evolution of an independent stylistic direction of the middle - second half of the 19th century, designated by the concept of academicism.

She made an attempt to more clearly define this concept, as a result of which an important idea was expressed that the property of academism to elude the definition of the researcher is an expression of its main quality, which consists in implanting all advanced pictorial trends, faking them, using them to gain popularity. . Precise formulations concerning the essence of academism are contained in a small but very capacious review by E. Gordon on books about Fedor Bruni and Petr Basin.

Unfortunately, in the last decade, the attempt to understand the nature of academism has not moved forward. And although the attitude towards academicism has clearly changed, which was indirectly reflected in the views on various phenomena, this change has not found a place in the scientific literature.

Academism, neither Western nor Russian, unlike Europe, has not aroused interest in our art history. In European histories of art, in our presentation, it is simply omitted. In particular, in the book by N. Kalitina about the French portrait of the 19th century, there is no salon academic portrait.

HELL. Chegodaev, who studied the art of France in the 19th century and devoted a large article to the French salon, treated him with a prejudice characteristic of all domestic art history of that time. But, despite the negative attitude towards "the boundless swampy lowlands of the artistic life of the then France", he still recognizes the presence in the salon academism of "a harmonious system of aesthetic ideas, traditions and principles."

Academism of the 1830-50s can be called "middle art" by analogy with the French art of the "golden mean". This art is characterized by a number of stylistic components. Its middleness consists in eclecticism, a position between various, and mutually exclusive, stylistic tendencies.

The French term "le juste milieu" - "golden mean" (in English "the middle of the road") was introduced into the history of art by the French researcher Leon Rosenthal.

Most of the artists between 1820-1860, kept between obsolete classicism and rebellious romanticism, were grouped by him under the conditional name "le juste milieu". These artists did not form a group with consistent principles, there were no leaders among them. The most famous masters were Paul Delaroche, Horace Vernet, but mostly they included numerous less significant figures.

The only thing that was common between them was eclecticism - the position between different stylistic trends, as well as the desire to be understandable and in demand by the public.

The term had political analogies. Louis Philippe declared his intentions to stick to the "golden mean", relying on moderation and laws, to balance between the claims of the parties. In these words, the political principle of the middle classes was formulated - a compromise between radical monarchism and left-wing republican views. The principle of compromise prevailed in art as well.

In a review of the Salon of 1831, the main principles of the “golden mean” school were characterized as follows: “a conscientious drawing, but not reaching the Jansenism practiced by Ingres; effect, but on condition that not everything is sacrificed to it; color, but as close as possible to nature and not using strange tones that always turn the real into the fantastic; poetry that doesn't necessarily need hell, graves, dreams and ugliness as its ideal."

In relation to the Russian situation, all this is "too much." But if we discard this "French" redundancy, and leave only the essence of the matter, it will be clear that the same words can be used to characterize Russian painting of the Bryullov direction - early academicism, which is primarily felt as "the art of the middle path."

The definition of "middle art" can raise many objections, firstly, because of the lack of precedents and, secondly, because it is really inaccurate.

In a conversation about the portrait genre, accusations of inaccuracy can be avoided by using the expressions "fashion portrait painter" or "secular portrait painter"; these words are more neutral, but apply only to a portrait and, ultimately, do not reflect the essence of the matter. The development of a more accurate conceptual apparatus is possible only in the process of mastering this material. It remains to be hoped that in the future art historians will either find some other more accurate words, or get used to the existing ones, as happened with the “primitive” and its conceptual apparatus, the lack of development of which now almost causes no complaints.

Now we can only talk about an approximate definition of the main historical, sociological and aesthetic parameters of this phenomenon. In justification, it can be noted that, for example, in French, artistic terms do not require semantic specificity, in particular, the mentioned expression “le juste milieu” is incomprehensible without comments.

Even more strangely, the French designate the salon academic painting of the second half of the 19th century - “la peinture pompiers” - the painting of firefighters (the helmets of ancient Greek heroes in the paintings of academicians were associated with the helmets of firefighters). Moreover, the word pompier received a new meaning - vulgar, banal.

Almost all phenomena of the 19th century require clarification of concepts. The art of the 20th century called into question all the values ​​of the previous century. This is one of the reasons why most of the concepts of 19th century art do not have clear definitions. Neither "academism" nor "realism" has precise definitions; "middle" and even "salon" art is difficult to isolate. Romanticism and Biedermeier do not have clearly defined categories and temporal boundaries.

The boundaries of both phenomena are indefinite, blurred, as well as their style is indefinite. Eclecticism and historicism in the architecture of the 19th century have only recently received more or less clear definitions. And the point is not only insufficient attention to the culture of the middle of the 19th century by its researchers, but also the complexity of this outwardly prosperous, conformal, “bourgeois” time.

The eclecticism of the culture of the 19th century, the blurring of boundaries, stylistic uncertainty, the ambiguity of artistic programs, gives the culture of the 19th century the ability to elude the definitions of researchers and makes it, according to many, difficult to comprehend.

Another important issue is the ratio of "middle" art and Biedermeier. Already in the concepts themselves there is an analogy.

"Biedermann" (a decent person), which gave the name to the period in German art, and the "average" or "private person" in Russia are essentially one and the same.

Initially, Biedermeier meant the lifestyle of the petty bourgeoisie in Germany and Austria. Having calmed down after the political storms and upheavals of the Napoleonic wars, Europe longed for peace, a calm and orderly life. “The burghers, cultivating their way of life, sought to build their ideas about life, their taste into a kind of law, to extend their rules to all spheres of life. The time has come for the empire of a private individual.”

Over the past ten years, the qualitative assessment of this period in European art has changed. There have been numerous exhibitions of Biedermeier art in major European museums. In 1997, a new exhibition of 19th-century art opened in the Vienna Belvedere, with the Biedermeier taking center stage. Biedermeier has become almost the main category that unites the art of the second third of the 19th century. Under the concept of Biedermeier, more and more broad and versatile phenomena fall.

In recent years, the concept of Biedermeier has been extended to many phenomena that are not directly related to art. Biedermeier is primarily understood as a “lifestyle”, which includes not only the interior, applied art, but also the urban environment, public life, the relationship of the “private person” with public institutions, but also the wider worldview of the “average”, “private” person in new living environment.

Romantics, opposing their "I" to the world around them, won the right to personal artistic taste. In the Biedermeier the right to personal inclinations and personal taste was given to the most ordinary "private person", the layman. No matter how ridiculous, ordinary, “petty-bourgeois”, “philistine” the preferences of Mr. Biedermeier may seem at first, no matter how the German poets who gave birth to him mocked them, there was a great sense in their attention to this gentleman. Not only an exceptional romantic person had a unique inner world, but every "average" person. The characteristics of the Biedermeier are dominated by its external features: the researchers note the intimacy, intimacy of this art, its focus on a solitary private life, on what reflected the existence of “a modest Biedermeier who, content with his little room, a tiny garden, life in a place forgotten by God, managed to find in the fate of the unprestigious profession of a modest teacher, the innocent joys of earthly existence”38. And this figurative impression, expressed in the name of the direction, almost overlaps its complex stylistic structure. Biedermeier refers to a fairly wide range of phenomena. In some books on German art, it is more about the art of the Biedermeier period in general. For example, P.F. Schmidt includes here some Nazarenes and "pure" romantics.

The same point of view is shared by D.V. Sarabyanov: “In Germany, if the Biedermeier does not cover everything, then at least it comes into contact with all the main phenomena and trends in art of the 1920s and 1940s. Biedermeier researchers find in it a complex genre structure. Here are portraits, and everyday paintings, and historical genre, and landscapes, and urban views, and military scenes, and all sorts of animalistic experiments related to the military theme. Not to mention the fact that fairly strong links between the Biedermeier masters and the Nazarenes are revealed, and in turn, some Nazarenes turn out to be "almost" Biedermeier masters. As you can see, the German painting of three decades has one of the main problems is that general concept, which is united by the Biedermeier category. Being basically early, not self-realized academicism, Biedermeier does not form its own specific style, but combines different things in the post-romantic art of Germany and Austria.

Signs of academic art

We have already clarified enough that by academicism one should mean not only the creativity of art schools called academies, but the whole trend, which received this name because it found a life-giving source in the schools mentioned.

This trend was so strong and responded so well to a whole category of demands in European culture of four centuries that it did not necessarily need artificial support of an artistic and pedagogical nature, but from itself gave rise to a well-known system of art education.

Depending on this, we can meet both artists who came out of the academy and do not have the character of academicism, and characteristically academic artists who developed outside the academy and launched an extremely fruitful activity in such centers where they did not even think about founding schools. Sometimes it was precisely this activity of artists of academic coloring that brought to life a school that continued to exist after the death of its creator.

Signs of academic art remain for us:

lack of direct life impressions,

the predominance of tradition (or, more often, imaginary traditions, some kind of "superstition of art") over free creativity, the associated timidity of the concept and a tendency to use ready-made schemes

Finally, characteristic of the academy is the attitude towards everything most reverent and significant in life, as to some kind of "disorder". At the same time, an academic artist usually has the right drawing and the ability to fold composition, and, conversely, in rare cases - beautiful colors.

Among the academics we meet spectacular virtuosos, people who without hesitation solve the problems assigned to them, equilibrating on three or four ready-made formulas. These same artists often turn out to be very suitable decorators due to the fact that they placed discipline above all else, as well as the uniformity and coordination of collective creativity.

Continuing our review of academic art, we will find its representatives everywhere - in Italy, and this is quite understandable, because in a politically divided country, spiritual culture was subject to the same principles, dictated only slowly and gradually losing its power by the church.

However, in Venice, in Naples, in Genoa and in Milan, other art continued to exist in parallel. In Venice, the living art of Titian was too revered, and academism here finally leaked out and came out only towards the end of the 19th century.

Naples and Sicily, under the scepter of the Spanish kings, became, as it were, Spanish provinces in the artistic sense, which means that more ingenuous religious ideals could live in them, which in turn refreshed the entire culture of these countries.

Genoa benefited from its commercial relations with the Netherlands; here the Roman, Florentine and Bolognese currents met and fought against the influences of Rubens, Van Dyck and even Rembrandt and often had to give way to these foreign elements.

Finally, the art of Milan, which, like Naples, became a semi-Spanish city and completely forgot about the graceful art of Leonardo and Luini, received some new strength and vivacity.

When we turn to decorators, it is in these centers that we will find the best masters of murals, which, however, did not prevent the cities listed from giving a number of characteristic “academicians”.

We will find the fewest academicians in Venice, and even those artists whom we would name here must be quoted with reservation, for even their work is not always distinguished by an academic character, and, on the contrary, it often shows the vitality of the great art of the Cinquecento. Palma the Younger is sometimes boring, sometimes ordinary, then, on the contrary, he manages to almost rise to the height of Tintoretto; in Liberia or Celesti there are cold, sugary pictures in the taste of some Bolognese, but most of their works are rather vital in their sensuality; in particular, Libery proved to be a brilliant decorator, and he has a certain role in the evolution of monumental painting; the master's painting in Palazzo Ducale - "The Battle of the Dardanelles" - "withstands" even the proximity to the masterpieces of Tintoretto and Veronese. And Padovanino either repels with some pomposity in the taste of Caracci, or seduces with its spontaneity, with its thick, rich colors.

19th century European academic art artists

Academic artists of the 19th century, especially William-Adolf Bouguereau, were not only modern and kept pace with the main historical canvas of art, but also directly developed it. They labored at what would eventually be regarded as the most important crossroads in history, when mankind, after countless generations of vassals and slaves, would cast off their chains and re-establish society on a democratic basis. They labored using their creative word in a newly found political philosophy.

Artists, unlike the writers and poets of those times, were not only misrepresented in school textbooks, but were deliberately denigrated in articles, catalogs, and even educational reference books and fiction.

Everything written at that time can be interpreted as mass propaganda of the leading modernists, clearly pursuing their own interests. The interests of modernists are far from great art, history, traditional education. But we do need to be responsible for the next generation.

The names of many great and experienced artists of that time have been lost or underestimated. Only until the middle of the 19th century did outstanding or almost outstanding artists receive an assessment of their work on merit, and rightfully entered the history of art.

The work of the leading artists of the 19th century ciphered the achievements of mankind and connected the intermediate links of the centuries. Human societies were ruled by emperors and kings, they were anointed to the throne by divine consent to a civilization based on the power of law, where the government is carried out according to the laws established by the ruler and with his consent.

William Adolphe Bouguereau

William-Adolphe Bouguereau, French painter, the largest representative of the salon academic painting. Born November 30, 1825 in La Rochelle. Studied painting at the Royal School of Fine Arts. At the end of the school he received the main prize - a trip to Italy. Upon his return from Rome, for some time he painted frescoes in the style of the Italian Renaissance in the houses of the French bourgeoisie. Having collected the necessary capital, he finally devoted himself to his beloved work - academic painting.

Bouguereau's career as an academic painter was quite successful, the artist enjoyed the recognition and favor of critics and exhibited his paintings in the annual Parisian salons for more than fifty years. At the exhibitions of the Paris Salon in 1878 and 1885, he was awarded the highest award - a gold medal, as the best painter of the year in France.

The paintings of William-Adolf Bouguereau on historical, mythological, biblical and allegorical subjects were carefully composed and painstakingly written out, down to the smallest detail.

The most famous canvases of the painter:

"The Ecstasy of Psyche", 1844,

"Mercy", 1878,

"Birth of Venus", 1879,

"Nymphs and Satyr", 1881,

"Youth of Bacchus", 1884,

Bouguereau also performed murals and portraits. Bouguereau opposed the exhibition of the Impressionists' work in the Parisian salons, considering their paintings simply unfinished sketches.

After his death and the period of oblivion of his work, Bouguereau's work was appreciated by modern critics as a significant contribution to the development of the genre of academic painting. A major retrospective exhibition of Bouguereau's work opened in Paris in 1984 and has since been shown in Montreal, Hartford and New York.

Bouguereau was one of the leading artists of his time

Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique

Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867), French painter and draftsman.

Ingres entered the history of French painting primarily as a magnificent portrait painter. Among the many portraits he painted, it is especially worth noting the portraits of the supplier of the imperial army, Philibert Riviera, his wife and daughter Caroline, of which the last one is best known (all three - 1805); portraits of Napoleon - the first consul (1803-04) and the emperor (1806); Louis-François Bertin (senior), director of the Journal des débats (1832 G).

From 1796 he studied with Jacques Louis David in Paris. In 1806-1824 he worked in Italy, where he studied the art of the Renaissance and especially the work of Raphael.

In 1834-1841 he was director of the French Academy in Rome.

Ingres was the first of the artists to reduce the problem of art to the originality of artistic vision. That is why, despite the classical orientation, his painting attracted the close interest of the Impressionists (Degas, Renoir), Cezanne, Post-Impressionists (especially Seurat), Picasso.

Ingres painted on literary, mythological, historical subjects.

"Jupiter and Thetis", 1811, Granet Museum, Aix-en-Provence;

"Vow of Louis XIII", 1824, cathedral in Montauban;

"The Apotheosis of Homer", 1827, Louvre, Paris.

Portraits that are distinguished by the accuracy of observations and the utmost truthfulness of psychological characteristics

“Portrait of L.F. Bertin, 1832, Louvre, Paris.

Idealized and at the same time full of a keen sense of the real beauty of the nude

"Bather Volpenson", 1808, Louvre, Paris

"Great Odalisque", 1814, Louvre, Paris.

Ingres's works, especially early ones, are marked by classical harmony of composition, a subtle sense of color, and the harmony of a clear, light color, but the main role in his work was played by a flexible, plastically expressive linear drawing.

If Ingres historical painting seems traditional, then his magnificent portraits and sketches from nature are a valuable part of the French artistic culture of the 19th century.

One of the first Ingres was able to feel and convey not only the peculiar appearance of many people of that time, but also the traits of their characters - selfish calculation, callousness, prosaic personality in some, and kindness and spirituality in others.

Chased form, impeccable drawing, beauty of silhouettes determine the style of Ingres' portraits. The accuracy of observation allows the artist to convey the manner of holding and the specific gesture of each person (“portrait of Philibert Rivière”, 1805; “portrait of Madame Rivière”, 1805, both paintings - Paris, Louvre; “portrait of Madame Devose”, 1807, “portrait of Chantilly ", Condé Museum).

Ingres himself did not consider the portrait genre worthy of a real artist, although it was in the field of portrait that he created his most significant works. Careful observation of nature and admiration for its perfect forms are associated with the artist’s success in creating a number of poetic female images in the paintings “Great Odalisque” (1814, Paris, Louvre), “Source” (1820-1856, Paris, Louvre); in the last painting, Ingres sought to embody the ideal of "eternal beauty".

Having finished this work begun in his early years in old age, Ingres confirmed his loyalty to youthful aspirations and his preserved sense of beauty.

If for Ingres the appeal to antiquity consisted primarily of admiration for the ideal perfection of strength and the purity of the images of high Greek classics, then numerous representatives of official art who considered themselves his followers flooded the Salons (exhibition halls) with “odalisques” and “frips”, using antiquity only as a pretext for images of a naked female body.

The later work of Ingres, with the cold abstraction of images characteristic of this period, had a significant impact on the development of academicism in French art of the 19th century.

Delaroche Paul

Paul Delaro ?sh (fr. Paul Delaroche, real name Hippolyte; fr. Hippolyte; July 17, 1797, Paris - November 4, 1856) - the famous French historical painter, a representative of academicism.

He received his initial art education while studying with the painter Antoine Gros, visited Italy; worked in Paris.

Feeling at first attracted to landscape painting, he studied it with Vatele, but soon moved from him to the historical painter C. Debord, and then worked for four years under the guidance of Baron Gros.

"Portrait of Peter I" (1838) first appeared before the public in the Paris Salon of 1822 with a painting that still strongly responded to Gros's somewhat pompous manner, but already testified to the outstanding talent of the artist

In 1832, Delaroche had already gained such fame that he was elected a member of the institute. The following year, he received a professorship at the Paris School of Fine Arts, in 1834 he went to Italy, where he married the only daughter of the painter O. Vernet and spent three years.

In the paintings of Delaroche, recreating the dramatic episodes of European history "Children of Edward V", 1831, Louvre, Paris; "The Assassination of the Duke of Guise", 1834, Condé Museum, Chantilly

The prosaic-everyday interpretation of the historical event, the desire for external plausibility of the setting, costumes and everyday details are combined with the amusingness of romantic plots, the idealization of the images of historical figures.

Delaroche also created huge-scale murals depicting artists of the past at the School of Fine Arts in Paris "Hemicycle", 1837-1842.

A number of portraits and religious compositions. The Hermitage in St. Petersburg houses several paintings by Paul Delaroche, including:

"Cromwell at the tomb of the English king Charles I" (1849)

"Christian martyr during the persecutions during the reign of Emperor Diocletian in the Tiber" (1853).

In subsequent works, exhibited in the salon of 1824, Delaroche is already largely free from the influence of his teacher and, in general, from academic routine:

"Filippo Lippi's love for his nun model",

The Cardinal Archbishop of Winchester interrogates Joan Ark in her dungeon",

"St. Vincent de Paul preaching in front of the court of Louis XII

He manages to completely get rid of which in his further works:

"The Death of President Duranti" (located in the meeting room of the French Council of State),

"Death of the English Queen Elizabeth" (in the Louvre Museum),

"Miss MacDonald Gives Relief to the Last Pretender After the Battle of Culoden, April 27, 1746" etc.

Having joined the new ideas of the head of the romantic school, Eugene Delacroix, he, guided by a bright mind and a subtle aesthetic sense, implemented these ideas in his work with restraint, being careful not to exaggerate the drama of the depicted scenes, not being carried away by excessively sharp effects, thinking deeply about his compositions and wisely using excellently studied technical means. Delaroche's paintings on subjects borrowed from English and French history were met with unanimous praise from critics and soon became popular through publication in engravings and lithographs:

"Children of the English King Edward IV in the Tower of London,

"The cardinal is carrying his captives of Saint-Mars and de-Tux"

"Mazarin Dying Among Court Cavaliers and Ladies"

Cromwell before the coffin cor. Karl Stewart "(the first copy is in the Nimes Museum, the repetition is in the Kushelev Gallery, in St. Petersburg. Academic. Art.),

"The Execution of Jane Gray"

"Murder Hertz. Giza

Upon returning to Paris in 1834 from Italy, he exhibited in the salon of 1837:

"Lord Staffort going to his execution"

"Karl Stuart being insulted by Cromwellian soldiers",

"St. Cecilia",

And since then, he no longer participated in public exhibitions, preferring to show his finished works to art lovers in his studio.

In 1837, he set about the main work of his life - a colossal wall painting (15 meters long and 4.5 meters wide), which occupies a semicircular tribune in the assembly hall of the School of Fine Arts and, as a result, is known as the "Semicircles" (Hémi cycle).

Here, in a majestic multi-figured composition, he presented allegorical personifications of figurative arts, distributing award wreaths in the presence of a host of great artists of all peoples and times, from ancient times to the 17th century. Upon completion (in 1841) of this monumental work, perfectly in harmony with the architecture of the hall, most appropriate to its purpose, distinguished by the beauty and variety of grouping, the brilliance of colors and the virtuosity of execution, Delaroche continued to work tirelessly, constantly improving himself and trying to get rid of the last traces of emphasis imposed on him by his upbringing.

At this time, he took themes for his paintings mainly from sacred and ecclesiastical history, and after a second trip to Italy (in 1844) he painted scenes from life there and, finally, after the death of his wife (in 1845), he especially fell in love with tragic and those that express the struggle of great characters with an inexorable fate.

The most remarkable works of Delaroche for the last period of his activity can be considered:

"Descent from the Cross"

"The Mother of God during the procession of Christ to Golgotha",

"Our Lady at the Foot of the Cross"

"Return from Golgotha"

"Martyr of the times of Diocletian"

"Marie Antoinette after the announcement of her death sentence",

"The Last Farewell of the Girondins"

"Napoleon at Fontainebleau"

the unfinished "Rock of St. Helena."

Portraits:

"Portrait of Henrietta Sontag". 1831. Hermitage

Delaroche wrote excellent portraits and immortalized with his brush many prominent people of his era, for example, Pope Gregory XVI, Guizot, Thiers, Changarnier, Remus, Pourtales, the singer Sontag and others. The best of his contemporary engravers: Reynolds, Prudhon, F. Girard, Anrichel- Dupont, François, E. Girardet, Mercury and Calamatta considered it flattering to reproduce his paintings and portraits.

Pupils: Boisseau, Alfred; Yebens, Adolf; Ernest Augustin Gendron

Bastien-Lepage Jules

French painter Bastien-Lepage was born on November 1, 1848 in Danvillers in Lorraine. He studied under Alexandre Cabanel, then from 1867 at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He regularly participated in the exhibitions of the Salon and first attracted the attention of critics as the creator of the painting "Spring Song", 1874.

Bastien-Lepage painted portraits, historical compositions "Vision of Joan of Arc", 1880, Metropolitan Museum of Art

But he is best known for his paintings with scenes from the life of Lorraine peasants. To enhance the lyrical expressiveness of the images of people and nature Bastien-Lepage

At school, he became friends with the future realist painter, fellow thinker Pascal Danyan-Bouvet. After being seriously wounded during the German-French war of 1870, he returned to his native village.

In 1875, the work "The Annunciation to the Shepherds" (l "Annonciation aux bergers) allowed him to become the second in the competition for the Rome Prize.

Often resorted to the open air "Haymaking", 1877, Louvre, Paris; "Village Love", 1882, State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow; "Flower girl", 1882

His canvases are placed in the largest museums of the world: in Paris, London, New York, Melbourne, Philadelphia.

"Jeanne d Ark, 1879, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

He did not have time to fully express his talent, as he died at the age of 36 in his studio in Paris. At the burial site in Danvilliers, where there was an orchard, his brother Emile Bastien designed and built a park (Parc des Rainettes).

Already a well-known architect, after the death of his brother, Emil became a landscape painter. In the churchyard there is a bronze monument to Bastien-Lepage by Auguste Rodin.

In the works of the artist, depicting scenes of rural life in every detail, the simplicity and inexperience of the customs of the villagers are praised with the sentimentality characteristic of this era.

In one of the halls of French painting of the State Museum of Fine Arts named after A. S. Pushkin, there is a painting “Village Love” (1882) by Jules Bastien-Lepage. Once it was in the collection of S. M. Tretyakov. With great love, he collected canvases by French masters of realistic landscape - the Barbizons, works by C. Corot and works by artists of the peasant genre in French painting of the last quarter of the 19th century - such as L. Lermitte, P.-A.-J. Danyan-Bouvre and their recognized idol J. Bastien-Lepage. The artistic youth of Moscow hurried to Tretyakov on Prechistensky Boulevard to see the "French". Among them were often still little-known V. A. Serov and M. V. Nesterov. “I go there every Sunday to watch Village Love,” Serov admitted.

Bastien-Lepage developed under the influence of two mighty talents of mid-century French art - Millet and Courbet. A native of the peasants of Lorraine, who was interrupted by odd jobs during his studies, Bastien managed not to break away from his native roots, and they became the “castal key” of his inspiration. True, he was not up to the selfless asceticism of Millet, who (according to R. Rolland) "had a lofty and stern understanding of reality", nor the heroic audacity of the Communard Courbet, but some of the ideas of his predecessors Bastien well learned and developed in his art.

He visited and worked in various European countries, England, Algeria, but the most fruitful studies were in his native village of Danviller. Bastien's motto was "to convey nature exactly."

Painstaking work in the open air, the desire to capture the subtle color shades of the earth, foliage, sky, to convey the endless monotonous melody of peasant life, to shift the works and days of his heroes into quiet, peaceful poetry - all this earned him a short, but rather bright fame. Bastien's paintings of the 70s-early 80s-

"Haymaking",

"Woman Picking Potatoes"

"Country Love"

"Evening in the Village"

"Forge" and others - brought a stream of fresh air into the musty atmosphere of the Paris Salon. Of course, they could not decisively change the alignment of artistic forces during the Third Republic, which was dominated by the apologists of the exhausted, but also aggressive academicism - T. Couture, A. Cabanel, A. Bouguereau, etc.; and yet, undoubtedly, the activity of Bastien and the artists of his circle had a progressive significance to a large extent.

The thematic, figurative, artistic, coloristic traditions of painting of the 40-60s-Barbizons, Corot, Millet-Bastien translates into a plan of greater psychological detailing of images, genre-domestic concreteness, taking into account certain plein-air innovations. He overcame the coloristic limitations of Millet, who achieved color harmony due to a certain general brownish tone, and generally solved the problem of a consistent connection between a person and the surrounding landscape environment, which Courbet did not succeed in.

The heavy color of the Barbizons is cleared on his palette, approaching the natural sonority of color. But if you remember that next to him, but almost without intersecting, the Impressionists worked, with much more fundamental courage turned to the sun, the sky, the water shining with multi-colored highlights, the human body, colored with color reflections, then the successes and achievements of Bastien will seem much more modest, more compromise and more archaic. True, one quality of his art favorably distinguishes Bastien's painting from the painting of his contemporaries-retrogrades, and his contemporaries-"revolutionaries": he retained the type of monumentalized two-component painting in nature.

Combining the landscape and the portrait, the artist deprived the everyday genre of the long-winded plot narrative, giving it features of contemplation. Portraiture, which in its turn is implicitly present in concrete characterization, did not become psychologically self-sufficient.

All these problems were new for Russian painting, rather than French. Here is the reason for those high ratings, which now seem surprisingly immoderate, which caused the art of Bastien among Russian artists. In the 1980s our art was at a crossroads. The traditions of great classical art have long degenerated into frightening academicism, the realistic aesthetics of the Wanderers were in crisis, and the trends of impressionism, symbolism, and modernity had not yet become stable and definite. The artists turned to the national and close - nature, the circle of friends - that "pleasant" where Valentin Serov, Mikhail Nesterov, members of the Abramtsevo circle rushed.

“The Girl Illuminated by the Sun”, “The Girl with Peaches” are largely generated by tasks common to the Russian painter and the French master. In 1889, Serov wrote to I. S. Ostroukhov from Paris: “In terms of art, I remain faithful to Bastien.”

And for Nesterov, who, like Serov, visited the World Exhibition in Paris in 1889, Bastien’s painting “The Vision of Joan of Arc” shown there (where, in his words, “the task of contemplation, inner vision is transferred with supernatural power”) is a lot gave for his own "Vision to the youth Bartholomew."

The same Nesterov wrote about "Village Love" that "this picture, in its innermost, deepest meaning, is more Russian than French."

His words could serve as an epigraph for some touching short story from the last years of Bastien's life, when the artist dying of consumption was overtaken by the enthusiastic gratitude of another Russian colleague. It was young, and already sentenced to death from the same consumption, Maria Bashkirtseva.

Bastien's art illuminated her own work, and their friendship, which lasted the last two years of both of their lives (Maria died a month and a half earlier), sounds like an elegiac and mournful accompaniment to their untimely death. But one should not think that even in this case, complicated by lyrical pathos, Bastien's influence was overwhelming: Bashkirtseva's art was stronger and more courageous, richer in searches, and she quickly enough, despite all her reverence, realized the limitations of Bastien's artistic concept.

Subsequently, both Serov and Nesterov, these great and original masters, went so far from Bastien that the passion for him remained an insignificant episode in their work. (The influence of Bastien-Lepage's art turned out to be quite extensive, touching not only Russian, but also Swedish, Finnish, Hungarian, and Italian artists.)

However, back in 1884, the sober-minded I. N. Kramskoy described Bastien-Lepage as an “impossible cracker” and “unenviable painter”, subtly discerning a touch of unnatural, somewhat blissful sentimentality in the emotional structure of his paintings. And at the end of the century, Igor Grabar drew a line under this question, sternly remarking about the works of the artists of the Bastien-Lepage circle: “their workshops, strong works have everything except one thing: an artistic impression!”

And finally, a modern researcher of French painting of the 19th century A.D. Chegodaev writes about them as "virtuous edifications and melodramas imbued with a devoutly fasting Catholic spirit," leaving no doubt with his verdict about the real place of this phenomenon in the history of European art.

Jérôme Jean-Leon (1824-1904)

French painter and sculptor, famous for his paintings of a very diverse content, mainly depicting the life of the ancient world and the East.

Jean-Leon Gerome was born on May 11, 1824 in the family of a jeweler in the city of Vesoul in the Haute-Saône department. Jerome received his primary art education in his native city. In 1841, having arrived in Paris, he was apprenticed to Paul Delaroche, with whom he visited Italy in 1844, where he diligently engaged in drawing and painting from nature.

The first work of Jerome, which drew general attention to the artist, was the painting exhibited in the salon of 1847: “Young Greeks during a cockfight” (Luxembourg Museum).

This canvas was followed by paintings: "Anacreon, forcing Bacchus and Cupid to dance" (1848) and "Greek lupanar" (1851) - a scene in which one of the main features of the painter's versatile talent was already clearly expressed, namely his ability to soften the seductiveness of the plot by its strict processing of forms and, as it were, a cold attitude towards what is capable of arousing sensuality in the viewer. A similar ambiguous painting by Jean Léon Gérôme appeared in the salon of 1853 under the innocent title of Idyll.

"Pool in a harem", 1876, Hermitage, St. Petersburg

"Sale of slaves in Rome", 1884, State Hermitage Museum

All these reproductions of ancient Greek life, thanks to the originality of the artist's view of it and the mastery of his technique, made him the leader of a special group among French painters - the group of so-called "neo-Greeks".

His 1855 painting The Age of Augustus, with life-size figures, can only be regarded as an unsuccessful excursion into the realm of historical painting in the strict sense of the word.

Incomparably more successful was the painting "Russian Song Soldiers" - a scene painted on the basis of sketches made during Jerome's travels in 1854 in Russia.

Other paintings of the artist are also remarkable: the highly dramatic “Duel after the Masquerade” (1857, in the collection of paintings of the Duke of Omalsky and the Hermitage) and “Egyptian recruits escorted by Albanian soldiers in the desert” (1861), which appeared after the artist’s trip to the banks of the Nile.

Dividing his activities in this way between East, West and classical antiquity, Jerome, however, reaped the most abundant laurels in the area of ​​the latter. Plots for his widely known paintings are drawn from it:

"The Assassination of Caesar"

"King Kandavl shows his beautiful wife Gyges"

"Gladiators in the circus greet the emperor Vitellius"

Phryne before the Areopagus, 1861

"Augurs"

"Cleopatra at Caesar" and some other paintings.

Having strengthened his already high-profile fame with these works, Jerome turned for some time back to the life of the modern East and painted, among other things, pictures:

"Transportation of a prisoner on the Nile", 1863,

"Turkish Butcher in Jerusalem"

"Workers at prayer", 1865,

"The tower of the Al-Essanein mosque, with the heads of the executed beys displayed on it", 1866,

"Arnauts playing chess" 1867.

At times he also took up topics from French history, such as:

"Louis XIV and Moliere", 1863

"Reception of the Siamese embassy by Napoleon", 1865,

Since the 1870s, Jérôme's creative ability has noticeably weakened, so that in recent decades only three of his works can be pointed out that are quite worthy of the reputation he has acquired:

Frederick the Great, 1874,

"Grey Eminence", 1874,

"Muslim monk at the door of the mosque", 1876.

In all oriental genres, the famous artist is struck by the elegant and conscientious transfer of climate, terrain, folk types and the smallest details of everyday life, studied by Jerome during his repeated visits to Egypt and Palestine; on the contrary, in the paintings of the painter of classical antiquity, we see not so much Greeks and Romans as people of modern times, French women and Frenchmen, playing piquant scenes in antique costumes and among antique accessories.

Jerome's drawing is impeccably correct and worked out in every detail; writing - careful, but not going into dryness; color - somewhat grayish, but extremely harmonious; the artist is especially masterful of lighting.

Recently, Jérôme has also tried his hand at sculpture. At the Paris World Exhibition of 1878, the artist presented sculptural groups: "Gladiator" and "Anacreon with Bacchus and Cupid".

Hans Makart

bologna school academism painting

(German Hans Makart; May 28, 1840 - October 3, 1884) - Austrian artist, representative of academicism.

He painted large historical and allegorical compositions and portraits. During his lifetime, he received wide recognition and had many admirers. His studio in 1870-80 was the center of Viennese society.

The Viennese painter Hans Makart (1840 - 1884) became famous for the historical painting "Cleopatra", which was published by one well-known metropolitan magazine in connection with the onset of summer (in the picture, Cleopatra escapes from the heat with the help of an umbrella).

The artist is also known for other paintings on ancient subjects, illustrations for Shakespeare and numerous portraits of high society ladies. A biography like his could boast of hundreds of other painters of the mid-nineteenth century.

Since 1879 X. Makart - professor of historical painting at the Vienna Academy of Arts

Everyone's favorite.

Makart was also a very attractive personality, and his work aroused genuine interest in Russia. We can say that this illustrious resident of Vienna was one of the most fashionable, one might say, cult figures in the artistic life of St. Petersburg. It was not for nothing that Makart was called the St. Petersburg ghost: the leader of the Vienna school of painting, like a ghost, was invisibly present in the workshops of St. Petersburg painters.

Hans Makart was born in 1840 - in the era of romanticism. Therefore, he was considered a romantically directed personality, giving the audience a lyrical mood. The emotional elation of his works bribed visitors to art galleries.

Makart studied at the Vienna Academy of Arts. And then he continued his studies in Munich - with the largest academic painter Carl Piloty. And after that, until his death, he painted pictures on historical and mythological subjects.

The abundance of museum objects in his workshop and the very scale of this huge workshop conquered everyone who entered this temple of art. Having died at the age of forty-four (in 1884), the artist lived a short life in which there were no external events, but only intense creative work.

Many talented artists and critics of the late nineteenth - early twentieth century puzzled over the secrets and secrets associated with the fame of the famous Austrian, but above all - over the fantastic popularity of Makart in St. Petersburg.

This fashion fad was comprehensive and all-encompassing. It affected not only the painting itself, but also the design of the residential interior, costume and jewelry.

Having seen enough of the reproductions of Makart's paintings (the originals were not available), Petersburgers sought to recreate at home the atmosphere seen on these canvases. And the secular ladies of the northern capital were constantly striving to add various accessories to their appearance and interior of the house that would make them look like the heroines of the Viennese virtuoso.

In "Home Alone" genre

The fact. that with the arrival of the artist Makart in Russian cultural life, women discovered a new and mysterious genre called "Home Alone" - a genre that allowed women to think about what it means to be alone with their own beauty, to see themselves in the mirror without outsiders, abstracting not only from street noise or from communication with her husband and children, but also from the whole world in general. And then, from the mysterious looking glass, the mysterious soul of beauty appeared, which at that moment no one prevented from appearing.

Nothing foreshadowed the emergence of a wave of Makartov's fashion in St. Petersburg. Many talented painters already worked in the city on the Neva, but for various reasons they did not become cult figures. It is strange that as an idol the creators chose an artist who had never been to Russia, did not make friends with Russian painters and was not at all interested in our country.

The painters of St. Petersburg continued to turn their gaze towards Vienna. They dreamed of getting on an excursion to the huge Makart workshop, which became available for viewing during the artist's lifetime. Aspired to make such a pilgrimage and many Wanderers. And at the same time, after all, no one specifically stirred up interest in Viennese academicism, so there was simply nowhere for the fashion for this direction to come from. And fashion nevertheless arose and was unusually strong.

At the end of the 19th century, the fashion for Makart's style acquired simply fantastic proportions. There was no number of interiors in which ficuses in tubs coexisted with luxurious carpets and entire home galleries of paintings in gold frames.

The principle of abundance, the neighborhood in one interior of objects of different textures literally reigned on Makartov's canvases. What outlandish household items were not on these compositions! Shells and musical instruments, outlandish vessels and plaster reliefs, cages with birds and a miracle of fashion tricks of that era - the skin of a polar bear.

Huge bouquets of artificial flowers (“Makart’s bouquets”), palm trees in tubs, heavy drapes, plush curtains that introduced an “element of mystery”, stuffed animals, a platform, a “throne chair” were considered indispensable accessories for such “real” interiors. The eclectic design of the residential interior, which spread in the second half of the 19th century, was called "Macarthism", as an ironic name for fashion. The fashion for fake jewelry, furniture in rough pseudo-Renaissance, oriental and other neo-styles with an abundance of carvings and gilding, musical instruments hung on the walls, and exotic weapons are also associated with "Makarthism".

Outrages of the Bolsheviks

After October 1917, a massive campaign against bourgeois taste and style began. By this time, several portraits of the royal family, painted in the style of Makart, appeared in aristocratic mansions.

As soon as the Bolsheviks learned that the best of the royal portraits were called worthy of the brush of Makart himself, hatred of the Viennese magician intensified. The right of portraits of the royal family to be exhibited even in historical-revolutionary museums could not be officially recognized by militant Bolsheviks. Not every cultural functionary could pronounce Makart's name correctly, but the desire to overthrow the old culture literally burst the Bolsheviks.

Since 1918, bonfires from old books with gold edges have blazed on the streets of revolutionary Petrograd. And the interior with an abundance of plants and carpets has become one of the symbols of the culture of the defeated classes to be destroyed. By the way, it was the Makartovian interior with a “constellation” of flowers and paintings that appeared in Soviet films about Chekists as a symbol of a dying era.

It was rumored that the spirit of the “Makart style” had miraculous powers, and interiors decorated in this style were not threatened by Bolshevik actions: a hand would simply not be raised to requisition these paintings. The portraits were too beautiful to be destroyed or piled up in basements, as the Bolsheviks often did.

Fans of the "Makart style" were forced to submit to the trends of the times and not to mention their idol. They secretly kept postcards and reproductions of paintings by their favorite artist.

Petersburgers believed that hatred of the historical past was short-lived, that in time the ghosts of the past would return, and that the Viennese romanticism would again be recognized and revered. It was even said that Makartov's canvases were able to protect themselves by radiating a special energy.

But it is not only the good preservation of paintings in the style of Makart that catches the eye of researchers of this era. Specialists in art criticism have repeatedly drawn attention to the unnatural nature and mysterious origin of Makartov's fashion. Its sources have not been identified.

So, for example, for a long time in St. Petersburg museums there was not a single painting by the famous painter, but only copies and imitations (only in 1920, a little-known female portrait came to the Hermitage from the State Museum Fund). At the same time, in the 1880s - 1910s. Such imitations of Makart were born in a "jamb" that miraculously resembled the originals. Even the lighting effects seemed carefully copied from the canvases of the famous Austrian.

The persecution of petty-bourgeois tastes announced in the Soviet era, which largely affected the residential interior, delayed the return of Makart for a long time. They tried not to exhibit canvases in the bourgeois style in large museums; they could not be placed in prominent places at exhibitions. But even during the years of the proletarian dictatorship, Petersburgers never ceased to be surprised at the peculiar power that a foreign artist had over the culture of the city on the Neva.

Followers and imitators

Konstantin Egorovich Makovsky (1839 - 1915) was only a year older than the Viennese virtuoso and was rightfully considered the Russian Makart (even in Soviet times, the famous prose writer V.S. Pikul wrote about this, however, this comparison did not say anything to the Soviet reader, because there was nowhere to see the works of the "Viennese ghost", with which K. Makovsky was compared).

There was so much in common between the portraits of the brush of the two artists that contemporaries did not get tired of being amazed at this similarity. But Makart almost did not paint group portraits, and Makovsky expanded the style of the Viennese virtuoso to the framework of a family group of two or three people. He often painted his wife, Yulia Makovskaya, and two children. The works of Makovsky were sometimes difficult to distinguish from the paintings of Makart, the two talented contemporary painters had so much in common

Why did the works of Makart himself and his imitators sink so deeply into the hearts of the audience? There are some very interesting hypotheses about this.

So, for example, some scientists believe that the romantic energy of the artist was transferred to the paintings in a fantastic way. He tirelessly emphasized the role of household items in a residential interior, the special magical function of things. His heroines, as a rule, held various objects in their hands, often touching the bearskin on the floor with their hands (this gesture had some kind of magical ritual significance). Stroking the bearskin (most often it was the skin of a polar bear) had a ritual character: the lady in the picture seemed to be having a conversation with her room, informing her exquisite interior that she was pleased with it and felt good. The dialogue of the lyrical heroine with her own apartment, the communication of a person with the material world is one of the most modern ideas in psychology.

It turns out that the Viennese artist foresaw these processes about a century and a half ago. In other words, from Makart's point of view, the rooms turned out to be charged with some kind of special energy, giving the inhabitants of the dwelling new vitality...

By the way, it was this special “energy charge” that helped interiors in the Makartian style to “survive” in the Soviet era.

Today, the address "Gorstkina street house 6" (now: Efimov street) will not say anything to the historians of the city. But in this house, in one of the apartments on the third floor, until the eighties of the twentieth century, a residential interior in the Makartian style was preserved. In this interior there was a genuine painting by K. Makovsky, and a ficus in a tub, and Art Nouveau lamps, as well as a whole collection of porcelain vases.

A miniature copy of Makart's "Five Senses" panel was also kept in this apartment. The apartment on Gorstkin Street was literally spared by fate and the interior successfully survived the blockade (house number six on Gorstkin Street was not damaged). And this unique interior existed until the early 1980s.

Marc Gabriel Charles Gleyre

(fr. Marc Gabriel Charles Gleyre; May 2, 1806 - May 5, 1874) - Swiss artist and teacher, representative of academicism.

Orphaned eight or nine years old, Charles Gleyre was taken by his uncle to Lyon and sent to a factory school. In the mid 1820s. he arrived in Paris and intensively studied painting for several years, then left France for almost ten years. Gleyre spent several years in Italy, where he became close, in particular, with Horace Vernet and Louis-Leopold Robert, and then went to Greece and further east, visiting Egypt, Lebanon, and Syria.

Returning to Paris towards the end of the 1830s, Gleyre began intensive work, and his first painting, which attracted attention, appeared in 1840 ("The Vision of St. John").

It was followed by "Evening", 1843 - a large-scale allegory, which received a silver medal at the Paris Exhibition and was later known as "Lost Illusions".

Despite some success, Gleyre did not participate much in the future in competitive exhibitions. He was distinguished by exceptional demands on himself, worked on paintings for a long time, but left a total of 683 works, according to the posthumous catalog - including studies and drawings, among which, in particular, Heine's portrait used for engraving in the Revue des Deux Mondes magazine (April 1852).

Among the most significant works in the legacy of Gleyre are paintings

"Earthly Paradise" (of which Hippolyte Taine spoke enthusiastically)

"Odysseus and Nausicaa"

"The Prodigal Son" and other paintings on ancient and biblical subjects.

Almost as well as his own painting, Gleyre was known as a teacher, whom Paul Delaroche in the mid-1840s. handed over to his students. At different times, Sisley, Renoir, Monet, Whistler and other prominent artists worked in Gleyre's studio.

Alexander Cabanel

(French Alexandre Cabanel; September 28, 1823, Montpellier - January 23, 1889, Paris) - French artist, representative of academicism.

Nothing so aptly reflects the "psychology of the era" as mass culture. Half a century later, her idols are forgotten, but after another hundred years, the historian finds in their creations expensive material for reconstructing the mindsets and tastes of the time. In the 19th century, salon painting became the embodiment of common ideas about "high art", and one of its most striking manifestations in France was the work of Alexandre Cabanel.

Cabanel was perhaps the most popular and eminent artist of the Second Empire era (1852-1870).

A fashionable portraitist, adored painter of Napoleon III and other European rulers, he entered the history of art as a symbol of an obsolete academic tradition that skillfully adapted to the requirements of the time.

Cabanel was the owner of many awards, a member of the French Academy, a professor at the School of Fine Arts, a member of the jury of all expositions of the official Salon. As a contemporary of Cabanel quipped, "the silky skin and delicate hands of his portraits were a constant source of admiration for the ladies and annoyance for the artists."

The reason for the loud fame of Cabanel, a rather weak draftsman and a banal colorist, should be sought in the social reality that gave rise to the close appearance of creativity.

The type of painting chosen by the artist, as forbidden, was more in line with the lifestyle and claims of the "high society" of the Second Empire. And the nature of painting itself, with its smooth colorful surface, masterfully executed details and “sweet” coloring, also impressed the entire mass of spectators - regular visitors to the expositions in the Salon.

It is not only his lifetime popularity that makes us talk about Cabanel, but also the vitality of the artistic phenomenon that he so fully expressed. The instructive example of Cabanel helps to unravel the intriguing mystery of salon art.

The biography of the artist developed successfully and happily. Born in 1823 in the university town of Montpellier in southern France, Cabanel was brought up in a traditional academic environment. Transported as a child to Paris, he entered the École des Beaux-Arts in 1840 in the workshop of François Picot.

In 1845, he successfully completed the vector of learning movement and was awarded the Grand Prize of Rome for the painting "Christ before the judges." Together with his friend, collector and connoisseur of antiquity A. Brua, Cabanel settled in Rome, where his manner was irrevocably shaped.

The painting “The Death of Moses” brought by Cabanel from Rome was shown at the Salon of 1852 and brought its author the first exhibition award in an endless chain of medals and rewards.

Cabanel's performance at the Paris Salon became, as it were, a prologue, a hallmark of the artistic life of the Second Empire. Subsequently, the artist began to supply the court of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte with his brilliance and luxury, the pursuit of pleasure and complete indifference to the means of achieving them, a picturesque "seasoning" in the form of illustrations of spicy or dramatic episodes of history and literature. Numerous more or less naked women, called to depict in his works Shulamith, Ruth, Cleopatra, Francesca da Rimini or Desdemona, are depressing with the monotony of faces with a “burning look”, enlarged eyes outlined in shadows, cutesy gestures and an unnaturally pink tone of manneredly curved seductive bodies.

The properties of Cabanel's art impressed the taste of high customers. In 1855, in addition to the first medal at the World Exposition of 1855 for the painting "The Triumph of St. Louis", Cabanel was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor.

In 1864 he was promoted to officer, and in 1878 to commander of the order.

In 1863 he was elected a member of the Academy to the position previously occupied by J.-L. David, J.-J. Lebarbier and Horace Vernot. In the same 1863, which went down in the history of French art thanks to the famous “Salon of the Rejected”, where “Breakfast on the Grass” by E. Manet was shown, the official position of Cabanel as “the first painter of the empire” was further strengthened.

Napoleon III acquired for himself two paintings by Cabanel - "The Abduction of a Nymph" (1860, Lille, Museum of Fine Arts) and the "nail" of the official Salon "The Birth of Venus" (1863, Paris, Louvre).

Thus, the sluggish and anemic art of Cabanel, which melted, according to the critic, “in the scent of violets and roses”, was given the status of a standard, an example of the dominant taste and the highest achievement of modern painting.

The mythological scenes of Cabanel, full of mannered bliss, deliberate elegance and erotic ambiguity, recreate the aesthetic ideal of the era, its inclination towards a “beautiful life”.

The characters of the ancient plots of Cabanel most of all resemble the vicious and sensual nymphs of Clodion. The works of this French sculptor of the late 18th century were widely known in the second half of the 19th century due to the distribution of a large number of copies from his works and free interpretations of modern sculptors on the themes of Clodion (A.E. Carrier-Belleuse, J.B. Clésange).

The work of Cabanel was not only and not so much an individual and local artistic phenomenon, but the embodiment of a certain principle. It belonged to a type of art that was extremely common in the 19th century, designed for the usual, public taste, using tried and tested techniques to gain popularity.

Numerous idols of the century, the apostles of salon classicism A. Cabanel, V. Bouguereau, J. Enner, P. Baudry owned all historical styles and did not develop their own.

No wonder a contemporary wrote about one of these trendsetters of artistic fashion: “Usually everyone takes his paintings as copies from the works of various artists ... Nevertheless, the artist prospers, and his very imitative ability, the very absence of anything original, as it were, contributes to his success ". The quality of the pleasant mediocrity that guarantees a happy moment fully distinguished the works of Alexandre Cabanel.

With the establishment of the republic, Cabanel did not lose his fame. He was practically overwhelmed with commissions, producing stereotypically exquisite female portraits:

"Portrait of Katharina Wulf", 1876, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art) and images of the "fatal beauties" of the past ("Phaedra", Montpellier Museum).

He acted no less successfully as a teacher, showing a certain liberality in relation to his students, among whom were J. Bastien-Lepage, B. Constant, E. Moreau, F. Cormon, A. Gervex.

Throughout his life as a privileged and favored artist, Cabanel remained true to his learned techniques. His works are, as it were, outside of time. Their smooth enamel-like painting, cleverly composed composition (a compilation of popular samples of world art), careful study of details, affected stage gesture, “monotonous beauty” of faces do not imply any internal evolution.

However, despite the conservatism of his own artistic technique, “moreover unable to embody the banality of his ideas” (F. Basil), Cabanel occasionally showed a certain breadth of judgment. So, already in 1881, he, who for many years had a rudely negative attitude towards E. Manet and the Impressionists, defended the work of E. Manet presented at the exhibition “Portrait of Pertuise”. “Gentlemen, among us there will not be, perhaps four, who could draw a head like this,” these words of the venerable and recognized master serve as an involuntary recognition of the decisive victory of a new trend in French art.

Conclusion

Academicism contributed to the systematization of art education, the consolidation of classical traditions.

Academism helped the layout of objects in art education, embodied the traditions of ancient art, in which the image of nature was idealized, while compensating for the norm of beauty. Considering modern reality unworthy of "high" art, academism opposed it with timeless and non-national standards of beauty, idealized images, plots far from reality (from ancient mythology, the Bible, ancient history), which was emphasized by the conventionality and abstraction of modeling, color and drawing, theatricality of the composition, gestures and postures.

Being, as a rule, an official trend in noble and bourgeois states, academism turned its idealistic aesthetics against advanced national realistic art.

Starting from the middle of the 19th century, the system of values ​​adopted in the academies of arts, far from real life, focused on ideal ideas about beauty, came into direct conflict with the development of a living artistic process. This led to open protests on the part of young democratically minded artists, such as the "rebellion of fourteen" at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts in 1863. plots, ignoring the events of modern life as a subject unworthy of art.

It was during this period that the concept of "academicism" acquired a negative character, denoting a set of dogmatic methods and norms.

Under the blows of the realists, including the Russian Wanderers, and the bourgeois-individualist opposition, academism collapsed and only partially survived in the late 19th century and early 20th century in a number of countries, mainly in the updated forms of neoclassicism.

Attachment 1

Il 1. William-Adolf Bouguereau "The Birth of Venus". 1879

Il 2. William-Adolf Bouguereau "The Repentance of Orestes". 1862

Annex 2

Il 3. William-Adolf Bouguereau "Youth of Bacchus". 1884

Il 4. William-Adolf Bouguereau "Nymphs and Satyr". 1873

Annex 3

Fig. 5. William-Adolf Bouguereau Fig. 6. William-Adolf Bouguereau

"The Ecstasy of Psyche". 1844 "Mercy". 1878

Appendix 4

Il 7. Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres "Portrait of Madame Riviere". 1805

Il 8. Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres "Portrait of Madame Senonne". 1814

Annex 5

Fig. 9. Ingres Jean-Auguste Dominique "Great Odalisque". 1814

Il 10. Ingres Jean-Auguste Dominique "Bather Volpenson". 1808

Appendix 6

Il 11. Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres "Portrait of Philibert Riviera". 1805

Il 12. Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique "Joan of Arc at the coronation of Charles VII". 1854

Annex 7

Il 13. Delaroche Paul "Portrait of Peter". 1838

Il 14. Delaroche Paul "Death of the English Queen Elizabeth",

Appendix 8

Il 15. Delaroche Paul "Napoleon's Crossing of the Alps".

Appendix 9

Il 16. Bastien-Lepage Jules "The Flower Girl". 1882

Il 17. Bastien-Lepage Jules "Country Love". 1882

Annex 10

Il 18. Bastien-Lepage Jules "Joan of Arc". 1879

Il 19. Bastien-Lepage Jules "Haymaking". 1877

Appendix 11

Il 20. Jerome Jean Leon "Sale of slaves in Rome". 1884

Il 21. Jerome Jean Leon "Pool in the harem". 1876

Appendix 12

Il. Hans Makart, Entry of Charles V

Il. Hans Makart, Ariadne's Triumph

Annex 13

Il. Hans Makart, "Summer", 1880-1881

Il. Hans Makart "The Lady at the Spinet"

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