Hinduism has had a significant impact on the social life of Hindus. The main social constituent units of Indian society are varnas and castes. The caste system and Hinduism itself are so interconnected that Hindus cannot imagine a different life in society and a different religion. Changes in the field of religion would necessarily cause social upheavals, which, in turn, would lead to a revision of religious principles. To a person from a different culture, the varna system may seem wild and unfair, but the Hindus themselves, from the Brahmins to the untouchables, consider their varna system necessary and true. The social structure of Indian society includes such a system of varnas: brahmins, or brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors, state rulers and officials), vaishyas (peasants, artisans), shudras. In Russian, it is impossible to find an analogue of the word sudra, so let's conditionally call them slaves, although this is not entirely correct. One way or another, but the direct duty of the Shudras is to serve people from higher varnas. Representatives of the first three varnas are recognized as full members of society and are called twice-born. This refers to the first birth from the mother in the physical sense, and the second birth at 8-17 years old - from the guru in the spiritual and social sense. Each representative of these three Varnas was obliged to undergo an initiation, otherwise he could turn out to be an outcast. Shudras were not allowed to "rebirth" under any circumstances.
According to tradition, the Brahmins are believed to have originated from the mouth of the Universal Man Purusha; kṣatriya—from his hands; vaisya - from the thighs; sudras - from the dust under his feet. According to his position in the varna system, each person must serve the Complete Whole, personified in the image of the Universal Man. By doing this, people ensure their safety. The service of the individual to the Complete Whole, Purusha, constitutes the eternal law of the universe, or sanatana-dharma.
Hinduism is rooted not only in the individual consciousness, but also in the social system and public consciousness of the Hindus. The legal status in the Vedic society depends on the state of ritual purity or impurity, indicating the degree of spiritual and intellectual development of a person. The highest varna is the varna of the brahmins. It should be noted here that the word Brahman can refer to the universal world law, and to the varna, and to the texts included in the Vedas. In this case, we are talking about people of a certain social group. The Brahmins primarily served as clerics, so they are often associated with priests. Nevertheless, such an understanding of the varna of the Brahmins is incomplete, since the Brahmins were engaged in medicine, astrology, and teaching, it is better to say that the Brahmins are the intellectual aristocracy, or the elite of ancient Indian society. The murder of a brahmin was considered the most serious crime, therefore even an apostate brahmin could not be killed - only expelled. In the 7th century BC. Brahmins composed sacred texts - Brahmans, which included interpretations of the Vedas, explanations of the meanings of various religious rites. Brahman was distinguished from other people by a system of values, in which the principles of spiritual life and intellectual activity were in the first place. Many food prohibitions applied to the Brahmins, for example, strong intoxicating drinks, beer, meat - all this is the food of lower demons, which should not be eaten by a Brahmin, since he eats sacrificial food brought to the gods. The fact that the Brahmins allowed sacrifices is also important, and in ancient times human sacrifices were also practiced. Brahmins did not always take into account the interests of people from other varnas, especially from the Shudras. In the case of killing a sudra, the brahmana performed the same purification ritual that is performed after killing an animal.
Kshatriyas are also called rajanyas. Rajanyas were supposed to serve society in the military and political fields. Raja - a derivative of rajanya - is obliged to take care of his subordinates and protect them. Folk etymology produces the word rajah (tsar) from the verb raksh – guard. The king's power is thought to be unlimited in relation to his subjects, but his responsibility to the deity and to his conscience was also thought to be just as unlimited. Punishment was considered the main instrument of royal power in India. The laws of Manu, created about 2 thousand years ago and reflecting very clearly the Indian legal ideology, say: “Punishment is truly a king, punishment is truly a man in strength, a leader, a master ... Punishment governs all beings, punishment protects them, punishment is awake, when they sleep... The whole world is kept within the boundaries of punishment, for a sinless person is hard to find. Indeed, out of fear of punishment, the whole world gives what it should give ... That king is considered a true punisher who speaks the truth, acts deliberately, wisely and who knows the law ... Punishment overthrows the king with all his family if he deviates from the law. The king is required to impartially punish even his closest relatives, and in relation to himself he must increase the fine that he imposes on another person by a thousand times if he commits the same act. In the same Manu we find an indication that if the king receives 1/6 of the income and 1/6 of the good deeds from his subjects, then 1/6 of their sins falls on his conscience. Moreover, at all times in India there was a belief that if a disaster befalls a country, then the king is to blame, because if the king is just and observes the law, then the country prospers.
Vaishyas are classified as twice-born, that is, they are recognized as full members of society and have the right to study the Vedas. Vaisyas are usually engaged in economic affairs. The concept itself vaishyas in Sanskrit means loyalty, dependency. Vaishyas do not have an absolute obligation to obey the kshatriyas, but they also do not have the right to refuse to serve the brahmanas.
Note that even the rite of initiation, or entry into the varna, was associated with a complex system of rituals. Even after passing the initiation, four stages of life awaited a person, the essence of which is due to dharma:
1. Brahmacharin- student. This period of life, as a rule, passes in the house guru- Spiritual mentor. Under his guidance, the student studies ancient texts. The Guru teaches the disciple the rules of communication with people from different varnas and castes. This is very difficult, because even the question of health is asked in the form that corresponds to a certain caste. In general, the Brahmins are trained to perform rituals, priestly duties. Kshatriyas - possession of weapons, the art of governing the state. Vaishyas are trained, as a rule, in a hereditary profession. The duration of study is 16 years. However, sometimes training lasts up to 48 years.
2. Grihastha- householder. A person marries and becomes a householder.
3. Vanaprastha- a hermit. A person, having raised children, grandchildren, can become a hermit in order to cleanse his soul from all filth.
4. Sannyasin- from the word sannyas, What means renunciation. Before death, having renounced everything earthly, a person leaves the forest and becomes a homeless wanderer. He needs only the bare necessities: old clothes, a staff, and an alms bowl. Alms for a sannyasin are considered acceptable, as they do not violate his karma.
The smaller social unit is caste(from the Portuguese word meaning genus, tribe, as well as from Sanskrit jati – genus). The caste system is especially complex. The Portuguese, who arrived in India at the beginning of the 16th century, were surprised by the rigid social system of Indian society, which was distinguished by the independence and isolation of individual social groups. At the head of each caste is panchayat(translated as five) is a council of the five most respected people.
Each varna includes certain castes. So, there are Brahmin castes, which have their own hierarchy. Among the vaishya varna there are also many castes, usually divided by profession. As an example, let's take the caste of the central provinces - this is the caste of draftsmen, or painters; she bears the name cifāri, citri derived from the Sanskrit citrakara- "picture maker", "painter". As to the origin of this caste, information differs. It seems to be in connection with the leather-working castes and the shoe-working caste, but already now there is such a great divergence between them that the two main elements of communication - marriage and eating together - are not allowed between draftsmen and leather workers. They do not take water from each other and sometimes do not even allow touching.
Draftsmen call their founder Viçvakarman- the legendary first artist and architect, belonging to the host of gods; according to another legend, they are descended from a divine maiden Sarasvatī, skillful in painting and in witchcraft.
Related to them by occupation, or perhaps by origin, but separate from them rangajiva- "interpreters of images", a small caste of mendicant monks. Representatives of this caste wander and tell ancient legends, illustrating them with images of gods or heroes. Sometimes the monks of this caste themselves write these images, usually plotted with two great epic poems - the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. References to the interpreters of paintings - mendicant monks - are found in early literature. These monks also separate themselves by marriages and keep significant restrictions in their relations with other castes.
At the same time, there are examples when castes changed their position in the varna system. For example, the caste of Bengali Kayasthi scribes originally belonged to the Varna Shudras, but during the period of Mongol rule their position improved dramatically, and now they firmly occupy a place among the Kshatriyas.
The lowest caste, not included in the system of varnas, is the caste untouchables(in Hindi - achkhut): Chandalas, nishada, Dasyu... It is believed that the untouchables did not come from the man Purusha, but from the dung of a sacred cow. Chandala people perform the dirtiest, hardest work and become sewage cleaners, gravediggers, charcoal burners (works of this kind are needed, but in India the conditions for these types of work are extremely difficult and humiliating), executioners and even prostitutes (the last untouchables, first of all, in meaning they can't get married). It should be noted here that a woman who allows her dishonor - extramarital sex - is considered as unclean and automatically becomes untouchable.
Chandala has no right to allow his shadow to fall on any of the other varnas. Food is thrown to them on the ground to exclude the possibility of contact. In some southern states, the untouchables, on pain of death, are not allowed to go outside during the day. Some Indians, even when they are dying of thirst, will not take water from a candala, although women from this caste can be bought as prostitutes. It should be noted that one can become untouchable not only by birth from an untouchable, but also by behavior, especially associated with debauchery. Indeed, sexual intercourse outside of legal marriage is unacceptable for people and in India is fraught with a sharp decline in social status, down to the level of untouchables. Moreover, it is believed that fornication is a shameful stigma on a libertine or a harlot, not only in this life, but also in subsequent rebirths. Today, the number of untouchables is 16% of the total population of India (approximately 160 million) - this is more than the entire population of Russia. Achkhuts are often called Dalits – trampled underfoot. Despite the fact that they are officially protected by state law, their position is extremely humiliating. It is especially depressing that often, even if a person from the untouchables is clean (not defiled by depravity), they try to desecrate him by force in order to emphasize his caste affiliation.
Indian society was divided into special categories, which were called varnas. The emergence of just such a distribution of people is directly related to the religious views of the Indians.
They believed that the gods created the first man as "the parent of all parents." It was from him that all people originated, and according to legend, the Brahmins, who occupied the highest position in Ancient India, came out of his mouth.
From the hands of the first man Pirusha, kshatriyas were formed, who were warriors and possessed power. In ancient India, they included princes and kings, as well as members of their families.
From the hips of Pirusha came the Vaishyas, they were farmers and performed various important work for Indian society.
And from the steps of the first man, the Shudras were born, who were servants.
"Twice Born"
In ancient India, there was such a thing as "twice-born", this referred to the representatives of the first three varnas. When they went through a special initiation, they were considered reborn.
Upon reaching a certain age, the boy took part in the ceremony, during which he was put on an "upavita", a sacred thread, which meant that the Indian was born a second time, only now, as a member of a certain varna.
Depending on belonging to the varna, the ancient Indians wore clothes of a certain color. For the Brahmins it was white, for the warriors it was red, for the farmers it was yellow, and for the Shudras it was black.
Such a structure of society in ancient India was considered eternal, therefore, none of the representatives of one varna could move to another, and marriages between representatives of different varnas were strictly prohibited. But gradually the varnas also began to have divisions into castes.
The new religion of ancient India: how did Buddhism appear?
In the 6th century BC. In ancient India, Prince Gautama was born, who later became known as the Buddha. He belonged to the kshatriyas, lived luxuriously and carelessly, and never saw real life.
But one day the prince left his magnificent palace, and found out that there is old age and death, misfortune and illness, sorrow and suffering. Seeing this, he was forced to leave the palace and become a wandering hermit.
Then the truths of the world were revealed to him, and he began to be called "Buddha", which means "enlightened". He was against the division of people into varnas, against violence and ignorance. Over time, he had followers who created a community of Buddhists.
His teachings spread throughout India, and centuries later Buddhism had followers in other countries. Today, Buddhism is one of the three world religions, and the Buddha is recognized as one of the greatest sages and teachers of mankind.
The emergence of a single Mauryan state, which was created from scattered Indian principalities, dates back to the last third of the 4th century BC. Chandragupta became its king.
The history of ancient India tells that an amazing story happened to the grandson of this king - Ashoka. When he learned about the teachings of the Buddha, he regretted all the cruelty that had possessed him before and allowed him to wage harsh wars.
The population of ancient India was divided into four varnas (classes): brahmins - representatives of priestly families, kshatriyas - members of the military aristocracy, vaishyas - ordinary people from the free population and sudras - unequal or disenfranchised members of society. Within each varna there are many local castes (translated from Portuguese as “clan”, “tribe”) or “jati” (translated from Sanskrit as “born”). In what relation were the varnas and castes among themselves - this question has not yet been studied. But it is known for sure that varnas as a social component of society arose earlier than castes. Archaeological research of ancient India suggests that the appearance of varnas is associated with the settlement of the Aryans in the territory of Northern India and with the collapse of their tribal system, when the aristocracy and priesthood stood out. Belonging to a certain varna was indicated by origin and was inherited. The division into estates was also in other ancient societies, but in the ancient Indian society it was especially strong and clear. Religion sanctified such a division, moreover, the creation of varnas was attributed to the god Brahma. Each varna was assigned a range of duties. Brahmins perform priestly duties, kshatriyas are in charge of military affairs and administration, vaishyas are engaged in housekeeping, and the lowest of the varnas - sudras - serve all three of the highest. Castes within varnas were formed when ancient India experienced uneven socio-economic development, religious and ethnic disunity. People were united in castes according to their social status, according to the performance of hereditary occupations, according to professions, according to belonging to certain ethnic and religious duties. Jatis (castes) are predominantly in the Vaishya and Shudra varnas. These were closed communities with their own governing bodies. Some jati had such a low status that they were not included in any varna. This caste was called "untouchables". They were absolutely disenfranchised and belonged to the lowest strata of the population of Ancient India.
"Laws of Manu"
The collection of rules of conduct, instructions on duty and instructions on legal proceedings and government was called "". It was allegedly created by the mythical progenitor of people Manu. But in fact, the authors of these laws were the Brahmins. It has been supplemented, changed and corrected over the course of several centuries. The collection describes the system of all four varnas.
Brahmins
Brahmins as members of the highest varna had a special status. They were considered earthly deities, therefore they were free from taxes, any duties and corporal punishment. Religious rituals performed by priests according to ancient Indian beliefs, magic, taming the elements and even gods - all these sacraments belonged to the Brahmins. One of the points of the "Law of Manu" about this privileged estate is interesting, where it is said that everything that exists in the world belongs to the Brahman, it is precisely by the superiority of his birth that he has the right to everything. Kshatriyas It is the duty of the Kshatriyas to protect their subjects. They must give alms, levy taxes, study the Vedas, renounce worldly pleasures. They are freed from sins when, jealously guarding their subjects, they collect even a fourth of the harvest. And having protected the Vaisyas with weapons, they are legally entitled to collect tax from them.
Vaishya
Vaishyas are also required to study the Vedas, make sacrifices, give alms, but, in addition, raise cattle, engage in agriculture and trade. Shudras The Shudras were not members of the communities. They were settlers who had strayed from their own kind. They did not have their own land, so they were forced to serve the brahmins, kshatriyas and vaisyas. For killing a sudra, only repentance was supposed, as for killing, for example, a cat. And if the sudra himself was guilty, then he was overtaken by severe punishment. Untouchables These people were not included in any of the varnas, they were considered unclean. Impurity on them could be brought in past generations by the murder of a Brahmin, violation of estate rules, dirty work (cleaning sewage, garbage, corpses, etc.). Untouchables should live outside the villages and appear there only with a special mark on their clothes. They were not allowed to go to the public wells because that would pollute the clean water. It was the untouchables who executed the king's sentences for execution, and they had to take the clothes of the dead for themselves, and only they had to wear them.
Slavery
Slaves in ancient India were prisoners of war, debtors, criminals, or voluntarily sold themselves into slavery (an alternative for tax debts or punishment for a crime). In 1950, the Constitution of India legalized the equality of castes and the legal equality of the untouchables.
>>History: How society was organized in Ancient India. New religion
23. How society was organized in Ancient India. New religion
1. Varnas and castes.
The Indians associated the emergence of varnas with their ideas about the origin of the first person Purusha. The gods created him with a thousand eyes and commanded him to be "the parent of all parents." From Purusha all people have come. Brahmins - priests - came out of his mouth. They were in the highest position. Brahmins knew the sacred doctrine and serve the gods. There was a saying: "Everything in the world obeys the gods, and the gods obey the Brahmins." To kill a brahmin was to commit the most heinous crime.
From the hands of Purusha came kshatriyas - warriors, those who had power. Kshatriyas included rajas (kings, princes), noble warriors and members of their families.
Vaishyas were born from the thighs of Purusha - farmers, as well as those who did other work respected in society.
From the steps of Purusha came Shudras - servants. They served representatives of higher varnas. Representatives of the first three varnas were called "twice-born", because, passing through the initiation, they, as it were, acquired a second birth.
When a boy from a family of one of the first three varnas reached a certain age, a rite of passage was performed on him. During the ceremony, a sacred thread was put on the boy - "upavita" the child was symbolically born a second time as a member of this varna. Such a rite was not performed on the Shudras.
Representatives of each varna had the right to wear clothes of a certain color: brahmins - white, warriors - red, farmers - yellow, and sudras - black.
People belonging to the same varna led a similar way of life, had similar dwellings, ate the same food.
The Varna structure of society seemed to the ancient Indians to be eternal and unchanging. Not a single person could move from one varna to another. Marriages between members of different varnas were forbidden. Those who violated these rules were punished by death.
The division into varnas persisted for thousands of years. Gradually, the varnas began to be subdivided into smaller categories - castes. So, for example, vaishyas emerged from the varna castes artisans and merchants. In relation to the members of each caste, the same strict restrictions were applied as to the representatives of the varnas. The lowest caste was the pariahs.
2. The emergence of Buddhism.
One of the greatest religious teachers of mankind, the Buddha, came from the Kshatriya varna. He was born in the 6th century BC. e. in one of the Indian states south of the Himalayas. His father was the king of this state. Prince Gautama - as the Buddha was named at birth - led a pleasant life. He lived in a luxurious palace, not knowing anything about the world outside the palace walls. But one day Gautama left the palace and was struck by how hard, in sorrow and suffering, many people live. He met a decrepit old man and learned that old age exists. Approaching the patient, the prince realized that people were tormented by diseases. Seeing the funeral procession, Gautama shuddered, realizing that all people are mortal.
The prince left the palace and became a wandering hermit. And four noble truths were revealed to him:
everyone in the world suffers;
the cause of suffering is the attachment and desire of a person, his desire for something pleasant;
a state free from suffering can be achieved - nirvana;
there are ways to achieve nirvana - wisdom, right behavior, renunciation of violence in any form, perfection of the soul.
When these truths were revealed to Gautama, he was called Buddha, which means "enlightened." The Buddha did not approve of the division of people into varnas.
The Buddha has followers. They created a community of Buddhists. The Buddha preached the equality of all people, mercy, compassion. He argued that anyone who follows the right path can reach the enlightened state.
The teachings of the Buddha spread throughout India, but did not supplant Hinduism. Centuries later, it began to be followed in many other countries. Today Buddhism is one of the three world religions.
3. Mauryan State.
In the last third of the 4th century BC. e. disparate Indian principalities united into a single Mauryan state. It was led by King Chandragupta of the Mauryan dynasty.
A wonderful story happened to the grandson of Chandragupta, King Ashoka. His state occupied a vast territory. In his youth, the king waged constant wars, he was considered a cruel warrior and a harsh ruler. But then Ashoka learned about the teachings of the Buddha. The soul and heart of the king softened. He began to be tormented by memories of his own cruelty. In repentance, he ordered an inscription to be drawn: "And no matter how many people ... would be killed, or died, or taken away from home, even a hundredth of this number, even a thousandth of it, now burdens the thought of the Pleasing to the gods." "Pleasant to the gods" - so they began to call Ashoka.
Forgiveness and mercy replaced cruelty in his actions. The teachings of the Buddha softened the heart of the stern ruler.
IN AND. Ukolova, L.P. Marinovich, History, Grade 5
Submitted by readers from Internet sites
If you have corrections or suggestions for this lesson,
Hinduism has had a significant impact on the social life of Hindus. The main social constituent units of Indian society are varnas and castes. The caste system and Hinduism itself are so interconnected that Hindus cannot imagine a different life in society and a different religion. Changes in the field of religion would necessarily cause social upheavals, which, in turn, would lead to a revision of religious principles. To a person from a different culture, the varna system may seem wild and unfair, but the Hindus themselves, from the Brahmins to the untouchables, consider their varna system necessary and true. The social structure of Indian society includes such a system of varnas: brahmins, or brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors, state rulers and officials), vaishyas (peasants, artisans), shudras. In Russian, it is impossible to find an analogue of the word sudra, so let's conditionally call them slaves, although this is not entirely correct. According to tradition, the Brahmins are believed to have originated from the lips of the Universal Man Purusha; kṣatriya—from his hands; vaisya - from the thighs; sudras - from the dust under his feet. According to his position in the varna system, each person must serve the Complete Whole, personified in the image of the Universal Man. By doing this, people ensure their safety. The service of the individual to the Complete Whole, Purusha, constitutes the eternal law of the universe, or sanatana-dharma.
Hinduism is rooted not only in the individual consciousness, but also in the social system and public consciousness of the Hindus. The legal status in the Vedic society depended on the state of ritual purity or impurity, indicating the degree of spiritual and intellectual development of a person. The highest varna is the varna of the brahmins. It should be noted here that the word Brahman can refer to the universal world law, and to the varna, and to the texts included in the Vedas. Here we are talking about people of a certain social group. The Brahmins primarily served as clerics, so they are often associated with priests. Nevertheless, such an understanding of the varna of the Brahmins is incomplete, since the Brahmins were engaged in medicine, astrology, and teaching, it is better to say that the Brahmins are the intellectual aristocracy, or the elite of ancient Indian society. The most serious crime was the murder of a brahmin, so even an apostate brahmin could not be killed, only expelled. In the 7th century BC. Brahmins composed sacred texts - Brahmans, which included interpretations of the Vedas, explanations of the meanings of various religious rites. Brahman was distinguished from other people by a system of values, in which the principles of spiritual life and intellectual activity were in the first place. Many food prohibitions applied to the Brahmins, for example, strong intoxicating drinks, beer, meat - all this is the food of the lower demons, which should not be eaten by a Brahmin, since he eats sacrificial food brought to the gods. The fact that the Brahmins allowed sacrifices is also important, and in ancient times human sacrifices were also practiced. Brahmins did not always take into account the interests of people from other varnas, especially from the Shudras. When a sudra is killed, the brahmana performs the same cleansing ritual that is performed after killing an animal.
Kshatriyas are also called rajanyas. Rajanyas were supposed to serve society in the military and political fields. Raja - a derivative of rajanya - is obliged to take care of his subordinates and protect them. Folk etymology produces the word rajah (tsar) from the verb raksh – guard. The royal power is thought to be unlimited in relation to the subjects, but his responsibility to the deity and to his conscience was also thought to be so unlimited. Punishment was considered the main instrument of royal power in India. The laws of Manu, created about 2 thousand years ago and reflecting very clearly the Indian legal ideology, say: “Punishment is truly a king, punishment is truly a man in strength, a leader, a master ... Punishment governs all beings, punishment protects them, punishment is awake, when they sleep... The whole world is kept within the boundaries of punishment, for a sinless person is hard to find. Indeed, out of fear of punishment, the whole world gives what it should give ... That king is considered a true punisher who speaks the truth, acts deliberately, wisely and who knows the law ... Punishment overthrows the king with all his family if he deviates from the law. The king is required to impartially punish even his closest relatives, and in relation to himself he must increase the fine that he imposes on another person by a thousand times if he commits the same act. In the same Manu we find an indication that if the king receives 1/6 of the income and 1/6 of the good deeds of his subjects, then 1/6 of their sins falls on his conscience. Moreover, at all times in India there was a belief that if a disaster befalls a country, then the king is to blame, because if the king is just and observes the law, then the country prospers.
Note that even the rite of initiation, or entry into the varna, was associated with a complex system of rituals. Even after passing the initiation, four stages of life awaited a person, the essence of which is due to dharma.
Brahmacharin- student. This period of life, as a rule, passes in the house guru- Spiritual mentor. Under his guidance, the student studies ancient texts. The Guru teaches the disciple the rules of communication with people from different varnas and castes. This is very difficult, because even the question of health is asked in the form that corresponds to a certain caste. In general, the Brahmins are trained to perform rituals, priestly duties. Kshatriyas - possession of weapons, the art of governing the state. Vaishyas are trained, as a rule, in a hereditary profession. The duration of study is 16 years. However, sometimes training lasts up to 48 years.
Grihastha- householder. A person marries and becomes a householder.
Vanaprastha- a hermit. A person, having raised children, grandchildren, can become a hermit in order to cleanse his soul from all filth.
Sannyasin- from the word sannyas, What means renunciation. Before death, having renounced everything earthly, a person leaves the forest and becomes a homeless wanderer. He needs only the bare necessities: old clothes, a staff, and an alms bowl. Alms for a sannyasin are considered acceptable, as they do not violate his karma.
The smaller social unit is caste(from the Portuguese word meaning genus, tribe, as well as from Sanskrit jati – genus). The caste system is especially complex. The Portuguese, who arrived in India at the beginning of the 16th century, were surprised by the rigid social system of Indian society, which was distinguished by the independence and isolation of individual social groups. At the head of each caste is panchayat(translated as five) is a council of the five most respected people.
Each varna includes certain castes. So, there are Brahmin castes, which have their own hierarchy. Among the vaishya varna there are also many castes, usually divided by profession. As an example, I will take the caste of the central provinces - this is the caste of draftsmen, or painters; she bears the name cifāri, citri derived from the Sanskrit citrakara- "picture maker", "painter". As to the origin of this caste, information differs. It seems to be in connection with the leatherworking caste and the shoemaker caste, but already now there is such a great divergence between them that the two main elements of communication - marriage and eating together - are not allowed between draftsmen and leatherworkers. They do not take water from each other and sometimes do not even allow touching.
Draftsmen call their founder Viçvakarman- the legendary first artist and architect, belonging to the host of gods; according to another legend, they are descended from a divine maiden Sarasvatī, skillful in painting and in witchcraft.
Related to them by occupation, or perhaps by origin, but separate from them rangajiva- "interpreters of images", a small caste of mendicant monks. Representatives of this caste wander and tell ancient legends, illustrating them with images of gods or heroes. Sometimes these monks themselves write these images, usually plotted with two great epic poems - "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". References to the interpreters of paintings - mendicant monks - are found in early literature. These monks also separate themselves by marriages and keep significant restrictions in their relations with other castes.
At the same time, there are examples when castes changed their position in the varna system. For example, the caste of Bengali Kayasthi scribes originally belonged to the Varna Shudras, but during the period of Mongol rule their position improved dramatically, and now they firmly occupy a place among the Kshatriyas.
The lowest caste, not included in the system of varnas, is the caste untouchables(in Hindi - achkhut): Chandalas, nishada, Dasyu... It is believed that the untouchables did not come from the man Purusha, but from the dung of a sacred cow. Chandala people perform the dirtiest, hardest work and become sewage cleaners (this kind of work itself is needed, but in India the working conditions of sewage cleaners are extremely difficult and humiliating), executioners, gravediggers and prostitutes (the last untouchables, first of all, in the sense that can't get married). It should be noted here that a woman who allows her dishonor - extramarital sex - is considered as unclean and automatically becomes untouchable.
Chandal has no right to allow his shadow to fall on any of the other castes. Food is thrown to them on the ground to exclude the possibility of contact. In some southern states, the untouchables, on pain of death, are not allowed to go outside during the day. Some Indians, even when they are dying of thirst, will not take water from a candala, although women from this caste can be bought as prostitutes. It should be noted that one can become untouchable not only by birth from an untouchable, but also by behavior, especially associated with debauchery. Indeed, sexual intercourse outside of legal marriage is unacceptable for people, and in India it is fraught with a sharp decline in social status, down to the level of untouchables. Moreover, it is believed that fornication is a shameful stigma on a libertine or a harlot, not only in this life, but also in subsequent rebirths. Today, the number of untouchables is 16% of the total population of India (approximately 160 million) - this is more than the entire population of Russia. Achkhuts are often called Dalits – trampled underfoot. Despite the fact that they are officially protected by state law, their position is extremely humiliating. It is especially depressing that even if a person from the untouchables is pure, they try to forcibly desecrate him in order to emphasize his caste affiliation.
