The habitat of the hedgehog is ground-air. Ground-Air Habitat

lesson type - combined

Methods: partially exploratory, problem presentation, reproductive, explanatory-illustrative.

Target:

Students' awareness of the significance of all the issues discussed, the ability to build their relationship with nature and society based on respect for life, for all living things as a unique and priceless part of the biosphere;

Tasks:

Educational: to show the multiplicity of factors acting on organisms in nature, the relativity of the concept of "harmful and beneficial factors", the diversity of life on planet Earth and the options for adapting living beings to the entire range of environmental conditions.

Developing: develop communication skills, the ability to independently acquire knowledge and stimulate their cognitive activity; the ability to analyze information, highlight the main thing in the studied material.

Educational:

To cultivate a culture of behavior in nature, the qualities of a tolerant person, to instill interest and love for wildlife, to form a stable positive attitude towards every living organism on Earth, to form the ability to see beauty.

Personal: cognitive interest in ecology. Understanding the need to gain knowledge about the diversity of biotic relationships in natural communities in order to preserve natural biocenoses. The ability to choose the target and semantic settings in their actions and deeds in relation to wildlife. The need for fair evaluation of one's own work and the work of classmates

cognitive: the ability to work with various sources of information, convert it from one form to another, compare and analyze information, draw conclusions, prepare messages and presentations.

Regulatory: the ability to organize independently the execution of tasks, evaluate the correctness of the work, reflection of their activities.

Communicative: participate in the dialogue in the classroom; answer questions from a teacher, classmates, speak to an audience using multimedia equipment or other means of demonstration

Planned results

Subject: know - the concepts of "habitat", "ecology", "environmental factors" their influence on living organisms, "connections of living and non-living";. Be able to - define the concept of "biotic factors"; characterize biotic factors, give examples.

Personal: make judgments, search and select information; analyze connections, compare, find an answer to a problematic question

Metasubject: connections with such academic disciplines as biology, chemistry, physics, geography. Plan actions with a set goal; find the necessary information in the textbook and reference literature; to carry out the analysis of objects of nature; draw conclusions; formulate your own opinion.

Form of organization of educational activities - individual, group

Teaching methods: visual and illustrative, explanatory and illustrative, partially exploratory, independent work with additional literature and textbook, with DER.

Receptions: analysis, synthesis, conclusion, transfer of information from one type to another, generalization.

Learning new material

Ground-air environment

Organisms living on the surface of the Earth are surrounded by a gaseous environment characterized by low humidity, density and pressure, as well as a high content of oxygen. The environmental factors operating in the ground-air environment differ in a number of specific features: compared to other environments, the light here is more intense, the temperature undergoes stronger fluctuations, and the humidity varies significantly depending on the geographical location, season and time of day. The impact of almost all these factors is closely related to the movement of air masses - winds.

In the course of evolution, the inhabitants of the ground-air environment have developed specific anatomical, morphological, physiological, behavioral and other adaptations. They have organs that provide direct assimilation of atmospheric air in the process of breathing (plant stomata, lungs and tracheas of animals); skeletal formations that support the body in conditions of low density of the medium have received strong development

(mechanical and supporting tissues of plants, animal skeleton); you have worked out complex adaptations for protection against adverse factors (periodicity and rhythm of life cycles, the complex structure of integuments, thermoregulation mechanisms, etc.); a closer connection with the soil (plant roots) has been established; you-worked great mobility of animals in search of food; flying animals and airborne fruits, seeds, pollen of plants appeared.

Let us consider the main abiotic factors in the ground-air environment of life.

Air.

Dry air at sea level is composed (by volume) of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide; at least 1% is accounted for by inert gases.

Oxygen is necessary for the respiration of the vast majority of organisms, carbon dioxide is used by plants during photosynthesis. The movement of air masses (wind) changes the temperature and humidity of the air, has a mechanical effect on organisms. Wind causes a change in transpiration in plants. This is especially pronounced during dry winds, which dry up the air and often cause the death of plants. The wind plays a significant role in the pollination of anemophiles - wind-pollinated plants. Winds determine the direction of migration of insects such as meadow moth, desert locust, malarial mosquitoes.

Precipitation.

Precipitation in the form of rain, snow or hail changes the humidity of the air and soil, provides available moisture to plants, and provides drinking water to animals. Heavy rains can cause floods, temporarily flood a particular area. Showers, and especially hail, often lead to mechanical damage to the vegetative organs of plants.

Of great importance for the water regime are the timing of rainfall, their frequency and duration. The nature of the rain is also important. During heavy rains, the soil does not have time to absorb water. This water drains quickly, and its strong currents often carry part of the fertile soil layer into rivers and lakes, and with it weakly rooted plants, and sometimes small animals. Drizzling rains, on the contrary, moisten the soil well, however, if they drag on, waterlogging occurs.

Precipitation in the form of snow has a beneficial effect on organisms in the winter. Being a good insulator, snow protects the soil and vegetation from freezing (a layer of snow of 20 cm protects the plant at an air temperature of -25 ° C), and for small animals it serves as a shelter where they find food and more suitable temperature conditions. In severe frosts, black grouse, partridges, hazel grouses hide under the snow. However, during snowy winters, there is a mass death of some animals, for example, roe deer and wild boars: with a thick snow cover, it is difficult for them to move and get food.

Soil moisture.

Soil water is one of the main sources of moisture for plants. According to its physical state, mobility, availability and significance for plants, soil water is divided into free, capillary, chemically and physically bound.

The main variety of free water is gravitational water. It fills the wide gaps between the soil particles and, under the influence of gravity, constantly goes into deeper layers until it reaches the impermeable layer. Plants easily assimilate it while it is in the zone of the root system.

Capillary water fills the thinnest gaps between soil particles, it is also well absorbed by plants. It is held in the capillaries by cohesion. Under the influence of evaporation from the soil surface, capillary water forms an upward current, in contrast to gravitational water, which is characterized by a downward current. These movements of water, its consumption depend on air temperature, relief features, soil properties, vegetation cover, wind strength and other factors. Both capillary and gravitational water are so-called plant-available water.

The soil also contains chemically and physically bound water contained in some soil minerals (opal, gypsum, montrillonite, hydromicas, etc.). All this water is absolutely inaccessible to plants, although in some soils (clay, peat) its content very large.

♦ Ecoclimate.

Each habitat is characterized by a certain ecological climate - ecoclimate, i.e., the climate of the surface layer of air. Vegetation has a great influence on climatic factors. Under the forest canopy, for example, air humidity is always higher, and temperature fluctuations are less than in glades. The light regime of these places is also different. In different plant associations, their own regime of humidity, temperature, and light is formed. Then they talk about phytoclimate.

The living conditions surrounding insect larvae living under the bark of a tree are different from those in the forest where this tree grows. In this case, the temperature of the southern side of the trunk can be 10-15°C higher than the temperature of its northern side. Such small areas of habitat have their own microclimate. Special micro-climatic conditions are created not only by plants, but also by animals. A stable microclimate is possessed by inhabited animal burrows, tree hollows, and caves.

For the ground-air environment, as well as for the water, a clearly defined zoning is characteristic. There are latitudinal and meridional, or longitudinal, natural zones. The first stretch from west to east, the second - from north to south.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the main abiotic factors of the ground-air environment.

2. Give examples of the inhabitants of the ground-air environment.

Animals are settled almost on the entire surface of the Earth. Due to their mobility, the ability to adapt evolutionarily to colder conditions of existence, due to their lack of direct dependence on sunlight, animals have occupied more habitats than plants. However, it should be remembered that animals depend on plants, as plants serve as a source of food for them (for herbivores, and predators eat herbivores).

Here, in the context of animal habitats, we will understand animal habitats.

In total, there are four habitats for animals. These are 1) ground-air, 2) water, 3) soil and 4) other living organisms. Speaking about the ground-air environment of life, sometimes it is divided into ground and, separately, air. However, even flying animals land on the ground sooner or later. In addition, moving on the ground, the animal is also in the air. Therefore, the ground and air environments are combined into one ground-air environment.

There are animals that live in two environments at once. For example, many amphibians (frogs) live both in water and on land, a number of rodents live in soil and on the surface of the earth.

Ground-Air Habitat

In the ground-air environment, most species of animals. The land turned out to be, in a sense, the most convenient environment for their life. Although in evolution animals (and plants) arose in water and only later came to the surface.

Most worms, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals live on land. Many species of animals are capable of flight, so they spend part of their lives exclusively in the air.

Animals of the ground-air environment are usually characterized by high mobility, good vision.

The land-air environment is characterized by a wide variety of habitat conditions (tropical forests and temperate forests, meadows and steppes, deserts, tundras, and much more). Therefore, the animals of this environment of life are characterized by great diversity, they can differ greatly from each other.

aquatic habitat

The aquatic habitat differs from the air in greater density. Here animals can afford to have very massive bodies (whales, sharks) as the water supports them and makes their bodies lighter. However, moving in a dense environment is more difficult, so aquatic animals most often have a streamlined body shape.

Almost no sunlight penetrates into the depths of the sea, so the organs of vision may be poorly developed in deep-sea animals.

Aquatic animals are divided into plankton, nekton and benthos. Plankton passively swims in the water column (for example, unicellular), nekton- these are actively swimming animals (fish, whales, etc.), benthos lives on the bottom (corals, sponges, etc.).

soil habitat

The soil as a habitat is characterized by a very high density and lack of sunlight. Here the animals do not need the organs of sight. Therefore, they are either not developed (worms) or reduced (moles). On the other hand, in the soil there are not such significant temperature drops as on the surface. Many worms, insect larvae, ants live in the soil. There are also soil inhabitants among mammals: moles, mole rats, burrowing animals.

A NEW LOOK Adaptations of organisms to living in the ground-air environmentLiving organisms in ground-air environment surrounded by air. The air has a low density and, as a result, a low lifting force, insignificant support and low resistance to the movement of organisms. Terrestrial organisms live in conditions of relatively low and constant atmospheric pressure, also due to low air density.

Air has a low heat capacity, so it heats up quickly and cools down just as quickly. The rate of this process is inversely related to the amount of water vapor it contains.

Light air masses have greater mobility, both horizontally and vertically. This helps to maintain a constant level of the gas composition of the air. The oxygen content in air is much higher than in water, so oxygen on land is not a limiting factor.

Light in conditions of terrestrial habitation, due to the high transparency of the atmosphere, does not act as a limiting factor, in contrast to the aquatic environment.

The ground-air environment has different modes of humidity: from the complete and constant saturation of air with water vapor in some areas of the tropics to their almost complete absence in the dry air of deserts. The variability of air humidity during the day and seasons of the year is also great.

Moisture on land acts as a limiting factor.

Due to the presence of gravity and the lack of buoyancy, the terrestrial inhabitants of the land have well-developed support systems that support their body. In plants, these are various mechanical tissues, especially powerfully developed in trees. Animals have developed both an external (arthropod) and an internal (chordate) skeleton during the evolutionary process. Some groups of animals have a hydroskeleton (roundworms and annelids). Problems in terrestrial organisms with maintaining the body in space and overcoming the forces of gravity have limited their maximum mass and size. The largest land animals are inferior in size and mass to the giants of the aquatic environment (the mass of an elephant reaches 5 tons, and a blue whale - 150 tons).

The low air resistance contributed to the progressive evolution of the locomotion systems of terrestrial animals. So, mammals acquired the highest speed of movement on land, and birds mastered the air environment, having developed the ability to fly.

High mobility of air in vertical and horizontal directions is used by some terrestrial organisms at different stages of their development for settling with the help of air currents (young spiders, insects, spores, seeds, plant fruits, protist cysts). By analogy with aquatic planktonic organisms, as adaptations for passive soaring in the air, insects have developed similar adaptations - small body sizes, various outgrowths that increase the relative surface of the body or some of its parts. Seeds and fruits dispersed by the wind have various pterygoid and paragayate appendages that increase their ability to plan.

The adaptations of terrestrial organisms to the preservation of moisture are also diverse. In insects, the body is reliably protected from drying out by a multilayer chitinized cuticle, the outer layer of which contains fats and wax-like substances. Similar water-saving adaptations are also developed in reptiles. The ability for internal fertilization developed in terrestrial animals made them independent of the presence of an aquatic environment.

The soil is a complex system consisting of solid particles surrounded by air and water.

Depending on the type - clayey, sandy, clayey-sandy and others - the soil is more or less permeated with cavities filled with a mixture of gases and aqueous solutions. In the soil, in comparison with the surface layer of air, temperature fluctuations are smoothed out, and at a depth of 1 m, seasonal temperature changes are also imperceptible.

The uppermost soil horizon contains more or less humus, on which plant productivity depends. The middle layer located under it contains washed out from the top layer and converted substances. The bottom layer is mother breed.

Water in the soil is present in voids, the smallest spaces. The composition of soil air changes dramatically with depth: the oxygen content decreases, and carbon dioxide increases. When the soil is flooded with water or intensive decay of organic residues, anoxic zones appear. Thus, the conditions of existence in the soil are different at its different horizons.

In the course of evolution, this environment was mastered later than the water. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it is gaseous, therefore it is characterized by low humidity, density and pressure, high oxygen content.

In the course of evolution, living organisms have developed the necessary anatomical, morphological, physiological, behavioral and other adaptations.

Animals in the ground-air environment move through the soil or through the air (birds, insects), and plants take root in the soil. In this regard, animals developed lungs and tracheas, while plants developed a stomatal apparatus, i.e.

organs by which the land inhabitants of the planet absorb oxygen directly from the air. The skeletal organs, which provide autonomy of movement on land and support the body with all its organs in conditions of low density of the medium, thousands of times less than water, have received a strong development.

Ecological factors in the terrestrial-air environment differ from other habitats in high light intensity, significant fluctuations in air temperature and humidity, the correlation of all factors with geographical location, the change of seasons of the year and time of day.

Their impact on organisms is inextricably linked with the movement of air and the position relative to the seas and oceans and is very different from the impact in the aquatic environment (Table 1).

Table 5

Living conditions of air and water organisms

(according to D. F. Mordukhai-Boltovsky, 1974)

Land animals and plants have developed their own, no less original adaptations to adverse environmental factors: the complex structure of the body and its integument, the frequency and rhythm of life cycles, thermoregulation mechanisms, etc.

Purposeful mobility of animals in search of food developed, wind-borne spores, seeds and pollen of plants, as well as plants and animals, whose life is entirely connected with the air, appeared. An exceptionally close functional, resource and mechanical relationship with the soil has been formed.

Many of the adaptations we have discussed above as examples in the characterization of abiotic environmental factors.

Therefore, it makes no sense to repeat now, because we will return to them in practical exercises

Soil as habitat

Earth is the only planet that has soil (edasphere, pedosphere) - a special, upper shell of land.

This shell was formed in a historically foreseeable time - it is the same age as land life on the planet. For the first time, the question of the origin of the soil was answered by M.V. Lomonosov ("On the layers of the earth"): "... the soil came from the bending of animal and plant bodies ... by the length of time ...".

And the great Russian scientist you. You. Dokuchaev (1899: 16) was the first to call soil an independent natural body and proved that soil is "... the same independent natural-historical body as any plant, any animal, any mineral ... it is the result, a function of the cumulative, mutual activity of the climate of a given area, its plant and animal organisms, the relief and age of the country ..., finally, the subsoil, i.e.

ground parent rocks. ... All these soil-forming agents, in essence, are completely equivalent in magnitude and take an equal part in the formation of normal soil ... ".

And the modern well-known soil scientist N.A.

Kachinsky ("Soil, its properties and life", 1975) gives the following definition of soil: "Under the soil should be understood all the surface layers of rocks, processed and changed by the combined influence of climate (light, heat, air, water), plant and animal organisms" .

The main structural elements of the soil are: the mineral base, organic matter, air and water.

Mineral base (skeleton)(50-60% of the total soil) is an inorganic substance formed as a result of the underlying mountain (parent, parent) rock as a result of its weathering.

Sizes of skeletal particles: from boulders and stones to the smallest grains of sand and silt particles. The physicochemical properties of soils are mainly determined by the composition of parent rocks.

The permeability and porosity of the soil, which ensure the circulation of both water and air, depend on the ratio of clay and sand in the soil, the size of the fragments.

In temperate climates, it is ideal if the soil is formed by equal amounts of clay and sand, i.e. represents loam.

In this case, the soils are not threatened by either waterlogging or drying out. Both are equally detrimental to both plants and animals.

organic matter- up to 10% of the soil, is formed from dead biomass (plant mass - litter of leaves, branches and roots, dead trunks, grass rags, organisms of dead animals), crushed and processed into soil humus by microorganisms and certain groups of animals and plants.

The simpler elements formed as a result of the decomposition of organic matter are again assimilated by plants and are involved in the biological cycle.

Air(15-25%) in the soil is contained in cavities - pores, between organic and mineral particles. In the absence (heavy clay soils) or when the pores are filled with water (during flooding, thawing of permafrost), aeration in the soil worsens and anaerobic conditions develop.

Under such conditions, the physiological processes of organisms that consume oxygen - aerobes - are inhibited, the decomposition of organic matter is slow. Gradually accumulating, they form peat. Large reserves of peat are characteristic of swamps, swampy forests, and tundra communities. Peat accumulation is especially pronounced in the northern regions, where coldness and waterlogging of soils mutually determine and complement each other.

Water(25-30%) in the soil is represented by 4 types: gravitational, hygroscopic (bound), capillary and vaporous.

Gravity- mobile water, occupying wide gaps between soil particles, seeps down under its own weight to the groundwater level.

Easily absorbed by plants.

hygroscopic, or bound– is adsorbed around colloidal particles (clay, quartz) of the soil and is retained in the form of a thin film due to hydrogen bonds. It is released from them at high temperature (102-105°C). It is inaccessible to plants, does not evaporate. In clay soils, such water is up to 15%, in sandy soils - 5%.

capillary- is held around soil particles by the force of surface tension.

Through narrow pores and channels - capillaries, it rises from the groundwater level or diverges from cavities with gravitational water. Better retained by clay soils, easily evaporates.

Plants easily absorb it.

Vaporous- occupies all pores free from water. Evaporates first.

There is a constant exchange of surface soil and groundwater, as a link in the general water cycle in nature, changing speed and direction depending on the season and weather conditions.

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Gas composition of the atmosphere is also an important climatic factor.

Approximately 3-3.5 billion years ago, the atmosphere contained nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen, methane and water vapor, and there was no free oxygen in it. The composition of the atmosphere was largely determined by volcanic gases.

It was in the terrestrial environment, on the basis of the high efficiency of oxidative processes in the body, that animal homoiothermia arose. Oxygen, due to its constantly high content in the air, is not a factor limiting life in the terrestrial environment. Only in places, under specific conditions, is a temporary deficit created, for example, in accumulations of decaying plant residues, stocks of grain, flour, etc.

For example, in the absence of wind in the center of large cities, its concentration increases tenfold. Regular daily changes in the carbon dioxide content in the surface layers, associated with the rhythm of plant photosynthesis, and seasonal, due to changes in the intensity of respiration of living organisms, mainly the microscopic population of soils. Increased air saturation with carbon dioxide occurs in zones of volcanic activity, near thermal springs and other underground outlets of this gas.

Low air density determines its low lifting force and insignificant bearing capacity.

The inhabitants of the air must have their own support system that supports the body: plants - a variety of mechanical tissues, animals - a solid or, much less often, a hydrostatic skeleton.

Wind

storms

Pressure

The low density of air causes a relatively low pressure on land. Normally, it is equal to 760 mm Hg, Art. As altitude increases, pressure decreases. At an altitude of 5800 m, it is only half normal. Low pressure may limit the distribution of species in the mountains. For most vertebrates, the upper limit of life is about 6000 m. A decrease in pressure entails a decrease in oxygen supply and dehydration of animals due to an increase in respiratory rate.

Approximately the same are the limits of advancement to the mountains of higher plants. Somewhat more hardy are arthropods (springtails, mites, spiders) that can be found on glaciers above the vegetation boundary.

In general, all terrestrial organisms are much more stenobatic than aquatic ones.

Ground-Air Habitat

In the course of evolution, this environment was mastered later than the water. Ecological factors in the terrestrial-air environment differ from other habitats in high light intensity, significant fluctuations in air temperature and humidity, the correlation of all factors with geographical location, the change of seasons of the year and time of day.

The environment is gaseous, therefore it is characterized by low humidity, density and pressure, high oxygen content.

Characterization of abiotic environmental factors of light, temperature, humidity - see the previous lecture.

Gas composition of the atmosphere is also an important climatic factor. Approximately 3-3.5 billion years ago, the atmosphere contained nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen, methane and water vapor, and there was no free oxygen in it. The composition of the atmosphere was largely determined by volcanic gases.

At present, the atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen, oxygen, and relatively smaller amounts of argon and carbon dioxide.

All other gases present in the atmosphere are contained only in trace amounts. Of particular importance for the biota is the relative content of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

It was in the terrestrial environment, on the basis of the high efficiency of oxidative processes in the body, that animal homoiothermia arose. Oxygen, due to its constantly high content in the air, is not a factor limiting life in the terrestrial environment.

Only in places, under specific conditions, is a temporary deficit created, for example, in accumulations of decaying plant residues, stocks of grain, flour, etc.

The content of carbon dioxide can vary in certain areas of the surface layer of air in a fairly significant range. For example, in the absence of wind in the center of large cities, its concentration increases tenfold. Regular daily changes in the carbon dioxide content in the surface layers, associated with the rhythm of plant photosynthesis, and seasonal, due to changes in the intensity of respiration of living organisms, mainly the microscopic population of soils.

Increased air saturation with carbon dioxide occurs in zones of volcanic activity, near thermal springs and other underground outlets of this gas. The low content of carbon dioxide inhibits the process of photosynthesis.

Under indoor conditions, the rate of photosynthesis can be increased by increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide; this is used in the practice of greenhouse and greenhouse farming.

Air nitrogen for most inhabitants of the terrestrial environment is an inert gas, but a number of microorganisms (nodule bacteria, Azotobacter, clostridia, blue-green algae, etc.) have the ability to bind it and involve it in the biological cycle.

Local impurities entering the air can also significantly affect living organisms.

This is especially true for toxic gaseous substances - methane, sulfur oxide (IV), carbon monoxide (II), nitrogen oxide (IV), hydrogen sulfide, chlorine compounds, as well as particles of dust, soot, etc., polluting the air in industrial areas. The main modern source of chemical and physical pollution of the atmosphere is anthropogenic: the work of various industrial enterprises and transport, soil erosion, etc.

n. Sulfur oxide (SO2), for example, is toxic to plants even at concentrations from one fifty-thousandth to one millionth of the volume of air .. Some plant species are especially sensitive to SO2 and serve as a sensitive indicator of its accumulation in the air (for example , lichens.

Low air density determines its low lifting force and insignificant bearing capacity. The inhabitants of the air must have their own support system that supports the body: plants - a variety of mechanical tissues, animals - a solid or, much less often, a hydrostatic skeleton.

In addition, all the inhabitants of the air environment are closely connected with the surface of the earth, which serves them for attachment and support. Life in a suspended state in the air is impossible. True, many microorganisms and animals, spores, seeds and pollen of plants are regularly present in the air and are carried by air currents (anemochory), many animals are capable of active flight, but in all these species the main function of their life cycle is reproduction. - carried out on the surface of the earth.

For most of them, being in the air is associated only with resettlement or the search for prey.

Wind It has a limiting effect on the activity and even distribution of organisms. Wind can even change the appearance of plants, especially in habitats such as alpine zones where other factors are limiting. In open mountain habitats, wind limits plant growth, causing plants to bend to the windward side.

In addition, wind increases evapotranspiration in low humidity conditions. Of great importance are storms, although their action is purely local. Hurricanes, as well as ordinary winds, are capable of transporting animals and plants over long distances and thereby changing the composition of communities.

Pressure, apparently, is not a limiting factor of direct action, but it is directly related to weather and climate, which have a direct limiting effect.

The low density of air causes a relatively low pressure on land. Normally, it is equal to 760 mm Hg, Art. As altitude increases, pressure decreases. At an altitude of 5800 m, it is only half normal.

Low pressure may limit the distribution of species in the mountains.

For most vertebrates, the upper limit of life is about 6000 m. A decrease in pressure entails a decrease in oxygen supply and dehydration of animals due to an increase in respiratory rate. Approximately the same are the limits of advancement to the mountains of higher plants. Somewhat more hardy are arthropods (springtails, mites, spiders) that can be found on glaciers above the vegetation boundary.

A feature of the ground-air environment is that the organisms living here are surrounded air- a gaseous medium characterized by low humidity, density, pressure and high oxygen content.

Most animals move on a solid substrate - soil, and plants take root in it.

The inhabitants of the ground-air environment have developed adaptations:

1) organs that ensure the assimilation of atmospheric oxygen (stomata in plants, lungs and tracheas in animals);

2) a strong development of skeletal formations that support the body in the air (mechanical tissues in plants, the skeleton in animals);

3) complex adaptations for protection against adverse factors (periodicity and rhythm of life cycles, thermoregulation mechanisms, etc.);

4) a close connection with the soil has been established (roots in plants and limbs in animals);

5) characterized by high mobility of animals in search of food;

6) flying animals (insects, birds) and wind-borne seeds, fruits, pollen appeared.

The environmental factors of the ground-air environment are regulated by the macroclimate (ecoclimate). Ecoclimate (macroclimate)- the climate of large areas, characterized by certain properties of the surface layer of air. Microclimate– climate of individual habitats (tree trunk, animal burrow, etc.).

41. Ecological factors of the ground-air environment.

1) Air:

It is characterized by a constant composition (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 0.03% CO 2 and inert gases). It is an important environmental factor, because without atmospheric oxygen, the existence of most organisms is impossible, CO 2 is used for photosynthesis.

The movement of organisms in the ground-air environment is carried out mainly horizontally, only some insects, birds and mammals move vertically.

Air is of great importance for the life of living organisms through wind- movement of air masses due to uneven heating of the atmosphere by the Sun. Wind influence:

1) dries up the air, causes a decrease in the intensity of water metabolism in plants and animals;

2) participates in the pollination of plants, carries pollen;

3) reduces the diversity of flying animal species (strong wind interferes with flight);

4) causes changes in the structure of the covers (dense covers are formed that protect plants and animals from hypothermia and loss of moisture);

5) participates in the dispersal of animals and plants (carries fruits, seeds, small animals).

2) Atmospheric precipitation:

An important environmental factor, because The water regime of the environment depends on the presence of precipitation:

1) precipitation changes air humidity and soil;

2) provide available water for aquatic nutrition of plants and animals.

a) Rain:

The most important are the timing of the fallout, the frequency of the fallout, and the duration.

Example: the abundance of rain during the cooling period does not provide the plants with the necessary moisture.

The nature of the rain:

- storm- unfavorable, because plants do not have time to absorb water, streams are also formed that wash away the top fertile layer of soil, plants, and small animals.

- drizzling- favorable, because provide soil moisture, plant and animal nutrition.

- protracted- unfavorable, because cause floods, floods and floods.

b) Snow:

It has a beneficial effect on organisms in the winter, because:

a) creates a favorable temperature regime of the soil, protects organisms from hypothermia.

Example: at an air temperature of -15 0 С, the temperature of the soil under a 20 cm layer of snow is not lower than +0.2 0 С.

b) creates an environment for the life of organisms in winter (rodents, chicken birds, etc.)

fixtures animals to winter conditions:

a) the supporting surface of the legs for walking on snow is increased;

b) migration and hibernation (anabiosis);

c) transition to nutrition with certain feeds;

d) change of covers, etc.

Negative effect of snow:

a) the abundance of snow leads to mechanical damage to plants, the damping of plants and their wetting during the snowmelt in spring.

b) the formation of crust and sleet (it makes it difficult for animals and plants to exchange gases under the snow, creates difficulties for obtaining food).

42. Soil moisture.

The main factor for the water supply of primary producers is green plants.

Soil water types:

1) gravity water - occupies wide gaps between soil particles and, under the influence of gravity, goes into deeper layers. Plants easily absorb it when it is in the zone of the root system. Reserves in the soil are replenished by precipitation.

2) capillary water – fills the smallest spaces between soil particles (capillaries). Does not move down, is held by the force of adhesion. Due to evaporation from the soil surface, it forms an upward current of water. Well absorbed by plants.

1) and 2) water available to plants.

3) Chemically bonded water – water of crystallization (gypsum, clay, etc.). not available to plants.

4) Physically bound water - also inaccessible to plants.

a) film(loosely connected) - rows of dipoles, successively enveloping each other. They are held on the surface of soil particles with a force of 1 to 10 atm.

b) hygroscopic(strongly bound) - envelops soil particles with a thin film and is held by a force of 10,000 to 20,000 atm.

If there is only inaccessible water in the soil, the plant withers and dies.

For sand KZ = 0.9%, for clay = 16.3%.

Total amount of water - KZ = the degree of supply of the plant with water.

43. Geographical zonality of the ground-air environment.

The ground-air environment is characterized by vertical and horizontal zonality. Each zone is characterized by a specific ecoclimate, the composition of animals and plants, and the territory.

Climatic zones → climatic subzones → climatic provinces.

Walter's classification:

1) equatorial zone - is located between 10 0 north latitude and 10 0 south latitude. It has 2 rainy seasons corresponding to the position of the Sun at its zenith. Annual rainfall and humidity are high, and monthly temperature fluctuations are negligible.

2) tropical zone - is located north and south of the equatorial, up to 30 0 north and south latitude. Summer rainy period and winter drought are typical. Precipitation and humidity decrease with distance from the equator.

3) Dry subtropics zone - located up to 35 0 latitude. The amount of precipitation and humidity are insignificant, annual and daily temperature fluctuations are very significant. Frosts are rare.

4) transition zone - characterized by winter rainy seasons, hot summers. Freezes are more common. Mediterranean, California, south and southwest Australia, southwest South America.

5) temperate zone - characterized by cyclonic precipitation, the amount of which decreases with distance from the ocean. Annual temperature fluctuations are sharp, summers are hot, winters are frosty. Divided into subzones:

a) warm temperate subzone- the winter period is practically not distinguished, all seasons are more or less wet. South Africa.

b) typical temperate subzone- short cold winter, cool summer. Central Europe.

in) subzone of arid temperate continental type- characterized by sharp temperature contrasts, a small amount of precipitation, low humidity. Central Asia.

G) boreal or cold temperate subzone Summer is cool and humid, winter lasts half of the year. Northern North America and Northern Eurasia.

6) Arctic (Antarctic) zone - characterized by a small amount of precipitation in the form of snow. Summer (polar day) is short and cold. This zone passes into the polar region, in which the existence of plants is impossible.

Belarus is characterized by a temperate continental climate with additional moisture. Negative aspects of the Belarusian climate:

Unstable weather in spring and autumn;

Mild spring with prolonged thaws;

rainy summer;

Late spring and early autumn frosts.

Despite this, about 10,000 species of plants grow in Belarus, 430 species of vertebrates and about 20,000 species of invertebrates live.

Vertical zoning from the lowlands and the bases of the mountains to the tops of the mountains. Similar to horizontal with some deviations.

44. Soil as a medium of life. General characteristics.

Ground-air environment - a medium consisting of air, which explains its name. It is usually characterized as follows:

• The air offers almost no resistance, so the shell of organisms is usually not streamlined.
• High oxygen content in the air.
• There is a climate and seasons.
• Closer to the ground, the air temperature is higher, so most species live on the plains.
• The atmosphere lacks the water necessary for life, so organisms settle closer to rivers and other bodies of water.
• Plants that have roots use the minerals found in the soil and, in part, are found in the soil environment.
• The minimum temperature was recorded in Antarctica, which was - 89 ° C, and the maximum + 59 ° C.
• The biological environment is distributed from 2 km below sea level to 10 km above sea level.

In the course of evolution, this environment was mastered later than the water. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it gaseous, therefore it is characterized by low:

• humidity
• density and pressure
• high oxygen content.

In the course of evolution, living organisms have developed the necessary anatomical, morphological, physiological, behavioral and other adaptations. Animals in the ground-air environment move on the soil or through the air (birds, insects). As a result, animals have lungs and trachea, i.e., the organs by which the land inhabitants of the planet absorb oxygen directly from the air. received a strong development skeletal organs, providing autonomy of movement on land and supporting the body with all its organs in conditions of low density of the medium, thousands of times less than water.

Environmental factors in the ground-air environment differ from other habitats:

• high light intensity
• significant fluctuations in temperature and humidity,
• correlation of all factors with geographic location,
• change of seasons and time of day.

Their impact on organisms is inextricably linked with the movement of air and the position relative to the seas and oceans, and is very different from the impact in the aquatic environment. In the land-air environment, there is enough light and air. However, humidity and temperature are very variable. Marshy areas have an excess amount of moisture, in the steppes it is much less. Daily and seasonal fluctuations in temperature are noticeable.

Adaptations of organisms to life in conditions of different temperature and humidity. More adaptations of organisms of the ground - air environment are associated with air temperature and humidity. Animals of the steppe (scorpion, tarantula and karakurt spiders, ground squirrels, field mice) hide from the heat in minks. In animals, the adaptation from heat is the release of sweat.

With the onset of cold weather, birds fly away to warm lands, so that in the spring they will return to the place where they were born and where they will give birth.

A feature of the ground - air environment in the southern regions is an insufficient amount of moisture. Desert animals must be able to conserve their water in order to survive long periods when food is scarce. Herbivores usually manage to do this by storing all available moisture, which is in the stems and seeds they eat. Carnivores obtain water from the wet flesh of their prey. Both types of animals have very efficient kidneys that conserve every drop of moisture and rarely need to drink. Also, desert animals must be able to protect themselves from the brutal heat during the day and the piercing cold at night. Small animals can do this by hiding in rock crevices or burrowing into the sand. Many animals have evolved an impenetrable outer shell, not for protection, but to reduce moisture loss from their body.

Adaptation of organisms to movement in the ground - air environment. For many animals of the ground - air environment, it is important to move on the earth's surface or in the air. To do this, they have developed certain adaptations, and their limbs have a different structure. Some have adapted to running (wolf, horse), the second - to jumping (kangaroo, jerboa, horse), others - to flying (birds, bats, insects). Snakes, vipers do not have limbs at all, so they move by arching their bodies.

Much fewer organisms have adapted to life high in the mountains, since there is little soil, moisture and air, and there are difficulties with movement. However, some animals, such as mountain goats moufflons, are able to move almost vertically up and down if there is even a slight bump. Therefore, they can live high in the mountains.

Adaptation of animals to the factor of illumination of the ground-air environment of life structure and size of the eyes. Most animals of this environment have well-developed organs of vision. So, a hawk from the height of its flight sees a mouse that runs across the field.