In my own words, as I understand textology. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

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✪ Sin and salvation in Catholic and Orthodox culture - Mikhail Dmitriev

✪ ST5101.1 Rus 1. Introduction to the subject. Fragments of exegesis.

✪ Terentiev A.A. Some approaches to the translation of Buddhist terms

Subtitles

My topic is very complex both in sound and substance, in French it sounds like la question épineuse, a prickly question. The question of sin and salvation, as they are understood in two Christian traditions, is directly related to the history of the West and to the history of Rus'. These traditions are interesting in comparison. I would like to emphasize that when we address this story as historians, we address from non-denominational positions: we are not interested in where the teaching is more in line with the Gospel, what is better, what is worse. We are interested in how ideas about sin and human salvation were first formulated at the normative level, how theoretical ideas about sin, salvation, and human nature developed. Next, we are interested in how the transition from the normative level to the level of experienced Christianity takes place. “Experienced” is an unusual term for us, because it is a direct translation from the French term le christianisme vécu. Of interest is the question of the form in which the Christian teaching penetrated into society, into the parish, what penetrated into the life of an individual believer and groups of believers. There is no need to explain that this question is of fundamental importance if we are interested in the history of Christian cultures in the West, in the East, in any region of the world, when it comes to non-Christian cultures. After emphasizing that we will be interested in one of the settings of the human mentality, we will begin to consider the problem from the normative level. We are faced with a widespread stereotype, which is reinforced by the synodal translation of the Bible and our school ideas about Christianity. These ideas most often proceed from the fact that there are differences between Protestants and Catholics, between Catholics and Protestants of different eras, between Orthodox and Protestants and Catholics on the other hand, but a single Christianity in its main doctrinal features is homogeneous, in particular in how it is understood sin and salvation. Important for the Christian worldview is the fall of Adam and Eve. It is assumed that God punished Adam and Eve and their offspring by expelling them from paradise after they discovered their nakedness and at the same time tried to hide from God. This plot is present in a huge amount of poetry and iconography: “And it was said that you, Adam, will plow the land and get bread, food in the sweat of your face. And you, Eve, will give birth in pain and suffering. It is usually believed that such a myth or notion postulates the idea that all people are cursed and are punished for what happened once in paradise. In the early 1980s, while dealing with a meeting between Protestants and Orthodox, and then between Catholics and Orthodox within the Ukrainian-Belarusian borders, I was forced to raise the question of what actually distinguished Catholics and Orthodox, as well as Protestants and Orthodox. I saw in the texts of the sermons with which I worked, instructive Ukrainian-Belarusian handwritten gospels, and it seemed to me that the authors teach about sin in different ways in these sermon compositions. I delved into literature, wondering what the doctrine of sin and salvation was that was brought to Rus' after baptism in 988. I found that the doctrine of original sin, which is inherited by each individual person, since each individual person is guilty before God of the sin of Adam, is practically absent in the Orthodox tradition that came from Byzantium. I read a book by the Catholic author Francis Tenant, published at the beginning of the 20th century. Tenant analyzes Byzantine patristics, the teachings of the Church Fathers about the consequences of Adam's fall into sin. Part of this book made a comical impression on me, because the author says: “Look, here Gregory of Nyssa has already almost come to the Augustinian understanding of original sin, but for some reason he has not taken the decisive step.” And such theologians as Theodore of Mopsuestia and John Chrysostom, this authoritative author calls heretics who do not understand what original sin is. This is a characteristic response of confessional colored historiography. What really distinguished Augustine and the Augustinian tradition? We must make a short comment: without the legacy of Augustine, it is impossible to understand the intellectual history of Western Christianity. This is the central author who created the matrix for the thinking of generations of Western Christian preachers, theologians. One of the main lines that goes back to Augustine is about sin and salvation. In The City of God, Augustine explains what the consequences of original sin are for subsequent generations of people. The logic of Augustine's statements is as follows, since all people are born from a man and a woman and nothing else, original sin can be transmitted to them, because Adam and Eve gave birth to all subsequent generations. Augustine says, don't we see in the way life is born that at this moment the will of a person is not only weak, it is absent, a person cannot cope with passions. This is proof that every person born in a marital relationship is given original sin. The logic is very simple: a person cannot be born without a relationship between a man and a woman, and, accordingly, avoid the transfer of what the parents had through this event. At the beginning, I mentioned the synodal translation of the Bible. The authors who analyze this translation acknowledge that the Greek text of the New Testament, the Septuagint or the translation of the seventy interpreters, provides a translation of the key text from the letter of the apostle Paul to the Romans 5.12. This saying says that just as death entered into all people by one person, so sin entered by one person into all people, because everyone sinned in it. The Latin translation gives literally "in him all have sinned," while the Greek gives an indefinite form, because "by this all have sinned," not "in him," but "by this." When we read the Slavic Bible, we see that it retains the vagueness of the expression "by this all have sinned." In the Ostroh Bible, published in 1581 by Ivan Fedorov in Volyn, Ukraine, it says “everyone sinned about him”, there is no “e”, there “everyone sinned about him”. And in the synodal translation of the Bible, published in the 1870s, it says “in it all have sinned,” that is, the synodal translation of the Bible here follows the Vulgate. The difference is enormous: “all sinned in him”, that is, a man X and a woman M were born, and they all sinned in Adam, or did they not sin in Adam? This is one of the sides in research when philology, theology, philosophy, the language of philosophical concepts, textual criticism, in the end, the problem of translation and the problem of culture intersect. The most important thing is not how it sounds in the Slavic or non-Slavic translation of the Bible, but how it is then experienced. Speaking at one of the conferences on the role of Augustinism in the history of Christianity, I had to prepare a report on whether the Augustinian view of sin caused any controversy in Russian thought of the 17th century. It turned out that he did: Russian authors, first in the 1630s, and then in the 1650s-1660s, responded to the trends that came from Western Russian or Ukrainian-Belarusian lands and which introduced the idea of about original sin. We find in this study what settled in the parish culture, in the sermons that were offered to the parishioners. Monuments, namely numerous Ukrainian-Belarusian handwritten instructive gospels, contain traces of the penetration of the expression “decay pervotny” into Ukrainian-Belarusian everyday life. Primitive decadence is the original description, which goes on to original sin. I will illustrate with one example how change entered the culture of the parishioners and wards. My colleague from the University of Alberta in Canada, Peter Roland, pointed me to the texts of correspondence between the Ukrainian author Lazar Baranovich and Simeon Polotsky, a man important to Moscow life in the second half of the 17th century. Lazar Baranovich, through the mediation of Simeon of Polotsk, sought to have his work published in Moscow in the edition of the "Words of the Preacher Trumpets". In correspondence with Polotsky, he mentions the concept of original sin, peccatum originale, and Polotsky writes to him: “You know, here my letters are read, they are clarified, for God’s sake never mention original sin, here this concept is hated.” And then he says: “In general, it’s hard for me here, because I’m here as a person who walks between talking trees in the forest. They, of course, say something, but they have as much understanding of true things as trees. In this case, we see that the idea of ​​original sin is not accepted here. There is an interesting research perspective. All concepts that are associated with original sin are associated with the concept of salvation. All ideas about human nature are connected, on the other hand, with the idea of ​​original sin and salvation, because we are dealing with Christian medieval and early modern cultures. There is a wonderful story about how specific ideas about sin influenced Russian authors, how it entered the culture of even Soviet people through literature. In the 1920s, Dostoevsky was not included in the curriculum of the history of literature in the Soviet school, and in the 1950s he was introduced, apparently after the death of Stalin. Starting from the 1950s, all children in the 9th grade, the current 10th grade, had to study Crime and Punishment, study the question raised by Raskolnikov: “Am I a trembling creature or do I have a right?”. To study the problem of sin and salvation: where is sin and where is not. From the point of view of our understanding, the fact that Sonechka Marmeladova has to earn a living for her family by prostitution is nothing sinful. From the point of view of Dostoevsky and Russian culture, the idea that Raskolnikov is going to kill a senselessly existing harmful old money-lender is a sin. The most acute problems are posed in literary form. This is an excellent material not only for literary and cultural studies, but also for studies of how medieval traditions of understanding sin, salvation and human nature survive to Soviet culture. We must see from this example that this is not an abstract and unnecessary scholastic story about sin and salvation in a normative culture.

Issues

One of the problems of textology is the problem of text attribution, which is carried out within the framework of forensic psychology based on the methods of content analysis and psycholinguistics.

A significant part of literary works either remains unpublished during the life of the author, or is published with inaccuracies and distortions, both due to negligence and deliberately (conditions of censorship, etc.). Unpublished works often exist in a number of lists, of which none can be preferred to another in terms of reliability (for example, “Woe from Wit” by Griboyedov). Finally, all works of literature until the middle of the 15th century, when typography was invented, generally remained in the form of manuscripts, which only in the most rare cases were autographs or copies reviewed and corrected by the author (authorized copies). Not a single autograph has come down to us from the works of ancient literature. In medieval literature, almost every work had a complex history of the text and a number of authors, and often the oldest list that has come down to us is separated by several centuries from the time the work was written (for example, “Song of Roland”, which arose at the end of the 11th century, is represented by only one list of the end XII century and a large number of lists of the XIII-XIV centuries).

Tasks of textology

The main task of textual criticism is to give the correct text of the published literary work. The question of what is considered a "correct" or "canonical" text is not always understood in the same way. Different philological schools differently understood the ways of restoration on the basis of the remaining different editions of the text of the same work. Thus, until the middle of the 19th century, exact (“diplomatic”) reproduction of one manuscript, recognized for some reason as the best, prevailed in publishing technology. Since the middle of the 19th century, so-called "critical" publications have been common, reconstructing the alleged prototype by contaminating the variants of all manuscripts available for research. The textology of the early 20th century is characterized by a very great psychologism in its approach to the question of the so-called "author's will" (cf. M. Hoffmann's work on Pushkin's text, N.K. .

Criticism of the text

Criticism of the text basically boils down to two points:

1. to establish authenticity or forgery
2. to reconstruction, in the case of ascertaining the authenticity of the original text, distorted by correspondence and alterations and which has come down to us in the form of scattered and incomplete fragments.

The summary of this analysis of all existing variants of a given text and their relationship to each other is called the "critical apparatus", which is now considered a necessary accessory for any scientific critical edition of literary works.

Criticism of the text of the source, recognized as authentic, in turn consists of two consecutive points:

1. diagnosis (that is, stating the corruption of a given place in the text), the basis of which is either a violation of the logical meaning, or a discrepancy with the architectonics of the whole, the testimony of other monuments or other parts of the same monument
2. conjecture, that is, drawing up a project to correct the text, the source of which can be either indirect indications in the monument under study and close to it, or a guesswork based on a general interpretation of the logical meaning of the monument, the historical conditions for its occurrence, the relationship to other monuments, its artistic structures (e.g. rhythm), etc.

In the latter case, we often deal with the so-called "divinatory criticism" (from the Latin divinatio - "the ability to guess"), when a heavily corrupted text is reconstructed from indirect data.

History of textual criticism

Textual criticism developed initially on the basis of the study of the manuscript tradition of ancient (and later medieval) authors, that is, precisely on the basis of such documentary materials, among which, as mentioned above, there are no (with rare exceptions) autographs. Recently, it has been successfully applied to the texts of works of new and latest literature, and the presence of autographs has introduced a completely new range of problems into textology - the "creative history of the work", which is a new type of "text history" - a type limited by the chronological framework of the author's life, and even even narrower - the chronological framework of his work on this work.

The specific material on which the methods of textual criticism were developed and improved can be divided into the following categories:

1. monuments that have come down to us in insignificant fragments (for example, texts of ancient Greek lyricists, comedies of Menander)
2. monuments that have come down to us in numerous editions diverging from one another:
   1. subjected to numerous distortions during correspondence (until the end of printing) - these are the texts of most ancient authors
   2. subjected to repeated alterations and revisions up to unification (contamination of several works into one) - such is the history of the text of most works of fiction of the feudal period
3. monuments that are a collection of a number of other monuments that have been built up over a number of centuries, belonging to different eras and arising in different social environments (for example, the Bible, partly Homer's poems or Russian chronicles and chronographs)
4. monuments that have been preserved in a few or even in a single, sometimes greatly distorted, edition: this can sometimes include works of new literature that were not printed during the author’s lifetime and did not receive a final finish, such as Griboyedov’s “Woe from Wit” or Lermontov’s “Demon”
5. falsifications :
   1. monuments, entirely false - “The gift of Konstantin”, the so-called “False Isidore’s decrees”, the missing books of Titus Livy, Fallaris’s letters, “Lyubushin sud”, “Kraledvorskaya manuscript”, the end of Pushkin’s “Mermaid”, etc.
   2. interpolations or insertions (for example, Christian interpolations in pagan authors, later insertions of episodes or chronological dates in annals and chronicles).

The analysis of each of these categories of monuments is associated with special techniques of textual criticism.

The second of the enumerated categories of monuments is the most common in practice, which, in turn, is divided into three groups. Such a breakdown can be quite clearly carried out on the monuments of ancient Russian literature:

1. the lists are almost identical (there are only spelling and stylistic variations, minor insertions or omissions)
2. lists both similar and significantly different from each other (various plot options, insert episodes)
3. lists sharply diverging from each other, retaining only the general framework of the plot.

Each of these three cases requires special research methods. So, for example, in the first case, one list is placed as the basis for comparison, and all the rest are brought under it as options, forming a critical apparatus; at the same time, the comparison should be based on an older list with a typical text, although a “typical” text is by no means always the oldest text (the oldest text can come down to us just in one of the later lists); as a result of constructing the apparatus, that is, bringing all the options under one list, the relationship of the lists is established, and they are divided into groups, then the “archetype” of each group is established, and, finally, the relationship between the groups.

In this way, a “genealogical tree of lists” is built, which is a schematic representation of the history of the text. This work is more or less difficult, depending on the relative completeness of the lists; the more intermediate links are lost, the more difficult it is. So, for example, in one case we can establish that one of the lists of the first group is an archetype for the entire second group, in another case we can limit ourselves to the statement that the second group goes back to such and such a list of the first group, but this list itself is an archetype - should be considered lost.

This way of research, methodologically verified for the first of the three cases cited, is significantly modified for the second and third cases. Of course, there are also somewhat different cases in medieval literature: for example, among the lists of the "Song of Roland" one, the so-called Oxford, according to the structure of the plot, can be opposed as a special group to all the other lists of the XIII-XIV centuries, forming the second group, but in this latter, one of the youngest lists, the Venetian (of the end of the 14th century), converges on one basis (assonances

Body text issues
Terminology … 13
The last creative will ... 14
Establishing the main text ... 22
Variants and transcription ... 35
Conjectures ... 42
Punctuation and spelling … 50
Selected questions … 64

Dating … 73

Attribution
Basic questions … 82
Dubia … 103
Forgeries … 106

Publication types … 119

Material layout … 132

Auxiliary apparatus of the publication
Terminology ... 142
Comment tasks … 143
Comment position … 146
Main problems … 147
Pointers … 169

Racer S.A.
Fundamentals of textology. Ed. 2nd Textbook for students of pedagogical institutes. L., "Enlightenment", 1978. 176s.
Textual criticism is an auxiliary literary discipline that studies the texts of works of art for their interpretation and publication. Familiarity with it is necessary for all those involved in the study of literature.
The book reveals the methods and techniques of textual criticism of the literature of modern times, considers the problems of the main text) dating, attribution, types of publication, the location of the material and the auxiliary apparatus of the book. The book contains many examples from "life"; text of literary works.

60602 - 048.
R - ------ 21-78
103(03) - 78

© Enlightenment Publishing House, 1978

WORD

The word textology is of comparatively recent origin. It received the rights of citizenship approximately in the middle of the 1930s and was almost for the first time introduced by B. V. Tomashevsky into the course he gave in the 1926/27 academic year at the Institute of Art History in Leningrad.

This course was published in 1928 under the title "The Writer and the Book" with the subtitle "Essay on Textual Studies" - it was still impossible to make this subtitle the title.

And in 1957 - 1967. one after another, four collections of the Institute of World Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences were published under the title “Questions of Textology”, books” on the title pages of which appear: “Fundamentals of Textology”, “Textology on the Material of Russian Literature of the 10th - 17th Centuries”, “Textology. Brief essay”, “Textology”.

But if the term "textology" is new, then the concept itself is very old. Philological criticism, text criticism, archeography, hermeneutics, exegesis - words covering approximately the same concept, but applied to different areas of knowledge: history, ancient literature, source studies, the Bible.

Courses in textual criticism are now taught at a number of universities and pedagogical institutes, some research institutes have sections on textual criticism, and there is a special textual commission within the International Committee of Slavists. Articles on textual criticism are published in thick literary-critical journals.

The main achievement of modern textology can be formulated as follows: the text of a work of art is recognized as a fact of national culture. In a sense, it belongs not only to the author, but to the people as a whole. “I don’t create anything, I don’t formulate anything that personally belongs to me alone,” wrote Saltykov, “but I give only what every honest heart hurts at the moment” (“Letters to Auntie,” ch. XIV).

This book is based on the section "Textology", published by the publishing house "Prosveshchenie" in 1970, the book "Palaeography and Textology of Modern Times". All material has been significantly revised: a number of wordings have been clarified, new data have been introduced, the text has been shortened in some cases, but partially supplemented.

In this case, concern for the text: its accuracy, authenticity, accessibility - acquires social significance. This is the responsibility of the textologist before the people. Questions of textual criticism have now acquired a socio-political dimension.

The texts of writers (Belinsky, L. Tolstoy, A. Ostrovsky, Nekrasov, Chekhov) are published, on the basis of decisions of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, about faulty texts (M. L. Mikhailov, Demyan Bedny), we read special resolutions of the Central Committee of the CPSU.

A special article devoted to the text of Belinsky's letter to Gogol attracts attention not only by the subtlety of the analysis, but also by conclusions of ideological significance, and for a long time holds the attention of literary critics and historians of social thought 1 .

Folklore, ancient literature, modern literature - all of them are equally objects of textual criticism. Textology should exist as a single science. Its problematics and basic concepts (autograph, list, draft, white copy, copy, archetype, variant, etc.), general methods and techniques (attribution, dating, commenting, linking, studying typical copyist mistakes, etc.) - all this allows us to speak about a science with a common goal. However, historically, three disparate disciplines emerged.

Of course, folklore, ancient literature and modern literature have their own characteristics, their own research methods, but the specifics of each of them should not be exaggerated. The principle is important, not the number of certain cases in each industry.

Textual criticism is a field of philological science about the history of texts and the principles of their publication; texts, primarily literary and folklore, but also scientific, if they were associated with the study of literature, folklore and language. Manuscripts, like books, have their own destiny, their own history. Textology studies manuscripts, lifetime and posthumous editions of literary works, diaries, notebooks, letters; records of oral folk art.

Depending on the object of study, there are branches of textual criticism: textual criticism of antiquity, the Middle Ages (medieval), folklore, oriental literatures, modern literature, historical and linguistic sources. Such diversity does not prevent us from considering science as one.

Textology occupies a well-defined and independent place in the system of philological knowledge. It is closely connected with the theory and history of literature, and serves as the basis for literary criticism and historical source studies.

“Textology, in particular the study and interpretation of draft manuscripts,” wrote S. M. Bondi, “belongs to those disciplines united by the collective concept of “literary criticism,” which are closest to what we call the exact sciences. The conclusions of textual studies can least of all be arbitrary and subjective. Argumentation must be strictly logical and scientifically convincing.

Textual criticism is the science of the history of texts, it considers texts historically. "Textology analyzes the text not only in its spatial dimensions and in its final form, but also in temporal terms, that is, diachronically." The history of the text - its origin and development - connects textual criticism with the philosophical category of historicism.

The study of the history of the monument at all stages of its existence gives an idea of ​​the sequence of the history of the creation of the text. The history of the text reflects the patterns of the author's artistic thinking, his personality and worldview, individuality and creative will.

The history of the text must be considered and studied as a whole. The relationship between the historical and the theoretical is an important principle of scientific text criticism.

The practical application of textual criticism lies in the scientific publication of a literary monument, based on a preliminary comprehensive study of the history of its text.

The disputes that have arisen many times about whether textual criticism is a science or an auxiliary discipline are not only terminological; they clarify the scientific potential of textual research and the prospects for the development of this branch of knowledge. The correct answer to the question about the meaning of textual criticism lies in the analysis of its connections with philological science.

Auxiliary disciplines are necessary in scientific research, but they lose their meaning and meaning if they lose their connection with science. Textual criticism, as noted by N. F. Belchikov, “definitely has a scientific basis, is guided by the scientific method, participating in solving issues necessary for the development of literary thought.”

N.L. Vershinina. Introduction to Literary Studies - Moscow, 2005

Subject and objectives of the course.

Textual criticism is a philological discipline, the subject of which is the study of the text of a work and its critical examination for the purpose of its interpretation and subsequent publication. Textology generalizes the principles, methods and techniques of studying the text, based on comparative, historical-literary, literary and book studies research methods. Criticism of the text as "a system of methods for understanding the work" (A.A. Potebnya).

The study of textual criticism in the complex of book science disciplines is dictated by the need to form literary knowledge and practical professional skills of the future editor.

The aim of the course is for students to master the skills of textual work, to be able to independently apply the considered techniques. Along with lectures, the optimal forms of mastering the material are practical exercises on the topics "Spelling and punctuation", "Dating of the text", Attribution, "Arrangement of works" and tests.

History and tasks of textual criticism

Reading the text, its critical examination and correction in antiquity. Formation of textology as a scientific discipline. Literary heritage and issues of editorial culture. "A writer and a book. Essay on textology” B.V. Tomashevsky (1928) is the first domestic work summarizing the experience of studying literary monuments. Textual Practice and Vulgar Sociological Literary Criticism in the 1930s-1950s. Discussion about "ordering the edition of the classics". Works by D.S. Likhachev, B.Ya. Bukhshtaba, B.S. Meilaha, B.M. Eikhenbaum, S.A. Reiser, A.L. Grishunin, L.K. Chukovskaya, V.Ya. Proppa, E.I. Prokhorov. The problem of establishing the text in the absence of the author's manuscript in folklore works and works of ancient literature. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and the "Unity" of a Literary Monument. The history of textual criticism of the New Testament - the handwritten tradition, the occurrence of distortions, the reconstruction of the original. Sources and causes of distortion of the text.

Objects of textology. The main concepts are an autograph, a copy, a list, a draft, a white copy, an authorized edition, a canonical text, etc.

Textological methods and techniques - attribution, dating, conjecture, commenting, etc. The study of the creative heritage of the author, editions of his works, letters and diaries, memoirs. Anonymity of the text and disputes about authorship. The plurality of texts and the establishment of the main text.

The influence of A.A. Shakhmatova, B.V. Tomashevsky, D.S. Likhachev on the development of modern textual criticism.

The main tasks of textual criticism are following the creative will of the author, establishing the main text, organizing and commenting on it, preparing it for publication.

Text sources

The text as a "primary given" (M.M. Bakhtin); “the material embodiment of the work, the source containing the work, the general basis” (A.L. Grishunin).

The history of the text - from a rough draft to an authorized edition. Corrections made to the text when reprinted. Identification, study, comparison and analysis of all sources of the text in order to establish a canonical text.

Indirect materials in textual work - epistolary, memoirs, diaries. Establishing their authenticity and reliability.

Handwritten text sources - autograph (drafts, plans, draft, white copy), copy, list.

A draft is an autograph reflecting the process of creating a work.

White paper - an autograph that fixes the result of the author's work on the work at this stage, a white manuscript, as a rule, intended for publication.

Copy - a manuscript (or other type of text) created by the author or another person with the aim of accurately reproducing the author's text.

A list is a manuscript (or other type of text) the purpose of which is not an exact reproduction of the author's text.

The study of handwritten text sources. Knowledge of the writer's creative laboratory and the correct reading of the text.

The publication of a work is an intermediate result of the author's work on the text. The study of printed text sources. "Side editions", other editions. Bibliography of the text. The fact of authorization of the publication and its establishment.

Main text

The problem of choosing the source of the main text. The essence of the disputes around the terms "main text" and "canonical text".

The creative will of the author as an idea, materially embodied in the text of the work. The inviolability of the author's creative will is the basic principle of textual criticism. The last lifetime authorized edition as the main text. Situations when a white copy, draft copy, copy, authorized list are considered as the main text.

The problem of revealing the true last creative will of the author in order to establish the "genuine author's text". The essence of the concepts of "author's will" and "main text" in cases of interference by an editor or censor, the presence of autocensorship, the publication of a text in the absence of the author, aboulia, the assignment of the publication by the author to other persons, etc.

Choice of main text from: completed and published works; works completed and not published; unfinished and unpublished works.

The fallacy of the mechanical equalization of the creative will of the author and the last lifetime edition as the embodiment and expression of this will.

Establishment of the main (canonical) text

Criticism of the test - the establishment of distortions in it that violate the author's will. Normativity of a critically established text.

Motivation for making textual corrections to the main text. The problem of contamination of various editions and variants, "adaptation", "improvement", "simplification", and "correction" of the text. Semantic analysis of the text. Mistakes and typos are “meaningful” and make the text meaningless. Author's text and variants of its folklore existence. Departure from the authentic author's text in texts set to music. Features of the texts of works of "free poetry".

Cases of admissibility of corrections or additions by conjecture - conjectures. The actual errors of the author, explained in the comments. Distortions of the text by the editor, typesetter, proofreader and ways to eliminate them. Analysis of the relationship between the author and the editor in the process of working on the manuscript.

Restoration of banknotes, elimination of distortions caused by censorship. Meaningful reading of the context (B.V. Tomashevsky, S.M. Bondi).

The original author's text in its latest edition is the main (canonical) text that is mandatory for publications of this work at the present stage of the study of sources. Drawing up a textual passport. Accepted text and its motivation.

Spelling and punctuation

Author's style. The language of the heroes of the works. Departure from the norms of the modern language. The author's will in relation to the text and in relation to punctuation marks. Morpheme and grapheme. Spelling as a system of text reproduction. Change of words, concepts, syntactic constructions in time and the problem of their correction. "Grotovskaya" spelling. Reform of 1918.

"Mistake" or artistic expressiveness of the text. Phonetic and morphological features of the author's language. Reproduction of punctuation and spelling of the original in scientific publications. Principles of the spelling "mode" in the modern edition of the classics. The problem of unification of stable spellings. Spelling and punctuation in mass publications.

Modern spelling rules and the preservation of phonetic, morphological and lexical features of the era. Writing foreign words. Punctuation and writing style.

Other editions and variants

Discrepancies in the sources of the text or their individual parts. Chronological sequence of text sources.

Draft text layering problem. Reasons for discrepancies. Independent (standalone) and linked text changes. Discrepancies and distortion of the text as a result of the author's and outside work on it.

The difference between the versions of a work and its various editions. Qualitative and quantitative character of differences. Chronological principle in the publication of editions. Draft (interim) edition. Variants of editions and variants of the canonical text.

Comparison of publications in order to identify options. The location of the options in the modern edition is in a special section, in the comments, as footnotes. Submission of options in typographic ways.

Variant summaries. transcription problem. Layered (differentiated) reproduction of variants. Editorial explanations for the texts of the published versions. System of conditional textual designations.

Text dating

Initial, intermediate and final stages of work on the work. Dates of commencement, completion and first publication. Textual methods of dating. The problem of authenticity of the author's date. Dating and historical and stylistic analysis of the text. Date-title - authenticity or literary device. The reasons for the erroneous dating are the date of the copy, the latest autographic recording, the completion of the cycle of works. Dating and selection of the source of the main text.

The place of the work in the work of the writer. Dates of authorized reprints. Direct, relative, double and approximate dates. Conscious and accidental distortion of dates.

Ways of establishing the date - by autograph, by edition, by epistolary heritage and memoirs. Documentary, historical, stylistic, sociological, paleographic and other ways. Comparison of available data. Establishing an approximate date by content, handwriting, location of the manuscript in the writer's archive, etc.

Conventional textual notation when publishing dates - angle brackets, question mark, dash, comma, etc.

Attribution

Attribution (heuristics) and attethesis. Attribution methods - documentary, ideological and analytical, sociological, linguo-stylistic. A combination of these methods, biographical facts and historical and literary techniques. Involvement of indirect data in solving the problem of authorship.

The role of the document in the attribution methodology. Critical attitude to the document. Historical and philological analysis of the document. Other methods of proof of copyright.

Defects in ideological and analytical attribution. Stylistic mimicry, imitation. Attribution of translated texts. Subjective-opportunistic principle of attribution.

Letters, diaries, memoirs and attribution. Interpretation of the testimonies of contemporaries. Copies, listings and attribution errors.

Dubia Section (doubtful authorship). "Dubiality" in text and authorship. The degree of probability of authorship. Location of the department Dubia" in the edition.

Forgery as a conscious act. The purpose of creating a fake and analyzing it as a historical and literary fact. Poem "Lights". F.E. Korsh and "Mermaid" A.S. Pushkin. "Diary" A.A. Vyrubova, "Letters and Notes of Omer de Gelle". literary hoaxes. Ossian, "Kraledvorskaya Manuscript", "Songs of the Western Slavs", chapters of the second part of "Dead Souls", Cherubina de Gabriak. Prosper Merimee as the author of literary hoaxes. Methods of "proofing" the authenticity of a literary monument.

Methods for detecting a fake - handwriting examination, chemical analysis, fluoroscopy, etc. Literary examination.

Types and types of publications

Types of publications and reader's development of the text. Textual definition of types of publications depending on the nature of the work on the text. Documentary publications (facsimile, photo reproduction, diplomatic).

Critical editions. Features of text preparation. Academic publication and its relationship with the tradition of publishing the works of a given author. Degree of completeness of texts. Scientific reference apparatus.

Scientific publication. Scientific publication. Mass edition. Mixed types of publications, their variability. Series "Literary Monuments". Series "Poet's Library".

The essence of the main criteria is the subject of publication, functional (purpose) purpose, reader's address.

The relationship between the type of publication and the scientific reference apparatus. Introductory article, variants and other editions, historical-literary, real, linguistic comments, indexes.

The degree of completeness of the texts and the type of publication. Complete works, collected works, selected works, collections, mono-editions. The relationship between the type and type of publication.

Arrangement of works

The evolution of the writer's work and the arrangement of works in the publication. The relationship of composition, type and type of publication. The location of the works and the creative will of the author. Features of the arrangement of works in poetry collections. "Book of Poems" and compiling collection. Completed and unfinished works. Features of the author's creativity and principles of placement of works in the publication. The main criteria are genre, chronology, subject matter. The difference between the publishing concept of "genre" and literary criticism.

alphabetical principle. Genre-chronological principle. Chronological arrangement within a genre group. Works published and unpublished during the lifetime of the author. Section "Unpublished". The peculiarity of the arrangement of cycles of works.

chronological principle. The theory of "single chronology". Publication of works edited by M.K. Lemke. Combination of works of different genres. Location of works with approximate dates. "Works of unknown years".

Anthological principle of location in collections of works by different authors.

Special sections in the publication, their purpose, justification, location.

Scientific and reference apparatus of the publication

The history of the apparatus of comments and indexes. Appointment of scientific reference apparatus. Accompanying articles, comments, indexes.

Volume, specificity and construction of the scientific reference apparatus. Text commenting system. Subordination of the commentary to the text of the work. The intersection of the functions of sections of the scientific reference apparatus.

Articles characterizing the publication. Historical-literary-biographical essay. "From the editor" ("From the publisher"). The relationship between the type of publication and the introductory article. Location of articles.

Types of comments as a system of additions to the text. Types of notes as separate references. Preamble to comments. Textual commentary as a set of information about the state of the writer's literary heritage. Historical and literary commentary. Real comment. Dictionary (linguistic) commentary.

Index of works. "Content". Summary index. Name index. Index of literary heroes. Chronological index. Index of geographical names. Index of illustrations. Index of storage places for autographs. List of conditional abbreviations.

The dependence of the auxiliary apparatus on the reader's address and the functional purpose of the publication. Location of commentaries, notes, and indexes in an edition. Printing and aesthetic requirements for the design of the auxiliary apparatus.

Main literature

Grishunin A. L. Research aspects of textual criticism. M., 1998.

Likhachev D.S.Textology. M., 2006.

Likhachev D.S. Textology (based on Russian literature X - XVII centuries). M., 2001.

Fundamentals of textology. M., 1962.

Pankeev I.A. Compilation: editorial aspecthttp://www.bookchamber.ru/projects/knigochey/kngch_sm.html#2

Prokhorov E.I. Textology. M., 1966.

Racer S.A.Palaeography and textology of modern times. M., 1970.

Racer S.A. Fundamentals of textology. L., 1978.

Modern textology: Theory and practice. M., 1997.

Tomashevsky B.V. Writer and book. Essay on textology. M., 1959.

additional literature

Alekhina E.M., Zapadov A.V. book apparatus. M., 1957.

Belchikov N.F. Ways and skills of literary work. M., 1965.

Questions of textology. Issue. 1. M., 1957.

Questions of textology. Issue. 2. M., 1960.

Questions of textology. Issue. 3. Principles of publishing epistolary texts. M., 1964.

Metzger Bruce M. Textology of the New Testament. M., 1996.

Textology and genetic criticism. General problems, theoretical perspectives. Anthology. M., 2008.

Chudakova M. O.Manuscript and book. M., 1986.

Exam Preparation Questions

Textual criticism as a scientific discipline: subject and main tasks.

Textological methods and techniques.

The influence of A.A. Shakhmatova, B.V. Tomashevsky, D.S. Likhachev on the development of modern textual criticism.

The place of textual criticism in the complex of bibliological disciplines.

Causes of distortion of the text.

Printed and handwritten text sources.

Comparison and analysis of text sources.

Auxiliary text sources.

Autograph, draft, white paper.

The problem of choosing the source of the main text.

Intervention of the editor or censor in the text.

Abulia.

Normativity of a critically established text.

The problem of text adaptation.

Features of the texts of works of "free poetry".

Meaningful context, restoration of banknotes.

Spelling and punctuation in documentary publications.

Unification of stable spellings.

Spelling and punctuation in mass publications.

Punctuation and writing style.

Other editions and variants.

System of conditional textual designations.

Text dating.

Textual methods of text dating.

Dating and historical and stylistic analysis of the text.

Causes of erroneous dating.

Textual designations when publishing dates.

attribution methods.

The role of the document in the attribution methodology.

Letters, diaries, memoirs and attribution.

Forgery as a conscious act of writing (publishing).

Hoaxes and forgeries. Fundamental difference. Editions of the works of Ossian, A. Vyrubova, Cherubina de Gabriac.

Counterfeit detection methods.

Types and types of publications.

Types of publications and readership.

Facsimile and diplomatic publications.

The degree of completeness of texts in publications of different types.

Features of the preparation of a scientific mass publication.

The subject of the publication, its functional purpose and the reader's address as the main criteria for the type of publication.

Type of publication and scientific reference apparatus.

Types of scientific reference apparatus.

Introductory article. Types, depending on the type of publication.

Introduction, preface. Their difference from the introductory article.

Historical-literary and real comments.

Types of pointers.

Types of publications.

Favorites as a type of publication.

Complete collection of works as a type of publications. Principles of preparation.

Principles of arrangement of works in the publication.

The location of the works and the creative will of the author.

Features of the arrangement of works in poetry collections.

"Book of Poems" and compiling collection.

Genre-chronological principle.

The chronological principle and theory of Lemke (unified chronology). The first PSS A.I. Herzen.

Location of unfinished works in a publication.

Combining works of different genres in the publication.

Volume, specificity and construction of the scientific reference apparatus.

Historical-literary-biographical essay as a kind of introductory article.

Preamble, its purpose and types.

Consolidated index in the edition.

Features of compiling a name index.

Subject index and publication type.

Location of indexes and comments in the publication.

Annotation. Its purpose, volume, style, location.

Features of folklore textology.

B. Metzger. Textology of the New Testament.

Critical check and correction of the text.

Transcription of the text as an editorial-textological activity.

Mono-edition as a type of publication. Types of mono-editions.

Series "Literary monuments" as a type of publication.

Chronological limits "terminusante" and "terminuspost".

Accurate, wide, double dates. "Hadji Murad" by L. Tolstoy, "Ballad" by B. Pasternak.

Textology(from Latin textus - fabric, connection (of words) and Greek λόγος - word, science) - “one of the most important areas of literary criticism (as part of philology), studying works of fiction and folklore in order to restore history, critically check and establish them texts for further research, interpretation and publication” (A.L. Grishunin). According to V.E. Khalizeva, "textology is a scientific discipline both auxiliary and fundamental" . As part of literary criticism, textual criticism is connected with the history and theory of literature and constitutes their source study base.

As you know, many literary works either remain unpublished during the life of the author, or are published with inaccuracies and distortions, both due to negligence (miscalculations of the author, typesetter, proofreader) and deliberately (censorship, “autocensorship”, editing). Unpublished works often exist on a number of lists, none of which can be preferred over the other for authenticity. Finally, all works of literature until the middle of the 15th century, when printing was invented, generally remained in the form of manuscripts, which only in the most rare cases were autographs or copies (authorized copies) reviewed and corrected by the author. Not a single autograph has come down to us from the works of ancient literature. In medieval literature, almost every work had a complex text history and a number of authors, and often the oldest list that has come down to us is separated by several centuries from the time the work was written.

The textual study of literary facts creates a solid foundation for their further description, analysis and interpretation.

History of textual criticism

Textual criticism developed initially on the basis of the study of the manuscript tradition of ancient (and later medieval) authors, i.e. on the basis of such documentary materials, among which there are no autographs (with the rarest exceptions). Recently, it has been successfully applied to the texts of works of new and latest literature, and the presence of autographs has introduced a completely new range of problems into textology - the "creative history of the work", which is a new type of "text history" - a type limited by the chronological framework of the author's life, and even even narrower - the chronological framework of his work on this work.

The beginning of practical textual criticism goes back to the works of ancient philosophers. Aristarchus (II century BC) corrected and interpreted Homer's poems, becoming the founder of the philological school of "criticism and exegesis". Later, textual criticism developed on the texts of the Old and New Testaments. Augustine in the 5th century outlined the rules of church exegesis, insisting on the need for knowledge of ancient languages, history, philosophy, etc. In the Middle Ages, a critical study of the Bible developed. The revival caused a desire to restore the original appearance of the monuments of ancient culture. Textology began to serve all humanities dealing with texts. The founders of textual criticism in modern times were the Englishmen R. Bentley (1662 - 1742) and R. Porson (1759 - 1808); in Germany - I. Reiske (1716 - 1774), Fr. Wolf (1759 - 1824), G. Herman (1772 - 1848).

In Russia, textology (as a practical activity) has been developing since the second half of the 18th century (publishing the works of A.D. Kantemir, Russian chronicles, etc.). As a scientific discipline, textology has been developing in Russia since the 1920s in the works of B.V. Tomashevsky, G.O. Vinokura. Theoretical research was carried out in different directions. Ultimately, a number of major masters of textual criticism were produced by the "formal" school. Qualified cadres of textologists left the seminary of prof. S.A. Vengerov. Another school of textual medievalists was created by Acad. V.N. Peretz.

Textology material

The specific material on which the methods of textual criticism were developed and improved can be divided into the following categories: 1) monuments that have come down to us in insignificant fragments; 2) monuments that have come down to us in numerous, diverging from one another, editions: a) subjected to numerous distortions during correspondence (until the end of printing), such are the texts of most ancient authors; b) subjected to repeated alterations and revisions up to the unification (contamination of several works into one) - such is the history of the text of most works of fiction of the feudal period; 3) monuments that are a collection of a number of other monuments that have been built up over a number of centuries, belonging to different eras and arising in different social environments; 4) monuments that have been preserved in a few or even in a single, sometimes heavily distorted, edition: this can sometimes include works of new literature that were not printed during the author's lifetime and did not receive final finishing; 5) falsifications: a) monuments, entirely false; b) interpolation or insertion. The analysis of each of these categories of monuments is associated with special techniques of textual criticism.

Tasks of textology

The most important task of textual criticism is the establishment of the text, which does not necessarily have the goal of publishing it. From the point of view of A.L. Grishunin, any study of literature requires the establishment of its exact and, if possible, unified text. Establishing a text is impossible without delving into its history. On its basis, the study of the sources of the text (manuscripts and printed editions), the establishment of their genealogy and filiation, the classification and interpretation of the author's revisions of the text of editions and variants), as well as its distortions, are carried out; study of correspondence, diaries, memoirs and other historical evidence of the writer's work. Textual research also has a general significance, revealing the historical and literary fate of the monument and the patterns of literary evolution. Recreating the creative process, textual criticism contributes to the understanding of the psychology of creativity and the laws of perception, historical and functional research on the "life" of works in different eras. Particular questions of the history of the text, studied on the basis of it, are attribution, including attethesis (proof of non-authorship), dating, localization. A special case of attribution is the study of literary hoaxes. Finally, its publication (scientific edition) is connected with the study of the history of the text.

Author's will

The will of the author is rarely expressed directly, more often textual critics have to rely on indirect data: the last lifetime edition, the last manuscript, the author's proofreading. Following the "author's will", the rule of the last text and other principles of textual work, according to the correct remark of A.L. Grishunin, do not have the character of recipes and do not exclude the study of each phenomenon in the history of its origin and development. Textology deals with the concept of "the will of the author", but this refers to the creative will of the writer, which cannot be understood in a simplified way - in a biographical or legal sense. The will of the author, according to D.S. Likhachev, is not “the ultimate truth”, she herself needs to be studied, to determine the historical circumstances limiting her, her creative and non-creative components.

Criticism of the text

Criticism of the text, as it has been written about more than once, basically boils down to two points: 1) to establish the authenticity or falsity of the source, 2) to reconstruct, in the case of ascertaining the authenticity of the original text, distorted by correspondence and alterations and which has come down to us in the form of scattered and incomplete fragments. The summary of this analysis of all existing variants of a given text and their relationship to each other is called the "critical apparatus", which is now considered a necessary accessory for any scientific critical edition of literary works.

Criticism of the text of a source recognized as authentic, in turn, consists of two consecutive moments: 1) diagnosis (i.e., ascertaining the corruption of a given place in the text), the basis of which is either a violation of the logical meaning, or inconsistency with the architectonics of the whole, the testimony of other monuments or other parts the same monument 2) conjectures, i.e. drawing up a draft correction of the text, the source of which can be either indirect indications in the monument itself and close to it, or a guesswork based on a general interpretation of the logical meaning of the monument, the historical conditions of its occurrence, the relationship to other monuments, its artistic structure, etc. d.

However, if we understand “text criticism” as an activity aimed only at establishing a text for its publication, i.e. technically, the difference, according to D.S. Likhachev, between her and textual criticism, which studies the history of the text, is the same as between agronomy and botany, pharmacology and medicine, the art of drawing and geometry.

Canonical text

The concept of "canonical text", A.L. Grishunin believes, is not recognized by a number of textual critics, because contains an indication of the inflexibility, rigidity of the "canon" established once and for all, which is practically unattainable; it does not apply to medieval, historical and folklore texts. Sometimes the term "definitive" is used in the same sense (from Latin definitivus - defining). The stability of the text is not declared, but arises as a result of its recognition by a number of authoritative researchers through discussions and scientific review. The text established in this way can be refined when new sources are discovered or a deeper study of previously known sources is made. The corrections made to the text are not based on the subjective considerations of the editor, but on an objective scientific analysis. The work of the editor is documented and justified in the apparatus of scientific publication and thus placed under the control of readers and critics, who may otherwise interpret the modified readings. In addition, "canonical text" is often replaced by the term "main text" (for the reason already indicated).