Properties of water: "Ordinary miracles" in our lives. Physics and Chemistry of Ice

25.09.2019

11. Why does water expand when it freezes

The freezing of a water molecule means that it loses the accumulated photons of solar origin from the surface of the chemical elements that form it. Most of these photons accumulate on the surface of hydrogen, since the surface layers of hydrogen contain a large percentage of Yin photons (absorbing aether). The exposure of hydrogen leads to the fact that water molecules begin to turn around relative to each other. The bare hydrogen of neighboring molecules begins to attract each other. In the liquid state of water, hydrogen was "covered" by free particles. They shielded the Yin photons in its composition, and in this way reduced the manifestation of the Attraction Fields of these photons outside. Among the solar particles (emitted by the Sun), Yang particles (emanating ether) predominate. Because of this shielding, the attraction from the hydrogen side of water in the liquid state is not so strong.

When water freezes and the molecules “turn” towards each other with “hydrogen parts”, the “oxygen ends” also turn towards each other. In the liquid state, the molecules are connected like this - "hydrogen-oxygen-hydrogen-oxygen" . And in solid like this: "oxygen-oxygen-hydrogen-hydrogen-oxygen-oxygen-hydrogen-hydrogen" .

More precisely, in the solid state, the connection occurs due to hydrogen bonds. And the elements of oxygen are simply forced to turn towards each other.

Since oxygen elements do not contain as many Yin photons as hydrogen in their surface layers, the process of freezing - the loss of free photons - does not significantly affect the features of the Force Field of the elements. As there was a significant Repulsion Field, so it remains. Therefore, when water molecules turn to each other with oxygen, the elements of oxygen have a transforming effect on each other. Recall that transformation is heating, an increase in temperature. Elements emit ether towards each other (thanks to Yang particles), and. thereby heating (transforming). The ether emitted by each of the elements towards the other prevents it from emitting ether. Because of this opposition, the transformation of the quality of the particles in the composition of the elements takes place. And heating, as you know, is always accompanied by the expansion of matter. This is why water expands when it freezes. But not much. Not the way it will expand if you start boiling it.

The freezing point has been passed, the molecules have turned around, and the oxygen has been transformed (heated up) in the composition of the molecules. But this heating is point, very weak. This is not heating, for example, due to the combustion of fuel or the passage of an electric current, when a huge number of free particles with Repulsive Fields (Yang) accumulate.

In the future, if the cooling of the water continues, no more expansion will occur.

Thus, we have analyzed the reasons for the expansion of water during cooling.

We strongly recommend that you read the articles on particle quality transformation in Part 2 on particle mechanics. Otherwise, the main reason for the expansion of water, and even substances when heated, will remain incomprehensible to you.

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Density

The density of pure ice ρ h at a temperature of 0 ° C and a pressure of 1 atm (1.01105 Pa) is 916.8 kg / m 3. With increasing pressure, the density of ice increases somewhat. So, at the base of the Antarctic ice sheet in places of its greatest thickness, reaching 4200 m, the density of ice can reach 920 kg/m 3 . The density of ice also increases with a decrease in temperature (by about 1.5 kg / m 3 with a decrease in temperature by 10 ° C).

Thermal deformation

With a decrease in temperature, the linear dimensions and volume of samples and ice masses decrease, and with an increase in temperature, the opposite process is observed - thermal expansion of ice. The coefficient of linear expansion of ice depends on temperature, increasing with its increase. In the temperature range from -20 to 0 ° C, the coefficient of linear expansion is on average 5.5-10~5. and the coefficient of volumetric expansion, respectively, is 16.5-10"5 per 1 °C. In the range from -40 to -20 °C, the coefficient of linear expansion decreases to 3.6-10"5 per 1 °C.

Heat of fusion and sublimation

The amount of heat required to melt a unit mass of ice without changing its temperature is called the specific heat of ice melting. Freezing water releases the same amount of heat. At 0 °C and at normal atmospheric pressure, the specific heat of ice melting is Lm = 333.6 kJ/kg.

The latent heat of evaporation of water depending on its temperature is equal to
L isp \u003d 2500 - 246 kJ / kg,
where 6 is the ice temperature in °C.

Specific heat of sublimation of ice, i.e. the amount of heat required for the direct transition of fresh ice to steam at a constant temperature is equal to the sum of the heat costs required to melt ice Lpo and evaporate water Lsp:
L air =L pl +L use

The specific heat of sublimation is almost independent of the temperature of the evaporating ice (at 0 °С Lsub = 2834 kJ/kg, at -10°С - 2836, at -20 °С - 2837 kJ/kg). During sublimation of steam, a similar amount of heat is released.

Heat capacity

The amount of heat required to heat a unit mass of ice by 1°C at constant pressure is called the specific heat of ice. The heat capacity of fresh ice C l decreases with decreasing temperature:
C l \u003d 2.12 + 0.00786 kJ / kg.

rezhelation

Ice has the property of reglaciation (freezing), which is characterized by the fact that when two pieces of ice come into contact and are compressed, they freeze. Under the action of local elevated pressures on the contacts, some melting of ice may occur. The resulting water is squeezed out to places where the pressure is less, and there it freezes. Freezing of ice surfaces can occur both without pressure and without the participation of the liquid phase.

Due to the properties of resolving, cracks in ice sheets and massifs are able to "heal" and cracked ice can turn into monolithic ice. This is very important when using ice as a building material for the construction of engineering structures (ice warehouses, watertight cores of hydraulic structures, etc.).

metamorphism

Ice metamorphism is a change in its structure and texture under the influence of molecular and thermodynamic processes. These processes are most fully manifested during the formation of metamorphic ice, when a continuous, impenetrable aggregate of ice crystals is formed over time from an initial accumulation of snow particles that are barely in contact with each other. In this case, relative displacements of crystals occur, surface changes in their shape and size, deformation and growth of some crystals at the expense of others.

In crystalline ice, metamorphism occurs mainly in the form of collective recrystallization with an increase in the average size of crystals and a decrease in their number per unit volume. As the crystal size increases, the intensity of recrystallization slows down.

Optical properties

Ice is a uniaxial, optically positive, birefringent crystal with the lowest refractive index of any known mineral. As a result of birefringence, the light flux in the crystal is polarized. This makes it possible to determine the position of the crystal axes using polaroids.

When light passes through polycrystalline ice, the flux is weakened due to absorption and scattering, while the light energy is converted into thermal energy, causing radiation heating and ice melting. Scattered light propagates in ice in all directions, including exiting through the irradiated surface. Due to the scattering of light, the ice looks blue and even emerald, and if there is a significant amount of air inclusions in the ice, it becomes white.

The ratio of the amount of scattered ray energy reflected from the ice surface and emerging through the surface to the total energy of light entering the surface is called the ice albedo. The albedo value depends on the state of the ice surface - for pure cold ice, the albedo value is about 0.4, and when the surface melts and becomes contaminated, it decreases to 0.3-0.2. When snow is deposited on the ice surface, the albedo increases significantly. Snow cover albedo varies from 0.95 for freshly fallen dry snow in polar and mountainous regions to 0.20 for wet polluted snow.

Voitkovsky K.F. Fundamentals of glaciology. M.: Nauka, 1999, 255 p.

Expanding or shrinking? The answer is this: with the advent of winter, water begins its process of expansion. Why is this happening? This property distinguishes water from the list of all other liquids and gases, which, on the contrary, are compressed when cooled. What is the reason for this behavior of this unusual liquid?

Physics Grade 3: Does water expand or contract when it freezes?

Most substances and materials expand when heated and shrink when cooled. Gases show this effect more noticeably, but various liquids and solid metals exhibit the same properties.

One of the most striking examples of gas expansion and contraction is air in a balloon. When we take the balloon outside in minus weather, the balloon immediately decreases in size. If we bring the ball into a heated room, then it immediately increases. But if we bring a balloon into the bath, it will burst.

Water molecules require more space

The reason that these processes of expansion and contraction of various substances occur is molecules. Those that receive more energy (this happens in a warm room) move much faster than molecules in a cold room. Particles that have more energy collide much more actively and more often, they need more space to move. To contain the pressure exerted by the molecules, the material begins to increase in size. And it happens quite quickly. So, does water expand or contract when it freezes? Why is this happening?

Water does not obey these rules. If we start to cool water to four degrees Celsius, then it reduces its volume. But if the temperature continues to fall, then the water suddenly begins to expand! There is such a property as an anomaly in the density of water. This property occurs at a temperature of four degrees Celsius.

Now that we have figured out whether water expands or contracts when it freezes, let's find out how this anomaly occurs in the first place. The reason lies in the particles of which it is composed. The water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen. Everyone knows the formula of water since elementary school. The atoms in this molecule attract electrons in different ways. Hydrogen has a positive center of gravity, while oxygen, on the contrary, has a negative one. When water molecules collide with each other, the hydrogen atoms of one molecule are transferred to the oxygen atom of a completely different molecule. This phenomenon is called hydrogen bonding.

Water needs more space as it cools

At the moment when the process of formation of hydrogen bonds begins, places begin to appear in the water where the molecules are in the same order as in the ice crystal. These blanks are called clusters. They are not durable, as in a solid crystal of water. When the temperature rises, they are destroyed and change their location.

During the process, the number of clusters in the liquid begins to rapidly increase. They require more space to spread, which is why water increases in size after reaching its abnormal density.

When the thermometer falls below zero, the clusters begin to turn into tiny ice crystals. They start to go up. As a result of all this, water turns into ice. This is a very unusual ability of water. This phenomenon is necessary for a very large number of processes in nature. We all know, and if we don’t know, then we remember that the density of ice is slightly less than the density of cool or cold water. This allows ice to float on the surface of the water. All reservoirs begin to freeze from top to bottom, which allows aquatic inhabitants to exist at the bottom and not freeze. So, now we know in detail about whether water expands or contracts when it freezes.

Hot water freezes faster than cold water. If we take two identical glasses and pour hot water into one and the same amount of cold water into the other, we will notice that hot water freezes faster than cold water. It's not logical, right? Hot water needs to cool down before it starts to freeze, but cold water doesn't. How to explain this fact? Scientists to this day cannot explain this riddle. This phenomenon is called the Mpemba Effect. It was discovered in 1963 by a scientist from Tanzania under an unusual set of circumstances. The student wanted to make himself ice cream and noticed that hot water freezes faster. He shared this with his physics teacher, who at first did not believe him.

heated flame, and in the second, the same amount of heat comes from relatively cold iron.

Experiments have shown that there is no difference in both cases, and therefore heat, considered in relation to its ability to heat bodies and change their state, is a quantity subject to exact measurement, and cannot represent qualitative differences.

C. Maxwell. "Theory of heat", % 1883.

The expansion of water when it freezes.

Starting from 4°C. up to the freezing point, water expands when cooled, and when it turns into ice, its expansion occurs quickly and suddenly. Ice, as you know, floats on water, because, due to expansion, it becomes lighter than it.

The force with which this expansion of water occurs when it freezes is enormous. In order to form an idea of ​​this tension, let us make an experiment: water is poured into an iron vessel, the walls of which are half an inch thick. The quantity of water is not great, but it fills the vessel; after that, it is tightly closed with a lid screwed on its neck. We take another similar vessel. Immerse both vessels in the cooling mixture. They gradually cool down, the water inside them reaches its point of greatest density, and no doubt at this point it does not completely fill the bottles, but leaves a small void inside. But soon the compression of the water stops, expansion sets in; the void is slowly filling up; water gradually changes from a liquid state h solid, and its volume increases, and the walls of the iron vessel resist this increase in volume. But their resistance is powerless before molecular forces: molecules are giants in disguise. There is a crackling sound: the bottle is torn open by crystallizing particles; the same happens with the other bottle.

In another experiment, with a loud explosion, the thick walls of an artillery bomb burst: the bomb was filled with water, screwed tightly and placed in a tub with a cooling mixture. When performing this experiment, it is necessary to cover the tub with a thick canvas: when I did not do this, fragments of the bomb were thrown up to the ceiling.

Now you understand the effect of frost on water pipes in houses. It is commonly thought that pipe bursting occurs during the melting of ice in pipes *), but in fact it occurs during freezing:

*) Due to bad thermal conductivity walls and soil, cold very slowly about niket through them and reaches plumbing pipes in houses (especially in cellars) With zna meticulous late - often only then, when outside building had time already after frost step on thaw; in this, on all probability, and should see reason common foot delusions, as if plumbing pipes burst not in freezing, a in thaw, those. not from freezing water, a from melting ice.- Comp.

when water freezes, it needs more space than when it is liquid.

This distinguishes water from most liquids and gases that contract when cooled. But why is she behaving so unusually?

Most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled. In gases, this effect is especially pronounced. Liquids and solids behave in the same way. A good example is the air in a balloon: in cold weather, the balloon shrinks, and near a radiator, it can even burst.

Molecules need a place

Molecules are the reason for this pattern: the warmer an object or gas, that is, the more energy the molecules receive, the faster they move. Therefore, the molecules collide more often and more strongly, they need more space, and the pressure that the gas molecules exert on the shell of the balloon increases. More volume is needed to withstand the pressure, so the material expands.

But water behaves differently. When cooled to about 4 degrees Celsius, the volume of water decreases, which is quite expected. However, if the temperature continues to fall, then the water begins to expand. That is, its density reaches its maximum value at 4 degrees. This property is called the water density anomaly.

But where does it come from? It's all about the molecules: one water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom - hence the well-known chemical formula H2O. However, these atoms attract electrons in the water molecule with different strengths.

This creates a slightly positive center of gravity for hydrogen and a negative one for oxygen. When water molecules collide, the hydrogen atoms of one molecule are attracted and attached to the oxygen atoms of another molecule - a so-called hydrogen bond is formed.

When the water cools, more space is needed

Due to the formation of hydrogen bonds in liquid water, places appear where the molecules are ordered in the same way as in ice crystals. These so-called clusters are not as strong as in a solid crystal: at higher temperatures they change very quickly.

As the water cools, more and more of these clusters appear. And they need more and more space - for this reason, the water begins to expand after reaching the threshold value of 4 degrees Celsius. If the temperature drops below zero, then the smallest ice crystals formed from the clusters prevail and the water freezes.

For many natural processes, this unusual feature of water is very important. Since the density of ice is slightly less than the density of cold water, it can float on the surface of the reservoir. Due to this, water freezes from top to bottom, and at the bottom there is a 4-degree layer of water with maximum density. This allows fish and other aquatic inhabitants to survive the winter at the bottom of the reservoir and not freeze.



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