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Modern linguists approach the definition of the concept of “speech error” in different ways: they understand a speech error as an unsuccessfully chosen word, and an incorrectly constructed sentence, and a distorted form of a word, and in general any case of deviation from existing language norms.
The most complete definition of speech errors and shortcomings is given in the works of Doctor of Sciences Professor Taisa Alekseevna Ladyzhenskaya, a leading specialist in the field of rhetoric and culture of speech. By her definition, speech error- "This is a violation of the requirements correctness speech, and speech defect– “this is a violation of the recommendations related to the concept good speech, that is, rich, precise and expressive. In other words, if it is impossible to say (write) like this, this is a speech error, and if it is possible in principle to say (write) like this, but it will be inaccurate, meager and inexpressive, this is a speech defect.
Test yourself: you may find that you make (or don't, which is very gratifying!) mistakes in speech and writing.
To speech errors T.A. Ladyzhenskaya includes the following:
- Misunderstanding of the meaning of the word, the use of the word in an unusual sense. (He back began to command! Correctly : again, again. The fire is getting bigger fired up blazed. Correctly: flared up.)
- Mixing of aspect-temporal forms of the verb. (In water jump rats , ran lapwings - a mixture of time. Correctly: jump, run or jumped, ran. When came december, the weather is sharp changes - mixing of species . Correctly : or came, changed or comes and changes.)
- Poor use of pronouns, resulting in unclear or ambiguous speech ( When the boy said goodbye to his father, he did not cry. It is not clear who did not cry, the boy or the father: say he it is possible and about that, and about another. Correctly: Saying goodbye to father, boy didn't cry. Or like this: When the boy said goodbye to his father, he did not cry(this is if we want to say that the father was crying).
- Unjustified use of colloquial and dialect words. (Kolya walked behind. Correctly: behind, behind.)
- A mixture of paronyms. (I was told to stay at home, but I across refused. Correctly: flatly refused . This person leads festive life. Correctly: celebrating life.)
- Pronominal doubling of the subject. (Olya - She was the youngest in the family. Correct: Olga was the youngest in the family.)
To speech defects All experts refer to the following:
1. Violation of the order of words in a sentence. ( The dog helped to dig snow with its paws and muzzle for people. A narrow strip only connects the island with the coast.)
2. The use of an extra word. (He will come in the month of January. Better so: He will come in January. All guests received memorable souvenirs. Required: All guests received souvenirs. Souvenir already means " memorable gift».)
3. Indistinguishability of shades of the meaning of synonyms or words that are close in meaning. (The team lost and the goalkeeper was returning home with dull head. You need it like this: ... with drooping head. Yesterday I was sadly. Had sad.)
4. Violation of the compatibility of words (Soldiers fulfilled the oath. The oath cannot be fulfilled, it is possible take an oath, be true to one's oath, a execute can promise, mission, assignment, order.)
5. Unjustified repetition of the same word within a sentence or in adjacent sentences. ( Birds birds about to touch the water. Better this way: Birds hovered over the river low, low, it seemed that they they are about to touch the water.) Note, however, that repetition is not always an indicator of a speech defect. It can enhance the author's thought, give it a special emotional coloring. Compare: In life, there is some level of happiness that we count from, as we count from sea level. (D.S. Likhachev)
6. The use of words next to or close to the same root, or a tautology. (This happening with me happened summer. Better like this: case happened. watchman guarded at night and sleep during the day. It is better to replace one of the two words: or the watchman worked or he guarded. Today hunt something reluctance. Suggest your edits to this sentence.)
49. Types of speech errors: a methodology for their prevention and correction.
Types and examples of speech errors
Speech errors – These are errors associated with violation of the requirements of correct speech.
The use of words in their meanings. Example: We were shocked by the excellent performance of the players.
Repetition of single-root words in one sentence (tautology): The writer vividly describes the events of that day.
Speech deficiency (occurs when the right word is missing). The car dropped both.
A mixture of vocabulary from different historical eras. Anna Sergeyevna and the prince went to the registry office to get married.
Pleonasm (hidden tautology). Example: colleagues.
The use of extra words. A young girl, very beautiful.
Poor use of pronouns. This text was written by K. Ivanov. It belongs to the artistic style.
Unjustified repetition of words. Maria loves flowers. Mary knows all about them.
Causes of speech errors
“The complexity of the mechanism for generating speech acts as a factor contributing to the occurrence of speech errors” Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin.
The main causes of speech errors are:
Misunderstanding of the meaning of the word (when the word is used in an unusual sense). The fire got hotter and hotter and hotter.
The use of synonyms (each such word can have its own functional and stylistic coloring, this leads to speech errors). For example: "blooper"- professional jargon, but "hole"- a common word.
The use of ambiguous words (using them, be sure to make sure that they are understandable to the interlocutor).
Lexical incompleteness of the statement (missing an important word).
Use of obsolete words. (Example: Everything in the store is now discounted.
Words of foreign origin (having a passion for borrowed words, be sure to find out their exact meaning).
Errors in the formation of words (for example: they want; dog kennel; on the forehead, etc.)
Incorrect use of paronyms (words similar in sound, as a rule, of one part of speech, but different in meaning and structure). For example: addressee - addressee.
Lack of lexical compatibility in the sentence. A good leader must set an example for his subordinates in everything.(The word "sample" is used inappropriately, it should be replaced by the word "example").
Inappropriate use of dialectisms (expressions or ways of speech used by people of a particular locality). For example: A scraper came to me, and sat until the morning. ( Shaberka is a neighbor).
When choosing words, it is necessary to pay attention to their meaning, usage, stylistic coloring, compatibility with other words. Since the violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.
Ways to correct and prevent speech errors
Often in the speech of people (especially very young people) there are lexical and stylistic errors, i.e. the use of words in an inaccurate or unusual meaning (and the reason for this is ignorance of the meaning of the word). AT the book "Speech Secrets" edited by T. A. Ladyzhenskaya options for working on the prevention and elimination of these errors are presented.
In the meantime, we offer you our selection, designed to prevent speech errors:
Associate with knowledgeable and educated people.
Visit theaters, museums, trainings.
Constantly monitor your speech (pronounce words correctly).
Good speech exercises are recognized - essays and presentations.
We learn to speak correctly.
Correcting speech errors
The proposed tasks will help students learn to find, classify, correct speech errors and shortcomings.
1. This model is a demonstration model, it is not for sale.
2. I borrowed a thousand rubles from my neighbor until February.
3. The boy did not answer, but only clapped his eyes.
4. The court found him guilty of committing a crime.
5. His father was a real polyglot: he could answer a question from any field of knowledge in detail and in detail.
6. Rescuers saw a man drowning in the sea.
7. Wounded Prince Andrei fell prone. Waking up, he saw a high, endless sky.
8. Katerina's mother-in-law constantly taught the life of the household.
9. Our products are imported to many countries in the world.
10. I switched to a more economic tariff.
Tasks
1) Mark the sentences in which a word is used in an unusual sense. (2, 5, 7, 8, 9.)
2) Mark the sentences with violations of stylistic compatibility. (3, 6.)
3) Mark the sentences in which you should use its paronym instead of the word. (1, 4, 10.)
Answers: 1 - demonstration, 2 - lent or loaned, 3 - blinked his eyes, 4 - guilty, 5 - encyclopedist, 6 - drowning, 7 - fell back, 8 - mother-in-law, 9 - exported, 10 - economical.
1. Talking to this person was important.
2. Beautiful curtains decorated the room.
3. I want to raise a toast to the health of the birthday boy.
4. The contents of the package must be poured with hot boiling water.
5. To enhance the reader's impression, the author narrates in the first person.
6. Gogol's story "The Overcoat" tells about the life of the official Bashmachkin.
7. Our agency provides students with a lot of vacancies.
8. This victory came at a high cost to me.
9. You don't see obvious facts.
10. This store has expensive prices.
Tasks
1) Mark the sentences with violation of lexical compatibility. (1, 3, 5, 10.)
2) Mark the sentences in which the same-root words are used side by side. (2, 6, 9.)
3) Mark the sentences in which extra words are used. (4, 7.)
4) Write down the corrected options.
Answers: 1 - played an important role or was of great importance, 2 - magnificent curtains, 3 - raise a glass or make a toast, 4 - hot water or boiling water, 5 - to enhance the impression, 6 - talks about life, 7 - a lot of vacancies, 9 - you don't notice, 10 - high prices.
1. It was Sophia who started the rumor that Chatsky was crazy.
2. My brother finished school with a medal.
3. You brought me to the white knee.
4. Thirty tons of carrots were delivered to the shops of the city.
5. Our physical student got sick, so the lesson was postponed.
6. I was so tired from a long journey that I was neither alive nor dead.
7. Dear students! Submit your papers to the dean's office immediately.
8. I signed this contract with a grating heart.
9. The court made a decision on the division of property between the spouses.
10. The sister shed crocodile tears when the heroine of the film died.
Tasks
1) Mark the sentences with a violation of the form of the phraseological unit. (3, 8.)
2) Mark the sentences with the incorrect use of phraseological units. (6, 10.)
3) Replace colloquial and colloquial words and expressions in sentences with neutral ones. (1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9.)
4) Write down the corrected options.
Answers: 1 - lost his mind, 2 - graduated, 3 - white-hot, 4 - carrots, 5 - physics teacher, 6 - I was very tired from a long transition (neither alive nor dead from fear), 7 - grade books, 8 - reluctantly , 9 - about the division, 10 - wept bitterly.
1. Onegin thinks he can't love anymore, and he was wrong.
2. Mom wrapped her daughter in a shawl and took her away.
3. Our publishing house released a book that was popular with readers who love detective stories.
5. Katerina wants her husband to take her with him, but Tikhon refused.
6. The hero goes to another world, and then the hero becomes disillusioned with him.
7. This appliance, which appeared on the shelves of stores specializing in the sale of household appliances, was appreciated by many buyers.
8. The hero does not like to talk about a past life, and therefore he was not understood.
9. When I first read this book, I remembered the summer when I went to the sea.
10. Chatsky wants to change the life of Famusov's Moscow, and he partially succeeds.
Tasks
1) Mark the sentences with a violation of the aspect-temporal correlation of verb forms. (1, 8, 9.)
2) Mark the sentences in which pronouns are unsuccessfully used. (2, 4.)
3) Mark unsuccessfully constructed sentences. (3, 7, 9.)
4) Mark sentences with unjustified repetition of words. (6, 9.)
5) Write down the corrected options.
Answers: 1 - Onegin thinks ...... and is mistaken, 2 - and took the girl away, 3 - among readers who love detective stories, 4 - about the consequences of actions committed by a person, 5 - but Tikhon refuses, 6 - the hero leaves for another world, but then disappointed in it, 7 - this device, which appeared on the shelves of stores that specialize in the sale of household appliances, was appreciated by many buyers, 8 - they do not understand it, 9 - reading this book for the first time, I remembered my summer trip to the sea.
Often masters of the word in their works deviate from speech norms, achieving a certain artistic effect. Find deviations from speech norms in the given fragments of literary works and say what effect the authors achieve.
1. The whole room is illuminated with amber brilliance.
A flooded stove crackles with a cheerful crack ...
(A. Pushkin. Winter morning)
(Referring to the tautology crackling crackling, the author conveys the sound that the lyrical hero of the poem hears.)
2. Through the wavy mists the moon makes its way,
She pours a sad light on the sad glades.
(A. Pushkin. Winter road)
(Tautology (she pours a sad light on the sad glades) helps the author to focus the reader's attention on the emotional state of the lyrical hero.)
3. For a moment the conversations were silent;
The mouth is chewing.
(A. Pushkin. Eugene Onegin)
(A combination of words of different styles (mouth chewing) creates a comic effect.)
4. And we are sailing, a flaming abyss
Surrounded on all sides.
(F. Tyutchev. dreams)
(Pleonasm (surrounded on all sides) emphasizes the complete immersion of the lyrical hero in the world of sleep.)
5. Goes-buzzes Green noise,
Green noise, spring noise.
(N. Nekrasov. green noise)
(Combination of contradictory words green noise(catahresis) helps the author to create a single visual-auditory image; lexical repetition in the first and second lines draws the reader's attention to this image.)
VI. Edit the piece of writing.
All images of the poem pictured
The reader, reading page after page, laughs at pretentious Manilov, over brutal Sobakevich, over stupid Box, over constantly lying rascal Nozdrev, and miser Plushkin, collecting everyone trash, – it's really something. But especially attracted my attention Chichikov, something similar and at the same time unlike to the other characters in the poem.
Chichikov is similar to Manilov in that knew how to suck up to the right people similar on Sobakevich by the fact that he can insist on his own, similar on Nozdryov by inventing all sorts scam, similar on Korobochka and Plyushkin by putting necessary and unnecessary things in a drawer.
But at the same time, Chichikov is significantly different from other heroes of the poem. If a landowner heroes are parasitic, then Chichikov constantly sets himself new goals and tries to achieve them. As a child, he was businessman, knew how to profitably invest money and get fat. So when he was in school, he used to sell buns that he bought in advance, starving comrades and profited from it.
But when the hero became an adult, none of his the case didn't work out. Most likely, Gogol punishes your hero for the fact that for all his business qualities he is an immoral person. So, for example, he did not help to his old teacher, who considered Pavlusha the best student; working in the Treasury, he, seeking a promotion, deceived the former and his daughter.
Sample corrected version
All images of the poem created Gogol, interesting in their own way. Reading the page behind the page we laugh at mannered Manilov and rude Sobakevich, over stupid Box and constantly a lying rogue Nozdrev; a miser Plushkin, who collects unnecessary things, produces special impression. But attracts the most my attention Chichikov, somewhat similar to other heroes of the poem, but at the same time different.
Chichikov reminds Manilov in that can be trusted to the right people; the ability of the hero to insist on his own makes him related with Sobakevich; like Nozdrev, Chichikov comes up with various scams; a storage necessary and unnecessary things in a drawer brings together hero with Plushkin and Korobochka.
But, unlike the idle landlords, Chichikov constantly sets himself new goals and tries to achieve them. Already in childhood he businessman who knows how to profitably invest money and get profit. So, while still a schoolboy, he sells pre-purchased buns hungry comrades and benefit from it.
However, the matured hero failing to succeed in anything. Most likely, Gogol punishes Chichikov for the fact that, with all his business qualities, the hero - immoral person. So, for example, Chichikov refuses to help to his old teacher, who considered Pavlusha the best student; serving in the state chamber and seeking promotion, the hero deceives the former and his daughter.
I.A. RUDENKO,
Magnitogorsk city
multidisciplinary
Lyceum at MSTU im. Nosova
The word is an important element of our daily life and, in particular, speech. This unit can rightfully be called extremely diverse and voluminous. With its help, we not only give names to phenomena and objects, but also convey our thoughts and feelings. By remembering the main ones, you can avoid them in the future and make your communication style cleaner.
When we decide what word to say, there are several aspects to consider. These, first of all, include stylistic coloring, appropriateness of use and the level of compatibility with other components of the sentence. If you break even one of these rules, the likelihood of saying something wrong will increase significantly.
Watching the value
Examples of speech errors are often associated with the fact that the speaker does not understand the meaning of the word and uses it in a situation that is not suitable for this. So, in the phrase "the fire grew stronger and stronger," the verb was used incorrectly. It has two meanings.
The first of them is “get hot, warm up to a high temperature”, and the second is “excited”. In this situation, it would be much more logical to use the word "flare up." It just conveys the meaning that the author was trying to put into the phrase.
irrelevance
Often, speakers use significant and functional words without taking into account their semantics. Often there are such in the media. Examples of them can be from the category "thanks to the tornado, several thousand people died." The preposition with which this phrase begins should be used only in those situations when we want to say what caused the desired, and not destructive, result.
The nature of this error is hidden in the semantic abstraction of the word from the verb, which gave impetus to its appearance. In the above case, instead of "thanks to" you need to say "due to", "because of" or "as a result".
In any field of activity, speech errors are inevitable. Examples from life are often associated with the choice of words-concepts that have different bases for division. That is, we are talking about a combination of concrete and abstract vocabulary in one context. So, often there are phrases in the style of "we will provide a complete cure for drug addicts and other diseases." If we are talking about an illness, we need to use its name, and not talk about the people who suffer from it. In this situation, it would be correct to use the word "addiction".
Speech lies in wait for us at every step, and their examples can become so rooted in our lives that we may not even notice that we are speaking incorrectly. Such cases include the incorrect use of paronyms. Many people are confused about the concepts of "addressee" (the one to whom we write a letter) and "addresser" (sender, author). To avoid embarrassment, you just need to remember the meaning of such problematic words.
incongruous
Another eternal problem of many people is that they do not follow the phrases they pronounce. After all, when we choose a suitable word, it is necessary to monitor not only its literary meaning. Not all designs can harmoniously combine with each other. To maintain speech balance, it is necessary to take into account semantics, style, grammatical features of words, and more.
You can find a variety of sentences with speech errors. Examples might be something like, "A good father should set an example for his children." In this case, the word "example" should be used.
Synonyms, homonyms, paronyms
Speech errors on television are often associated with the misuse of synonyms. Examples are often associated with the wrong choice of the emotional coloring of the word and the scope of its use: "The CEO made a mistake and immediately set about correcting it." The neutral word "mistake" would be much better for this situation, instead of the chosen jargon.
Homonyms are also often the cause of incorrect statements. If you do not take them out of context, the meaning of such words will be quite clear. But there are cases when they are used in a situation that is absolutely not suitable for this. Having heard the sentence “Now the crew is in excellent condition”, we will not be able to understand who or what it is about: the team or the wagon. In this situation, additional context is indispensable.
Types of speech errors (we will deal with examples a little later) are often associated with the fact that speakers incorrectly use ambiguous words. To avoid such oversights, it is necessary to monitor how appropriate a certain word is for a particular situation.
Context plays a big role in this. It is with its help that you can understand the meaning of many words. An example is "she was so sung." Without additional explanation, it is difficult to understand whether the heroine was carried away by the action performed or simply gained momentum.
Too much or too little
Examples of speech errors are also often associated with lexical incompleteness of the statement. This is a gap in the sentence of a word that logically should be there. Such a blunder is present in the proposal "not to publish on the pages of newspapers and television statements that may cause an aggressive reaction." One gets the impression that the author says "on the pages of television."
New and old
Many types of speech errors with examples are associated with the use of inappropriate new ones and often the authors unsuccessfully fit them into the context or come up with their own, inappropriate forms. Thus, in the sentence “More than twenty thousand rubles have been allocated this year”, the author’s neologism “patching” means “pit repair”, which cannot be understood without additional context.
Archaisms are words that have gone out of use. You also need to be careful with their use. Some insert them into texts that require the use of neutral vocabulary, not obsolete ones. “Now there is a subbotnik at school” - this is the case when it would be better to say “now” in order to make the text more logical in style.
foreign words
Examples of speech errors also often appear due to the incorrect use of words that came to our country from abroad. Many people manage to throw beautiful phrases of this origin without even fully understanding their meaning and sematic nuances.
"My buying plan is limited because I don't make enough money." This is the case when it was necessary to use a simpler wording like the phrase "runs slower."
Problems with vocabulary
Speech errors in literature, examples of which can be found in many books, are often associated with the wrong choice of vocabulary. These may be dialectisms, vernacular, jargon and phraseological units that are not quite suitable for a particular text. When choosing words from these groups, it is necessary to monitor how harmoniously they fit into the general context. You also need to adhere to one specific style of presentation in the narrative. If we want to say “I met a neighbor at the entrance”, you don’t need to call her “scrapper” (dialectical).
In the sentence “I bought a thin TV”, it is better to use the neutral word “thin” or “bad” instead of colloquial speech, depending on what meaning you put into the text. Otherwise, the addressee of your speech may misunderstand what exactly you are saying.
The professional jargon “steering wheel” is appropriate in the dialogue of drivers, but not in any way in the description of the interior of a new car model by the seller: “The seats and steering wheel are upholstered in genuine leather.” Phraseologisms also cause a lot of difficulties in their correct use: "This person constantly casts pearls in front of pigs." This expression means "to invent, to lie", but without additional context it can be interpreted literally.
Types of speech errorsSpeech errors- this is a violation of the laws of the use of language units in speech, as well as shortcomings in the formation of syntactic constructions.
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Varieties of speech defects |
Examples |
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1. The use of a word in an unusual sense |
My brother became a diplomat of the international competition of performers |
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2. Indistinguishability of shades of meaning introduced into the word by a prefix or suffix |
Economical electrical appliances are now being produced - they consume little electricity. |
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3. Violation of lexical compatibility |
Cause joy, give care |
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4. Use of an extra word (pleonasm) |
Circle around, old veterans |
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5. Use next to (or close to) cognate words (tautology) |
The teacher teaches students, in the following picture it can be traced |
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6. Unfortunate use of personal and demonstrative pronouns |
The girl took the plate, walked over to the dog and put it on the floor. |
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7. Violation of the aspect-temporal correlation of verb forms |
The bird lay on the grass, and trembles all over |
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8. Repeating the same word |
The author is trying to show us the difference between the Motherland and native places. Love for the motherland begins with its culture. |
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9. The use of a word (or expression) of a different stylistic coloring |
This novel is truly one of Tolstoy's best novels. |
Types of grammatical errors
Grammatical errors are a violation of the norms of word and form formation, as well as the norms of syntactic connection between words in a phrase and sentence.
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Varieties of grammatical errors |
Examples |
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word-building |
Erroneous word formation |
Lingering, back, mock |
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Morphological |
1. Mistakes in the formation of noun forms |
Our engineer, a lot of banana and tangerine, light tulle |
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2. Mistakes in the formation of adjective forms |
More beautiful, brightest, sweetest |
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3. Errors in the formation of forms of pronouns |
All works, in their house, left the reception |
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4. Errors in the formation of verb forms |
I dare, I vacuum, I burn |
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Syntactic |
1. Violation of agreement 2. Loss of control 3. Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate 4. Errors in the construction of a sentence with a participial turnover 5. Errors in constructing a sentence with participial turnover 6. Errors in the construction of sentences with homogeneous members 7. Errors in the construction of a complex sentence 8. Displacement of direct and indirect speech |
It was the well-known deputy Sergeeva. I don't have the slightest idea of what happened. Twenty-one people came to the meeting. Opening the window, it started to rain The sea roared dully, agitated by the storm that had begun in the morning. The class teacher talked about the performance of graduates, their behavior and why they study so poorly. |
Types of logical errors
Logical errors are a violation of the sequence (logic) of the presentation.
Logical errors consist in violation of the rules of logical thinking. This type of error includes the following shortcomings in the content of the work:
1) violation of the sequence of statements;
2) lack of connection between parts and sentences;
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought;
4) fragmentation of one micro-theme by another micro-theme;
5) disproportion of parts of the statement;
6) lack of necessary parts;
7) rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the task for the presentation);
8) unjustified substitution of the person from whom the narration is being conducted (for example, first from the first, then from the third person).
Logic errors (L)- associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within a single sentence, judgment, and at the level of the whole text.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND CONSIDERED WHEN ASSESSING A STUDENT'S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor of the Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg Academy of Postgraduate Education
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC of the Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head of Center for Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg Academy of Postgraduate Education
Speech errors (P)- these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a language unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, that is, a violation of lexical norms. These are pleonasm, tautology, speech clichés, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-distinguishing of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, ambiguity not eliminated by the context.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND CONSIDERED WHEN ASSESSING A STUDENT'S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor of the Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg Academy of Postgraduate Education
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC of the Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head of Center for Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg Academy of Postgraduate Education
Grammar errors (G)- these are errors in the structure of a language unit: words, phrases or sentences, that is, a violation of any grammatical norm - word-formation, morphological, syntactic.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND CONSIDERED WHEN ASSESSING A STUDENT'S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor of the Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg Academy of Postgraduate Education
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC of the Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head of Center for Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg Academy of Postgraduate Education
Actual errors (F)- a kind of non-linguistic errors, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about the actual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge).
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Ethical errors (E)- violation of the system of values and rules of ethics: statements that degrade human dignity, expressing an arrogant and cynical attitude towards the human person, hostility, manifestations of verbal aggression, slang words and turns.
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