Labor activity. Work process

Posted On 07.04.2018

– physical

- mental (operational, operator, creative)

By means of labor:

– manual

– mechanized

– automated

– automatic

According to working conditions:

– comfortable

– extreme

- harmful, dangerous

On the organization of work:

– static

– dynamic

- monotonous

- individual

– collective

According to the requirements for the subject of labor:

- skill level

– vocational education

– professional experience

- health status

- physical development

Human Operator– a person carrying out labor activity, the basis of which is interaction with the object of labor, the machine and the external environment through information systems (models) and controls.

It should be noted that the identification of the significance of a particular feature for each of the components of activity in relation to a particular profession or specialty requires a psychological analysis of this activity, the construction of a professiogram and a psychogram of the labor process (Zinchenko V.P., Munipov V.M., 1979; Klimov E.A., 1996; "Fundamentals of Engineering Psychology", 1986). The presented list of classification features of labor activity is, to a certain extent, conditional - some types of activities for certain components may be characterized by not one, but several features: for example, the activity of the shift supervisor of NPP operators in terms of content belongs to the category of operational and operator labor, and pilots of international lines - to the category of operator work with elements of physical activity of a static (posture) and dynamic (work with a steering wheel, levers, pedals) character.

In the psychology of labor and engineering psychology, considerable attention is paid to the study of the psychological characteristics of operator activity, to the issues of ensuring its improvement and design. This situation is due to:

1) the ever-increasing pace of technical development, the development and implementation of various control systems for moving objects, technological and communication processes and, as a result, the emergence of new professions of an operator profile;

2) the high complexity and responsibility of operator activities, accompanied in some cases by increased danger, as evidenced, for example, by accident statistics in aviation and at nuclear power plants;

3) the presence of phenomena of the system organization of the components of operator activity, their close relationship and interdependence, which determines the need to consider this activity as being carried out in the “man-machine-environment” system (Lomov B.F., 1966; Kotik M.A., 1978; Bodrov V.A., Orlov V.Ya., 1998).

23.2. "Man-machine-environment" system

The “man-machine-environment” system consists of a human operator (a group of operators), a machine (technical devices, tools), through which the operator performs labor activities, and the environment (external working conditions) in which this activity is carried out. In "Handbook of Engineering Psychology" (1982) human operator is defined as a person carrying out labor activity, the basis of which is interaction with the object of labor, the machine and the external environment through information systems (models) and controls.

All numerous "man-machine-environment" systems have a number of common features. They, as a rule, are:

1) complex dynamic systems consisting of interacting elements of different nature and characterized by a change in the structure and (or) interrelations of components over time;

2) purposeful systems, that is, pursuing a given goal by changing their behavior when external conditions change, which is due to the inclusion of a person in the system;

3) adaptive systems capable of adapting to changing working conditions due to the flexibility and plasticity of human behavior and the adaptability of the technical links of the system;

4) self-organizing systems capable of reducing entropy (uncertainty) after the system is taken out of a stable, equilibrium state under the influence of various kinds of disturbances, which is determined by purposeful human activity.

Thus, all the considered features of SSMS are determined by the presence of a person in their composition, his ability to correctly solve emerging problems, depending on specific conditions and circumstances.

The classification of SSMS (Fig. 23-2) is based on four groups of signs:

purpose of the system

characteristics of the human link,

type and structure of the machine link and

type of interaction between system components.

According to the intended purpose, the following classes of systems can be distinguished:

- managers (the task of a person is to control a machine - a car, an airplane, a rolling mill, etc.);

- service, which include control and measurement and repair systems (the task of a person is to control the state of equipment, troubleshoot and eliminate them);

Rice. 23-2. SSMS classification

- training, for example, simulators and imitators (ensure the development of certain skills in a person);

- information - location and information retrieval systems (provide search, accumulation and receipt of information necessary for a person);

- research - information and expert systems that simulate stands, measuring instruments (used in the analysis of certain phenomena, in the search for new information).

According to the characteristics of the human link, SSMS are divided into monosystems (they include one person and one or more technical devices) and polysystems (they consist of a team of operators interacting with a complex of technical devices).

According to the characteristics of the machine link, we can distinguish:

1) instrumental systems (they include tools and instruments as technical devices);

2) simple systems (include stationary and non-stationary technical device and a person using these devices);

3) complex systems, for example, a power plant, a computer complex (in addition to a person, they include a set of technologically related, but different in their functional purpose, devices and machines to obtain a single product);

4) system-technical complexes (the most complex SSMS with a team of operators involved in the use of these systems, and not fully defined connections).

According to the type of functional connections between a person and a machine, SSMS are divided into systems of continuous interaction, in which a person constantly monitors and controls a moving object or technological processes, and systems of episodic interaction, in which control and management are carried out regularly (“operator–computer”) or probabilistically ( "operator - a system of targeted control", "adjuster-machine").

Any SSMS must have specified properties that are incorporated into it during design and implemented during operation. The properties of the SSMS are understood as its objective features that manifest themselves during operation. Quantitative characteristics of a particular property are called indicators of the quality of SSMS. There are a number of quality indicators that affect human activity in SSMS and at the same time depend on its activity:

1. Speed ​​(regulation time) - is determined by the time it takes for information to pass through the closed loop SSMS:

where Tc is the delay (processing) time of information in i-th link of the CHMS, k- the number of serially connected SSMS links, which can be both technical links and operators.

2. Reliability - characterizes the infallibility (correctness) of the solution of the tasks facing the SCHMS. It is estimated by the probability of the correct solution of the problem, which, according to statistical data, is determined by the ratio:

where is Mosh and N are, respectively, the number of erroneously solved and the total number of solved problems.

3. The accuracy of the operator's work - is determined by the degree of deviation of some parameter, regulated or measured by the operator, from the specified or nominal value. Quantitatively, the accuracy of work is estimated by the amount of error with which the operator measures, sets or adjusts this parameter:

where Пн is the nominal or set value of the parameter, Pop is the value of this parameter actually measured or adjusted by the operator.

4. The timeliness of the solution of the problem of SSMS - is estimated by the probability that the problem will be solved in a time not exceeding the allowable:

where Рсв is the probability of a timely decision, M ns is the number of untimely decisions, N is the total number of problem solutions.

5. Human labor safety in CSMS - is estimated by the probability of safe work:

where Pvoz is the probability of occurrence of a dangerous or harmful production situation for a person i-type, Rosh - the probability of incorrect actions of the operator in i-situations n- the number of possible traumatic situations.

6. The degree of automation of SSMS - characterizes the relative amount of information processed by automatic devices, and is determined by the formula:

where Ka is the automation coefficient, Nop is the amount of information processed by the operator, Nschms is the amount of information circulating in the SSMS.

Of great importance in the analysis and evaluation of SSMS are ergonomic indicators - the ergonomics of the system, its controllability, maintainability, mastery and habitability. They take into account a set of specific properties of the SSMS, which ensure the possibility of carrying out the effective activities of the operator in it.

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QUESTIONS FOR THE STATE EXAM ON THE DISCIPLINE "Psychophysiology of professional activity"

1. Activity: concept, basic forms. The structure of labor activity. Parameters and specifics of labor activity. General requirements for labor activity. Profession and specialty. Classification of professions.

Activity- this is a specific human form of active attitude to the world around, the content of which is its expedient change and transformation.

Main forms of activity:

• labor activity;
• educational activity
• leisure.
• the game;

The highest form of human activity is work

Work It is an expedient human activity, in the process of which, with the help of tools, he influences nature and uses it in order to create use values ​​necessary to satisfy needs.

Labor activity- conscious, energy-consuming, generally recognized expedient human activity, requiring the application of efforts and the implementation of work.

Learning activities- activity, specifically aimed at mastering the methods of subject and cognitive actions, generalized theoretical knowledge.

Leisure- this is the part of non-working time that remains with a person after the performance of immutable non-production duties (moving to and from work, sleeping, eating, and other types of household self-service).

The game- this is a special kind of human activity, (possibly as a form of entertainment), created on the basis of rules that define the goals of the game and the permitted means to achieve them.

The following are distinguished in the structure of labor activity: elements

1) deliberately set goals- what is the activity for?

2) objects of labor- what is transformed in the process of activity (materials, people)

3) means of labor- with the help of what the transformation takes place (devices, devices, mechanisms)

4) technologies used- techniques and methods used in the process of activity;

5) labor operations-actions of labor activity

Parameters and specifics of labor activity.

Labor activity has the following options:

• labor productivity- the number of products produced per unit of time;
• labor efficiency- the ratio of material and labor costs, on the one hand, and the results obtained, on the other;
• level of division of labor- the distribution of specific production functions among the participants in the labor process (on the scale of society and in specific labor processes).

specifics The labor activity of a person is determined by the functions that he performs, the degree of their diversity and complexity, the level of independence and creativity of the employee.

The nature of the requirements for a participant in labor activity is determined by the specifics of labor activity and, above all, by the specific content of labor and its place in the system of division of labor.

General requirements for labor activity:

1) the employee must master all the techniques and methods of production that make up the technological process (professionalism requirement);

2) the qualification of an employee cannot be lower than the level determined by the nature of the work.

3) the employee is required to unconditionally comply with labor laws and internal labor regulations, comply with the specified parameters of the production process, fulfill obligations arising from the content of the employment contract (requirements of labor, technological, performance, contractual discipline).

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Work- this is an activity that distinguishes a person from animals. It was labor, according to F. Engels, that contributed to the formation of a person as a social being.

Labor activity manifests itself in various spheres of human life. He works at work, at home, at his summer cottage, etc. Depending on the result, labor is divided into productive and unproductive. Productive labor associated with the creation of various material objects. For example, a person works in a factory, manufactures parts, from which some product is then assembled (TV, vacuum cleaner, car, etc.). At the end of the working day, he comes home, prepares food and devotes his free time to his favorite business (hobby), for example, assembling a radio receiver, carving figures from wood, etc. On weekends in the summer at the dacha, he cultivates a garden and harvests in the fall. All these are examples of productive labor.

Unproductive labor is aimed not at the creation, but at the maintenance of material objects. In the economic sphere, non-productive labor is associated with the provision of services: the transportation of goods, their loading, warranty service, etc. In the domestic sphere, unproductive labor includes cleaning the apartment, washing dishes, repairing the house, etc.

Both productive and unproductive labor are equally important. If there were only industrial production, but there were no services for its repair, then landfills would be filled with broken household appliances, cars, furniture, etc. Why buy a new thing when it's better to fix the old one?

But humanity creates not only material objects. It has accumulated a huge cultural experience contained in literature, science, and art. How to classify this type of work? In this case, one speaks of intellectual labor or spiritual production. To isolate this type of labor, a special classification was required, namely, the division of labor into mental and physical.

Mankind for many centuries of its history knew mainly only physical labor. Many works were carried out with the help of human muscular strength. Sometimes humans were replaced by animals. Mental labor was the prerogative of monarchs, priests and philosophers.

With the development of science and technology, the appearance of machines in industrial production, physical labor was increasingly replaced by mental labor. The share of workers engaged in mental work has been constantly increasing. These are scientists, engineers, managers, etc. In the XX century. not without reason, they started talking about the objective fusion of mental and physical labor. After all, even the simplest work now requires a certain amount of knowledge.

In finished form, nature gives us very little. Without the application of labor, it is impossible to pick even mushrooms and berries in the forest. In most cases, natural materials are subjected to complex processing. Thus, labor activity is necessary in order to adapt the products of nature to the needs of man.

Satisfaction of needs is goal labor activity. It is necessary to realize not only the need itself, but also to comprehend the ways to satisfy it and the efforts that need to be made for this.

To achieve the goals of labor activity, various funds. These are various tools of labor adapted to perform a particular job. Starting any work, you need to know exactly what tools are needed at the moment. You can dig up a garden in the country with a shovel, but the field cannot be plowed without the use of special equipment. You can dig a hole for a long time with the same shovel, or you can do it within a few minutes with an excavator. Thus, it is necessary to know the most effective ways of influencing pas. object of labor , those. to something that undergoes transformation in the process of labor activity. Such methods of influencing the object of labor are called technology, and the set of operations to transform the source product into the final product - technological process.

The more perfect instruments of labor and the more correct technology are applied, the higher will be labor productivity. It is expressed in the number of products produced per unit of time.

Each type of labor activity consists of separate operations, actions, movements. Their nature depends on the technical equipment of the labor process, the qualifications of the employee, and in a broad sense, on the level of development of science and technology. In our time of scientific and technological progress, the level of technical equipment of labor is constantly increasing, but this does not exclude the use of human physical labor in some cases. The fact is that not all labor operations can be mechanized. Equipment is not always applicable when loading and unloading goods, during construction, assembly of the final product, etc.

Labor activity, depending on its nature, goals, expenditure of effort and energy, can be individual and collective. The work of a craftsman, a housewife, a writer and an artist is individual. They independently perform all labor operations until the end result is obtained. In most cases, labor operations, one way or another, are divided between separate subjects of the labor process: workers at the factory, builders at the construction of a house, scientists at a research institute, etc. Even initially seemingly individual, labor activity can be part of the totality of the labor operations of many people. So, a farmer buys fertilizers produced by other people to improve the land, and then sells the crop through wholesale depots. This position is called specialization or division of labor . For a more effective organization of the labor process, communication of its participants is necessary. Through communication, information is transmitted, and joint activities are coordinated.

The concept of "work" is a synonym for the concept of "work". In a broad sense, they do coincide. However, if we can work

to name any activity to transform the surrounding reality and satisfy needs, then work is most often called an activity that is carried out for a reward. Thus, work is a kind of labor activity.

The complication of labor activity, the development of its new types has led to the emergence of many professions. Their number is increasing with the development of science and technology.

Profession a type of labor activity with a specific nature and purpose of labor functions is called, for example, a doctor, teacher, lawyer. The presence of special, more in-depth skills and knowledge in this profession is called specialty. Even at the stage of training in the specialty can be carried out specialization, for example, a surgeon or a general practitioner, a physics teacher or a mathematics teacher, etc.

But it is not enough to have a certain specialty. You need to get hands-on experience with it. The level of training, experience, knowledge of the given specialty is called qualification . It is determined by rank or rank. Discharges exist among workers in industrial enterprises, among school teachers. Titles are awarded to workers of science and higher education.

The higher the qualification of the worker, the higher the pay for his work. In the event of a change of job, it is easier for him to find a better place. If they say about a person: “This is a highly qualified worker, a professional in his field”, then they mean the high quality of the work he performs.

Professionalism requires from the employee not just the mechanical implementation of the instructions of the leader. Having received an order, a person should think about how best to carry it out. In the rules, orders, instructions, it is impossible to foresee the weight of the situation that arises in the labor process. The employee must find the optimal solution that allows him to fulfill the assignment given to him in a quality and timely manner. This creative approach to completing tasks is called initiative.

Any labor activity, whether it is chopping firewood in a country house or performing complex production processes at a factory, requires the implementation of special rules. Some of them are related to the technological process, i.e. consistency and correctness of all labor operations performed by the employee. Others are based on compliance with safety standards. Everyone knows that it is impossible to disassemble electrical appliances if they are not disconnected from the mains, make fires near wooden buildings, drive a car with a faulty engine cooling system, etc. Failure to comply with such rules can lead to both a breakdown of a thing that has been improperly exploited, and to harm to human life and health. But the labor activity of a person often takes place in a team, and non-compliance with the norms for the operation of equipment and safety rules can harm the health of other people.

play an important role in the working process working conditions . These include workplace equipment, noise level, temperature, vibration, room ventilation, etc.

Particularly harmful, extreme working conditions cause severe occupational diseases, major accidents, serious injuries and even death.

During the period of formation and development of industrial production, the worker began to be considered along with machines as part of the production process. This approach excluded initiative in the performance of labor duties. Workers felt like they were being dominated by machines as individuals. They developed a negative attitude towards work as something forced, performed only out of necessity. This phenomenon of industrial production is called dehumanization of labor.

There is currently a problem labor humanization, those. his humanization. Factors that threaten human health must be eliminated. First of all, it is necessary to replace heavy monotonous physical labor with the work of machines. It is necessary to train educated, comprehensively developed workers who are capable of creative approaches to the labor functions they perform; to raise the level of work culture, i.e., to improve all components of the labor process (working conditions, relationships between people in a team, etc.). The employee should not be limited to the narrow scope of the labor functions performed by him. He should know the content of the labor process of the entire team, understand the features of production at the theoretical and technological level. Only in this case, labor activity will become the basis for self-realization of a person.

The opposite of work is leisure activities. Lawyers call all their free time from work time of rest. This does not mean that during such periods a person does nothing. He can work doing housework, he can go for a walk or go on a trip. All these ways of spending free time involve the performance of active actions. One of these actions is the game.

Game activity, unlike labor activity, is focused not so much on the result as on the process itself. Games originated in ancient times and were associated with religion, art, sports, military exercises. Scientists will probably never figure out how games came to be. Perhaps they stood out from the ritual dances of ancient people, or perhaps they were a way of teaching the younger generation.

Proponents of the theory of the biological origin of the game believe that games are characteristic of many animals and are based on instincts. For example, during games, animal cubs learn patterns of behavior of representatives of their species, and mating games help to attract a partner. The opposite point of view is that the game is a specific human activity.

If we consider the game as a kind of human activity, then we can say that it is more inherent in children. With the help of games, children learn, communicate, learn something new, develop their mental and physical abilities. There are many types of games: with objects, story, role-playing, mobile, educational, sports, etc. As a person grows older, the number of games in his life is reduced. Some disappear altogether, remaining childhood memories, others are replaced by sports and art. New types of “adult” games appear, primarily gambling: cards, slot machines, casinos, etc. Excessive enthusiasm for them often leads to serious consequences: a player can lose all his property, leave relatives without a livelihood, and even end your life.

The peculiarity of play activity, especially in childhood, is most manifested in this two-dimensionality. The player performs real actions, although they are conditional, allowing him to act in an imaginary environment. It is no coincidence that in the course of the game, children pronounce the words “as if”, emphasizing that the situation is fictitious.

An important place in the game is the distribution of roles. Each of the players strives to take on the main, best role. Such roles may not be enough for all participants. Therefore, the game, even at the stage of its preparation, teaches loyalty and compromise.

The implementation of role-playing functions is associated with the transformation of the player into an imaginary hero. Moreover, the entire course of the game is based on the implementation of certain rules that are the same for all participants. Various objects, symbols, gestures, conventional signs can be used in the game. Often, specific situations are modeled, which contributes to the inclusion of the child in the world of human relations, teaches adult life.

Type of labor activity

Some types of games develop mental activity, instill perseverance, patience, i.e. those qualities that will be useful during study, and then in the process of work.

There is no doubt the relationship of labor and games. Some, especially educational, games are associated with the need to apply certain efforts, and elements of the game can be found in work activities. “Does it effortlessly”, - they say about the masters of their craft, i.e. does it easily, naturally, highly professionally

Questions and tasks

1. How did labor influence the processes of anthropogenesis and sociogenesis?

2. In what areas of human life and how is labor activity manifested?

3. What are the differences between productive and unproductive
labor?

4. What is intellectual work? What is the relationship between mental and physical labor?

5. What are the goals of pond activities? How are the subject, object and tools of labor interrelated?

6. What role does specialization play in labor activity?

7. Explain the concepts of profession, specialty, qualifications.

8. Who are called professionals? What is meant by professionalism? Give examples of professionalism.

9. What rules must be followed in the course of work? Why is their implementation necessary?

10. What is the problem of humanization of labor?

11. What are the differences between labor and play? What role does play play in a person's life?

12. What issues of labor are raised in the following statements: A.P. Chekhov: “You must put your life in such conditions that labor is necessary. Without labor there can be no pure and joyful life.”

F. W. Taylor: “Everyone must learn to give up his individual methods of work, adapt them to a number of innovative forms, and become accustomed to accept and carry out directives regarding all small and large methods of work, which were previously left to his personal discretion *.

JW Goethe: “Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft, which can be mastered only with a certain specialization. The acquisition of complete knowledge, complete skill in the field of any one subject gives a greater education than the assimilation of half a hundred different subjects.

LN Tolstoy: "Bodily labor not only does not exclude the possibility of mental activity, not only does not humiliate its dignity, but also encourages it."

I. P. Pavlov: “All my life I have loved and love mental work and physical, and, perhaps, even more than the second. I especially felt satisfied when I introduced some good guess into the latter, i.e. connected the head with the hands.

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One of the circumstances of the formation of the level of employment is the content of labor, which prepares the satisfaction of workers in work. If quite recently, in the late 1990s, wages, confidence in the future and social protection took the highest positions in the hierarchy of labor motivation of the Russian population, now the content of work and the possibility of professional and career development have already come to the fore. growth. Even in the absence of work, the majority of citizens, having a certain level of security in the family, are not looking for work in general, but for places to apply their forces according to their specialty, profession, qualifications, and also spiritual needs. This form of employment is the most rational, since knowledge is in demand, for which the material and spiritual forces of society have been spent, its intellectual potential has been precisely used.

The content of labor embodies a complex of characteristics of a certain useful labor, which are associated with its technological basis with the conditional saturation with labor tools, the degree of mechanization and automation of labor functions and the organization of production. The modification of the content of labor is directly related to the development of the productive forces of society and depends on three groups of factors:

1) production technology;

2) mechanization and automation of production;

3) organization of production.

The definition of “content of labor” is joined by another that is essential for characterizing specific labor functions, - labor content. They are interconnected as general and particular. The content of labor conveys a generalized idea of ​​labor as a labor process in general and a specific area of ​​human activity. The content of labor is a characteristic of the work of certain categories of workers: the operator, foreman, foreman, and perhaps the production team. Evaluation of the content of labor is a detailed examination of the functions performed by employees, the data they use. To study specific technical innovations, taking into account their impact on changes in labor functions, priority should be given to the study of the content of labor.

This includes:

1) labor functions;

2) methods of their execution (manual or mechanized);

3) the complexity of labor;

4) its severity;

5) monotony;

7) intensity;

8) organization.

These components are interconnected with each other. The essence of the content of labor is revealed directly through the functions of labor (management, control, auxiliary work, etc.). At the same time, scientific and technological progress transforms not only the functions of labor, but also its parameters such as severity, complexity, and intensity. Forms of labor organization also have a significant influence on the combination of labor functions of workers.

The changes that occur with the functions of labor mean a shift in the professional and qualification structure of the employed towards dividing them into types of labor with diverse content: manual - mechanized, physical - mental, heavy - not heavy, monotonous - diverse. The study of rational structural correlations in the composition of the employed by types of labor and acts as a task of social statistics in the study of the content of labor.

The study of transformations in the professional, functional, qualification composition of workers, as well as in their division by type of labor, acts as the essence of a statistical study of transformations in the content of labor. The object of accounting in this case is not a labor process, but a generalization of workers and workplaces where they work.

The set of needs that people seek to satisfy at work can change not only depending on the professional group, external conditions, but also on the age of the employee, his marital status, career stage. If at the first stage of work in an organization for an employee, the motives associated with orientation in work, with the establishment of personal contacts with colleagues, may come to the fore, then later, when the newcomer has fully acclimatized, the importance of motives associated with the need for career and professional growth. Similarly, the growth of wages, the improvement of social conditions can significantly affect the hierarchy of labor motives of workers.

A comparison of the needs of workers at the beginning and in the middle of a career is shown in Table 11.

Watson-Wyatt, a leading compensation consulting firm, surveyed various groups of employees about the benefits they prefer.

Types of labor activity

The results are presented in table 12. For example, it turned out that for those over 50, the total income (salary plus bonus) that exceeds the average level is in the first place. Those under 30 value the potential for professional growth, skill development and flexible working hours most of all. So, it is clear that these preferences change over time, as well as depending on the economic and personal circumstances of workers.

The content of labor is not the only factor in the formation of the level of employment in the territory. The state of the labor market is characterized by dependence on the well-being of citizens, on the level of income they receive for the corresponding work. Accordingly, the low level of remuneration for labor determines secondary employment and leads to low labor intensity.

4. Activities

Human activity is understood as the activity of the individual, designed to satisfy the needs and interests by achieving a consciously set goal. In the structure of activity, goals and motives are distinguished. What a person strives for is the goal of the activity, and why he does it is the motive of the activity. Activities are divided into separate elements, which are called actions.

Action types

1. External (can be observed from the side) - internal (hidden from view, performed in the internal plan). As one or another activity is mastered, external actions can turn into internal ones.

1.9. Types and conditions of human labor activity

This process is called internalization: for example, first a child learns to read aloud, and then to himself. The reverse process, when any difficulties arise in the performance of activities and internal actions pass into the external plan, is called exteriorization.

2. Arbitrary (volitional) - involuntary (impulsive). Involuntary actions are carried out under the influence of strong, often unexpected stimuli, strong feelings. Arbitrary actions are thought out in advance and carried out with the help of volitional efforts.

Stages of activity

1. Goal setting.

This stage can be complicated if, in the process of setting a goal, a person must choose between several motives. In this case, there is a struggle of motives: for example, go for a walk or prepare for an exam.

2. Work planning.

At this stage, the optimal operations and means to achieve the goal are selected.

An operation is a way of performing an activity, which is determined by the presence of certain skills and abilities in a person, as well as the conditions in which this activity is performed.

The means of performing an activity are those objects that are designed to help in the performance of an activity: for example, lecture notes.

3. Performing activities.

Here, the previously found optimal means and operations are used.

4. Control part - the results are checked, errors are corrected, the results are summed up, conclusions are drawn. Modern man performs a large number of various activities depending on his needs. Activities are communication, play, teaching, work.

Communication- the type of activity that first arises in the course of ontogenetic development of a person.

Its main purpose is the exchange of information between people.

The game- an activity in the course of which a material or ideal product appears (with the exception of business and design games).

Work- activities in the course of which objects of spiritual and material culture are produced, tools of labor are improved, living conditions are improved, science, technology, production, and creativity are developed.

Skills- separate elements of activity that allow performing activities with a high level of quality.

Skill- this is an action, the individual operations of which, as a result of training, have become automatic and are carried out without the participation of consciousness.

Habit- an irresistible desire of a person to perform certain actions.

Types of labor activity of a person differ in the content of processes, the functions performed, the forms of organization, the costs of abilities, the results obtained, the methods of measurement, and many other features. labor processes or types of labor activity, according to the main features that determine their name, are simple and complex, basic and auxiliary, mental and physical, manual and automated, mechanical and instrumental, regulated and creative, scientific and practical, managerial and executive, productive and maintenance, continuous and discrete, free and compulsory, technical and economic, linear and functional, etc.

For the organization of labor activity, general managerial and executive functions should be distinguished: justification of the goal, work planning, coordination of personnel work, process control, evaluation of results, etc.

Planning in a free market economy becomes the basis for the independent production and labor activity of all enterprises and workers, since without it it is impossible to calculate the need for economic resources, coordinate the work of personnel and individual services, control the current course of production, stimulate timely and high-quality work, etc.

Coordination in modern management is considered the most important function of management in every activity. In personnel management, it allows for a rational placement of employees, ensuring coordinated actions of personnel, as well as maneuvering economic resources at all levels of management and at the stages of production, consumption and distribution of goods and services.

Control serves in any production activity as an important means of achieving the goals planned by the personnel. Based on the Accounting and analysis of actual and planned results, control acts as a feedback element in improving the management of all labor and production processes.

The considered functions are common in all managerial and executive activities of the personnel, as well as in all mental and physical labor processes.

The joint labor activity of personnel at an industrial enterprise consists in the fact that some categories of workers ensure the uninterrupted supply of production resources, others - their biological processing, and others - the sale of finished products. Each employee of the enterprise contributes his individual labor to the single production process, which thus forms the overall final result of production. Therefore, the work of each member of the team of an enterprise or corporation, which is an important part of the overall labor activity, must be planned and organized in advance. At small enterprises, the planning, organization and management of their labor activity is carried out by the employees themselves - performers, at large enterprises - specially allocated employees - managers or managers - organizers of various levels of management. Management as a type of labor activity of a special category of personnel, called leaders or managers, is an integration process of their influence on the work of individual performers, entire groups or divisions of an enterprise in order to achieve the greatest production results with limited economic resources. Managers must create organizational and economic conditions for the fruitful work of all employees.

The principle of combining or separating managerial and executive activities can be the basis of the main provision of modern management about the high productivity of personnel. However, in any case, the better each performer manages himself and his work processes as part of a single production system, the less special or professional management is required. To do this, each employee - manager and performer must know well how to carry out executive and managerial functions in his production or workplace. The better the main goals of the organization are known to all employees and the more they have economic freedom in their work, the more likely the tasks can be achieved, the closer the final result is to the goal. In practice, such an organization of work can be considered a kind of self-management of personnel.

The personnel management system in every large and small enterprise can be divided into three categories of labor activity: managing oneself and one's work, managing a separate group of employees or a division of the enterprise, and managing the personnel of the entire organization. Any managerial activity can be represented in production as a system for managing people and their labor activity. Activity management consists of known general functions; setting production targets, planning labor processes, monitoring the implementation of tasks, measuring the results, etc. People management includes such specific functions as determining the optimal number of employees, selection and placement of personnel for jobs and production stages, ensuring cooperation between all members of the workforce, informing and motivating employees, etc.

in personnel management It is customary to divide all types of human labor activity into two components. The first of them characterizes regulated work performed according to a given technology or scheme, when the performer does not introduce any elements of novelty into the work, his own creativity. A typical example of such an activity is the performance by a worker of the labor operations of a machine operator or assembler according to pre-developed technological maps or processes. The second component characterizes creative work aimed at creating new material goods or spiritual values, as well as new technologies or production methods. Creative work includes the work of an entrepreneur, inventor-innovator, scientific worker-innovator, etc.

It is a kind of his social behavior. Labor activity is a rational series of operations and functions, rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by people united in labor organizations. The labor activity of employees provides a solution to a number of tasks:

1. the creation of material wealth as a means of life support for a person and society as a whole;
2. provision of services for various purposes;
3. development of scientific ideas, values ​​and their applied analogues;
4. accumulation, conservation, processing and analysis, transfer of information and its carriers;
5. development of a person as an employee and as a person, etc.

Labor activity - regardless of the method, means and results - is characterized by a number of common properties:

1. a certain functional and technological set of labor operations;
2. a set of relevant qualities of labor subjects, recorded in professional, qualification and job characteristics;
3. material and technical conditions and spatio-temporal framework of implementation;
4. in a certain way, the organizational, technological and economic connection of labor subjects with the means, the conditions for their implementation;
5. normative-algorithmic method of organization, through which the behavioral matrix of individuals included in the production process (organizational and managerial structure) is formed.

Each type of labor activity can be divided into two main characteristics: psychophysiological content (the work of the sense organs, muscles, thought processes, etc.); and the conditions under which work is carried out. The structure and level of physical and nervous loads in the process of labor activity are determined by these two characteristics: physical - depend on the level of automation of labor, its pace and rhythm, design and rationality of the placement of equipment, tools, equipment; nervous - due to the volume of processed information, the presence of industrial danger, the degree of responsibility and risk, the monotony of work, relationships in the team.

The content and working conditions change significantly and ambiguously under the influence of scientific and technological progress. The functions of transforming the object of labor are increasingly transferred to technology, the main functions of the performer are control, management, programming of its activities, which significantly reduces the cost of physical energy.

Thus, in general, we can talk about a reduction in motor components and an increase in the importance of the mental component of labor activity. In addition, the NTP creates technical prerequisites for the withdrawal of the employee from the zone of industrial hazards and dangers, improves the protection of the performer, and frees him from heavy and routine work.

However, an excessive decrease in motor activity turns into hypodynamia. The growth of nervous loads can lead to injuries, accidents, cardiovascular and neuropsychiatric disorders. An increase in the speed and power of equipment can lead to inconsistency in the parameters of its operation and the ability of a person to react and make decisions. New technologies often lead to the emergence of new production hazards and hazards, negative impact on the environment.

The problem is to "tie" technology to human capabilities, to take into account its psycho-physiological characteristics at the stages of design, construction, operation of the "man-machine" system. All this determines the need to study the physiological and mental processes in human labor activity.

Labor activity- performance for pay of work in a certain specialty, qualification or position in accordance with labor legislation, as well as other income-generating activities carried out by an individual ... Source: LAW of Moscow from ... ... Official terminology

Labor activity- see Labor ... Russian encyclopedia of labor protection

Labor activity- the process of the deliberate manufacture of tools and other artifacts (sometimes it is emphasized that other deliberately made tools are used in this process). Characteristic primarily for humans (species-specific property) ... Physical Anthropology. Illustrated explanatory dictionary.

WORK ACTIVITIES- represents the unity of external easily distinguishable elements (substantially effective aspect): an organized workplace, tools, actions, sequence of operations, etc. and internal open elements (psychological aspect): ... ... Dictionary of career guidance and psychological support

The work of a foreign citizen in the Russian Federation on the basis of an employment contract or a civil law contract for the performance of work (provision of services); ... Source: Federal Law of 07/25/2002 N 115 FZ (as amended on 11/12/2012) On the legal ... ... Official terminology

WORK OF A FOREIGN CITIZEN- the work of a foreign citizen in the Russian Federation on the basis of an employment contract or a civil law contract for the performance of work (provision of services) ... Legal Encyclopedia

Labor activity of a foreign citizen- Work of a foreign citizen in the Russian Federation on the basis of an employment contract or a civil law contract for the performance of work (provision of services); Art. 2 of the federal law of July 25, 2002 No. 115 FZ On the legal status of foreign ... ... Dictionary: accounting, taxes, business law

INDIVIDUAL WORK ACTIVITIES- (ITD) socially useful independent personal activity of citizens, carried out in order to ensure employment, obtain additional income, and more fully meet the needs of the population in goods and services. The term individual ... ... Economic Dictionary

Self-employment- socially useful activity of individuals in the production of goods and services, not related to their labor relations with enterprises of any type. In English: Individual labor activities See also: Types of business activities ... ... Financial dictionary

FOREIGN CITIZEN WORK ACTIVITIES- WORK OF A FOREIGN CITIZEN ... Legal Encyclopedia

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• Artistic and labor activity in extracurricular activities in special (correctional) educational institutions. A manual for teachers, O.V. Bobkova. The manual represents one of the possible options for implementing the tasks of extracurricular work on labor education and fine arts in a special (correctional) general education ... More Buy for 461 rubles

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Labor activity

Labor activity is a multifaceted phenomenon. Various aspects of labor have become the subject of study in several social sciences.
From point of view economics labor is seen as a planned, conscious activity with the aim of processing what nature gives into commodities. Economics studies labor as one of the factors of production, explores the mechanism of action of economic laws in the sphere of labor, labor costs at all stages of the production cycle, the ratio of wages to its results. Psychology studies the psyche of the worker, the distinctive features of the personality of workers, the formation of labor attitudes and behavioral motives, the psychophysiological characteristics of various types of labor activity. legal scholars study problems related to the legal status of employees, the legal registration of labor relations between employees and employers, and labor protection. Sociology considers labor activity as an expedient series of operations and functions, relatively rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by people united in production organizations. The sociology of labor studies the structure and mechanism of social and labor relations, as well as social processes in the sphere of labor. Philosophy comprehends labor as a process of creating conditions and means of existence by people, in which human strengths, skills, and knowledge are embodied. For philosophy, it is important to determine how a person manifests himself in this process, who realizes himself in work.
The sciences that study labor are in many cases closely related and often intersect. Comprehensive knowledge about such a phenomenon as labor can only be given by its comprehensive studies, in which the efforts of various sciences are combined. The content of this paragraph integrates some of the results of the study of labor activity by the social sciences, primarily sociology.

LABOR AS A KIND OF HUMAN ACTIVITY

The needs and interests of people are the basis that predetermines the purpose of labor activity. Labor in the proper sense of the word arises when human activity becomes meaningful, when a consciously set goal is realized in it - the creation of material and spiritual values ​​\u200b\u200bnecessary for people's lives. In this way, labor activity differs from educational activity, aimed at acquiring knowledge and mastering skills, and gaming activity, in which it is not so much the result that is important, but the process of the game itself.
Sociologists characterize labor activity, regardless of the method, means and results, next to general properties.
Firstly, a set of labor operations, prescribed for performance in certain workplaces. In each specific type of labor activity, labor operations are performed, which include various labor techniques, actions and movements. (What types of labor are you familiar with? What operations and techniques are used in them?) As a result of the introduction of new equipment and modern technologies in the content of the labor process, the ratio between physical and mental labor, monotonous and creative, manual and mechanized, etc.
Secondly, labor activity is characterized by a set of relevant qualities of subjects of labor activity, fixed in professional, qualification and job characteristics. Recall that qualification should not be equated with professionalism. It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for effective work. To become a professional, a person needs to gain experience, he must be characterized by commitment, self-discipline, business honesty, responsibility.
Thirdly, labor activity is characterized material and technical working conditions. To achieve the goal in labor activity, as in any other, various means are used. First of all, these are various technical devices necessary for production, energy and transport lines and other material objects, without which the labor process is impossible. All of them together make means of labor. During the production process, the impact on object of labor i.e. the materials being converted. To do this, various methods are used, which are called technologies. For example, you can remove excess metal from a workpiece using metal-cutting equipment, but the use of an electric pulse method allows you to achieve a similar result 10 times faster. This means that 10 times more labor productivity.(Think about what determines labor productivity and whether it is always associated only with the desire of a person.)
The modern technical base of enterprises is a complex combination of different types of labor tools, so there is a significant differentiation in the level of technical equipment of labor. This entails its significant heterogeneity. A large number of workers are engaged in monotonous, uncreative work. At the same time, many perform work that requires active mental activity, solving complex production problems.
Fourthly, labor activity is characterized by the method of organizational, technological and economic connection of labor subjects with the means and conditions for their use. The most important feature of the labor activity of people is that it requires, as a rule, joint efforts to achieve the set goals. However, collective activity does not mean that all members of the team that creates any product do the same work. On the contrary, there is a need division of labor thereby increasing its efficiency.
Obviously, the work of an entrepreneur, characterized by a high degree of independence and financial responsibility for his decisions, differs from the nature of the work of an employee who, under the terms of a labor agreement, is obliged to follow the orders of production managers. (Think about what characterizes self-employment from this perspective.)

Fifth, labor activity is characterized by the structure of organization and management of the labor process, norms and algorithms that determine the behavior of its participants. In particular, the notion disciplines. Normal labor activity is impossible without the voluntary, conscious observance by each employee of the rules and procedures of behavior in the team, which are mandatory for all its members. Labor laws and internal labor regulations require the productive use of working time, the conscientious performance of one's duties, and the high quality of work. The fulfillment of these requirements is labor discipline.
Modern production requires compliance with a certain technological regime (material processing methods, speed, temperature, pressure, etc.), which ensures the achievement of the production goal, i.e., obtaining a product with specified quality indicators. Everyone knows that if, for example, the strength of the fire in the stove is not adjusted, the product in the pan may not fry, but burn out. Strict adherence to technological standards is called technological discipline.
When enterprises are interconnected by an agreement that determines, for example, the supply of raw materials, semi-finished products, parts, assemblies for the production of a finished product, strict adherence to the terms of the agreement is called contract discipline. Its non-compliance causes a violation of the labor rhythm of the enterprise, failures in the well-functioning production activities of many people.
Fulfillment of rules, norms, contracts, orders, orders of production managers is also called diligence. But performance is impossible without initiative. In fact, having received an order, a person should think about how best to carry it out. It is impossible to foresee all the situations that arise in the labor process in the rules, orders, instructions. The employee must, under specific conditions, find the optimal solution that allows him to fulfill the order given to him in a quality and timely manner. Initiative and diligence are interconnected. A thoughtless performer is a bad worker. On the contrary, the initiative is evidence of high professionalism.
In sociology, labor is considered using the concepts of "content of labor" and "character of labor". Content of labor depends on the characteristics of a particular type of labor, due to the subject of labor, means of labor, the totality of operations performed by the employee, their correlation and interconnection; from the ratio of executive and managerial functions, as well as the functions of control, monitoring and adjustment of equipment; on the degree of predetermination of actions, independence, the level of creative possibilities, etc. A change in the composition of the necessary operations and the ratio of labor functions means a change in the content of labor. The main factor behind this change is scientific and technological progress.
Modern technological processes imply the maximum intellectualization of labor (imagine the labor of a nuclear power plant operator or a pilot of a modern airliner), its organization in such a way that a person is not reduced to a simple performer of individual operations. In other words, we are talking about changing the content of labor, which at the present stage of scientific and technological progress can become more diverse, more creative.
The nature of labor represents the relationship between the participants in the labor process, affecting the attitude of workers to work and its productivity.
Of great importance are working conditions. They include the degree of danger or safety of the object and means of labor, their impact on health, mood and human performance. Potentially dangerous factors are physical (noise, vibration, increase or decrease in temperature, ionizing and other radiation), chemical (gases, vapors, aerosols), biological (viruses, bacteria, fungi).
Particularly harmful, extreme working conditions (for example, coal mining in mines) are dangerous with the possibility of serious occupational diseases, serious injuries, major accidents, accompanied by death of people.
Plays a big role work culture. Researchers identify three components in it. Firstly, it is the improvement of the working environment, i.e., the conditions in which the labor process takes place. Secondly, it is the culture of relationships between labor participants, the creation of a favorable moral and psychological climate in the work collective. Thirdly, the comprehension by the participants of labor activity of the content of the labor process, its features, as well as the creative embodiment of the engineering concept embedded in it.
Labor activity is the most important field of self-realization in the life of any person. It is here that a person's abilities are revealed and improved, it is in this area that he can assert himself as a person.

HUMAN FACTOR OF PRODUCTION

The human factor is the broadest designation of the totality of an employee's properties (qualifications, behavioral motives, interests, consciousness, culture, etc.). It is used in comparison with technical and economic factors. Close to the concepts of "staff", "labor force", "employee", etc.
Scientific and technological progress radically changes the position of a person (subject of labor) in the production system: he is removed from the immediate process of creating a finished product, stands next to him and acts in relation to him as a controller, adjuster, adjuster. Even earlier, a person transferred to the machine first an executive function (influence with a tool on an object of labor), and then a motor, energy one. Now, along with the reduction of direct human participation in production, there is an expansion of indirect types of labor associated with the performance of control, management and logical functions of an ever higher level, with the adoption of responsible decisions.
Scientific and technological progress causes a change in the role of a person in the production process, affects the content of his labor activity.
Significantly changing the ratio between physical and mental labor, physical and intellectual abilities. If earlier the worker realized in the process of labor mainly physical abilities (endurance, muscular strength, professional training), then the creation of machines that perform logical operations, mathematical calculations, etc., highlights such human abilities as the ability to analyze the situation, compare data, set goals, etc. It is difficult to establish a clear boundary between mental and physical labor. Computer repair is associated with both manual (physical) and mental labor. Is it possible to separate two types of labor, for example, in the activities of a surgeon?
However, both in our country and throughout the world, the scientific and technological revolution entails the strengthening of the mental functions of labor. At the same time, creativity increases - the ability to assess the situation and make independent decisions.
The latest technology and technology stimulate the development of human abilities and at the same time place high demands on the personality of the worker. The result of the error of the worker-machine operator could be one damaged part. Automatic line operator errors result in hundreds of defective parts. The mistakes of the nuclear power plant operator or the mistakes of the pilot of an airliner can turn into grave consequences. It would seem that the work comes down to monitoring devices and pressing buttons, but in fact, emotional stress and mental stress increase, the role of such moral qualities of a person as a sense of responsibility, self-discipline, self-control increases.
Thus, along with the transformation of the technical factor of production, the role of the human factor is significantly increasing. This should be taken into account by the creators of highly complex engineering systems that include a person. Since human behavior in sociotechnical systems can be a risk factor, it is necessary to increase the reliability of an employee in unforeseen situations.
Researchers point to new qualification requirements for modern professions dealing with high-tech equipment. Among these requirements:
- the ability to abstract thinking and the ability to freely use the language of computer science;
- the ability to analyze statistical and graphical information, think logically, respond flexibly and quickly to any change in the production situation;
- knowledge of some general education disciplines (mathematics, physics, programming) in a volume exceeding the level of secondary school.
The growth of the information component in labor activity also occurs in connection with the increased rate of aging of information in various spheres of human activity. Hence - the requirement for the worker to be able to continuously update and replenish his knowledge during his working life.
The properties of the human factor in the modern world are changing under the influence of significant changes in the life of society (primarily in connection with the renewal of the material and technical base, and in our country also as a result of the transition to a market economy), as well as with its own development (the growth of education, general culture, quality of life).
Note that in science there is a limitation of the concept of "human factor". Man cannot be considered only as a factor of production. Man, his versatile development is an end in itself; his life, rights and freedoms are the highest value.

SOCIAL PARTNERSHIP

In the process of labor activity, social and labor relations arise between employees, on the one hand, and employers (owners of enterprises, organizations or their representatives), on the other. They can acquire a confrontational character when conflicts arising between the parties are resolved by force (through strikes and lockouts). However, world experience in the second half of the last century showed a different model of relations - social partnership. In the 90s. 20th century this model is also recognized in Russia.
In a broad sense, social partnership is a certain type of social relations between social groups, strata, classes, their public associations, authorities and business, the basis of which is the achievement of agreement on the most important areas of socio-economic and political development. In a narrower sense, it is a system of relations between state authorities, representatives of workers and employers, entrepreneurs, based on equal cooperation. Since in this paragraph we are talking about labor, we will consider social partnership in the second sense.
You know that the interests of employees and employers do not coincide in many ways. Contradictions arise between them, often giving rise to conflicts that can affect any issues of labor activity: its regulation and payment, working hours and labor protection, social guarantees and the right to association. The mechanism of social partnership makes it possible to resolve controversial issues not on the basis of confrontation, but through negotiations, by coordinating interests, on the basis of a reasonable compromise.
Sociologists note the following distinctive features of social partnership:
- participation of employees in the management of enterprises in various organizational forms, including trade unions;
- the negotiation nature of the settlement of disagreements and contradictions arising between the parties (subjects of labor relations);
- availability of mechanisms and legal institutions to coordinate the interests of partners at different levels;
- coordination between partners at the highest (national) level of income sharing and socio-economic policy in general, including the development of basic criteria and indicators of social justice and measures to protect the subjects of labor relations;
- reduction and mitigation of labor conflicts in the form of strikes and lockouts.
In Russia, social partnership in the sphere of labor is currently regulated by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the laws of the Russian Federation “On trade unions, their rights and guarantees of activity” (1996), “On the Russian tripartite commission for the regulation of social and labor relations” (1999) .

There are several forms of social partnership. One of them are collective bargaining on the preparation of draft collective agreements and their conclusion. Such contracts are legal acts that regulate social and labor relations in an organization. They are prepared and concluded on behalf of employees and employers by their representatives. The contract may include mutual obligations of the parties on such issues as forms, systems and amounts of remuneration; working time and rest time; improvement of working conditions and labor protection of employees; environmental safety, health protection of workers at work; guarantees and benefits for employees who combine work with education, etc.
The forms of social partnership also include the participation of employees and their representatives in the management of the organization. Among the forms of such participation is obtaining information from the employer on issues that directly affect the interests of employees; discussion with the employer of questions about the work of the organization, making proposals for its improvement; participation in the development, adoption of collective agreements, etc.
The participation of employees' representatives in the pre-trial resolution of individual labor disputes is also a form of social partnership. For this purpose, commissions on labor disputes are created from representatives of employees and employers.
Analyzing the process of establishing social partnership in Russia, the experts noted that it was not going smoothly. Difficulties on this path are explained by the too large gap in the incomes of various groups of the population and the socio-psychological unpreparedness to accept the idea of ​​social partnership, the insufficient development of civil society, the non-compliance of some business representatives with the civilized “rules of the game”, the disunity of trade unions, and the imperfect system of power. Meanwhile, mutual coordination, taking into account the interests of various social groups are a necessary condition for the development of the economy, the formation of civil society, and the creation of a strong state. The interconnection of all these tasks determines the prospects for the development of social partnership in our country.
Basic concepts: labor, sociology of labor, social partnership.
Terms: content of labor, working conditions, labor discipline, labor culture, human factor of production.

1. What profession are you more familiar with? Carry out an analysis of this professional work: determine its purpose, the technical means used, the methods of labor activity (technology), labor operations and techniques. Think about how you can improve the productivity of this work activity. Compare the labor content of a grocery store clerk and a bus driver.
2. The German poet and scientist J. W. Goethe wrote: “Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft, which can be mastered only with a certain specialization. The acquisition of complete knowledge, complete skill in the field of any one subject gives a greater education than the assimilation of half a hundred different subjects. Do you agree with this statement? Justify your answer.
3. In the developed countries of the world that entered the information society, the categories of workers with a significant information component in their activities in the 90s. 20th century accounted for 40 to 50% of those employed in the national economy. And along with professions that require creative work to some extent, their share has reached 70-80% of all employed. Draw conclusions from these data.
4. In the literature of Western countries, forecasts about the negative consequences of informatization of production have also appeared. Among them: the disappearance of numerous professions, dequalification, dehumanization of labor, new requirements for the mobility of workers, stress. Based on the knowledge gained at school and from other sources, express your attitude to these forecasts. Justify your answer.
5. The idea of ​​social partnership was born as a counterbalance to the theory of class struggle. Discuss: which of these two approaches to social relations in modern conditions is most consistent with the interests of society, the state and various social groups?

Work with the source

Check out an excerpt from A. I. Kravchenko's book "Sociology: A Reference Guide".

Labor activity. The process of labor activity. Types of labor activity

Almost everyone works to secure and improve their lives. The work uses mental and physical abilities. Today, in the modern world, work activity is more extensive than it was before. How is the process and organization of work? What types are there? Why does a person refuse to work? Read more for answers...

The concept of labor activity

Work is mental and physical effort applied to achieve a certain result. A person uses his abilities for consistent work and its conclusion. Human work is aimed at:

1. Raw materials (a person works with them to bring them to the final result).

2. Means of labor are transport, household equipment, tools and equipment (with their help, a person makes any product).

3. The cost of living labor, which is the salary of all personnel in production.

A person's work activity can be both complex and simple. For example, one plans and controls the entire process of work - this is mental ability. There are workers who write down the indicators on the counter every hour - this is physical work. However, it is not as difficult as the first one.

Labor efficiency will be improved only when a person has certain work skills. Therefore, they accept people for production not those who have just graduated from a university, but those who have experience and skill.

Why does a person need a job?

Why are we working? Why does a person need a job? Everything is very simple. To fulfill human needs. Most people think so, but not all.

There are people for whom work is self-realization. Often such work brings a minimum income, but thanks to it, a person does what he loves and develops. When people do things that they like, then the work is better. Career also refers to self-realization.

A woman who is completely dependent on her husband goes to work only in order not to degrade. Home life often “eats up” a person so much that you start to lose yourself. As a result, from an interesting and intelligent personality, you can turn into a home "hen". Surrounding such a person becomes uninteresting.

It turns out that the labor activity of the employee is the essence of the personality. Therefore, you need to evaluate your abilities and choose the work that not only brings income, but also pleasure.

Varieties of labor activity

As mentioned earlier, a person applies mental or physical abilities for work. About 10 types of labor activity were counted. All of them are varied.

Types of labor activity:

Physical labor includes:

• manual;
• mechanical;
• conveyor labor (work on the conveyor along the chain);
• work in production (automatic or semi-automatic).

Types of mental work include:

• managerial;
• operator;
• creative;
• educational (this also includes medical professions and students).

Physical work is the performance of labor with the use of muscle activity. They may be partially or completely involved. For example, a builder who carries a bag of cement (the muscles of the legs, arms, back, torso, etc. work). Or the operator records the readings in the document. The muscles of the hands and mental activity are involved here.

Mental work - reception, use, processing of information. This work requires attentiveness, memory, thinking.

Today, only mental or physical labor is a rarity. For example, they hired a builder to renovate the office. He will not only make repairs, but also calculate how much material is needed, what is its cost, how much work costs, etc. Both mental and physical abilities are involved. And so it is with every job. Even if a person works on a conveyor. This work is monotonous, the production is the same every day. If a person does not think, then he will not be able to perform right actions. And this can be said about any kind of work activity.

Motive of labor activity

What motivates a person to do a certain job? Of course, this is the financial side. The higher the salary, the better a person tries to do his job. He understands that a poorly done task is worse paid.

Motivation of labor activity is not only in monetary terms, there are also intangible aspects. For example, many people will be happy to work if you create a friendly atmosphere for them in the team. Frequent staff turnover at work cannot create warmth among employees.

Some workers need social needs. That is, it is important for them to feel the support of leaders and colleagues.

There is a type of people who need attention and praise. They should feel that their work is in demand and they are not in vain putting their efforts into work.

Certain employees want to fulfill themselves through work. They are ready to work tirelessly, the main thing for them is to give impetus.

Therefore, it is necessary to find the right approach to each employee so that they have a motivation for work. Only then will the work be done quickly and efficiently. After all, every person needs to be encouraged to work.

Organization of labor activity

Each production or enterprise has a certain system, according to which the labor activity of a person is calculated. This is done so that the work does not go astray. The organization of labor activity is planned, then fixed in certain documents (schemes, instructions, etc.).

The work planning system specifies:

• the workplace of workers, its lighting, equipment and plan of activity (a person must have all the necessary materials for work);
• division of labor activity;
• methods of work (actions that are performed in the process);
• acceptance of labor (determined by the method of work);
• working hours (how long the employee should be at the workplace);
• working conditions (what is the load of the worker);
• labor process;
• quality of work;
• work discipline.

In order to have high productivity in the enterprise, it is necessary to adhere to a planned organization of work.

The labor process and its types

Each work is done with the help of a person. This is the labor process. It is divided into types:

• by the nature of the object of labor (the work of employees - the subject of work is technology or the economy, the labor activity of ordinary workers is associated with materials or any details).
• according to the functions of employees (workers help produce products or maintain equipment, managers monitor the correct work);
• on the participation of workers in the level of mechanization.

The last option is:

1. The process of manual work (in labor activity no machines, machines or tools are used).
2. The process is in machine-manual work (labor activity is performed using a machine tool).
3. Machine process (labor activity takes place with the help of a machine, while the worker does not apply physical force, but monitors the correct course of work).

Working conditions

People work in different fields. Working conditions are a number of factors that surround a person's workplace. They affect his work and health. They are divided into 4 types:

1. Optimal working conditions (1st class) - human health does not get worse. Supervisors help the employee to maintain a high level of work.
2. Permissible working conditions (2nd grade) - the employee's work is normal, but his health periodically deteriorates. True, by the next shift it is already normalized. According to the documents, the harmfulness is not exceeded.
3. Harmful working conditions (3rd class) - harmfulness is exceeded, and the employee's health deteriorates more and more. Hygiene standards exceeded.
4. Dangerous working conditions - with such work, a person runs the risk of getting very dangerous diseases.

For optimal conditions, the employee must breathe clean air, the humidity of the room, the constant movement of air, the temperature in the room should be normal, it is desirable to create natural lighting. If all the norms are not observed, then a person gradually receives harm for his body, which will affect his health over time.

Quality of work

This category is the most important for labor activity. After all, proper work affects the volume and quality of products. The workforce requires professional skills, qualifications and experience. These qualities make it clear what kind of work a person is capable of. Very often, people are not fired at enterprises, but first they are trained, eventually improving their qualifications.

First of all, a person himself must be aware of responsibility in work and approach it qualitatively. If you show your literacy and professionalism, then the management will decide on advanced training and promotion. Thus, the quality of work is improved.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that a person needs to work for several reasons. It is advisable to choose a labor activity according to your abilities and sympathy. Only then will the work be done with dignity and quality. Be sure to pay attention to working conditions. Always remember what your health depends on. In the process of work, be very careful, as work-related injuries are not excluded, which entail not only problems for the employee, but also for the management. For successful, high performance, adhere to all the rules and regulations by which the enterprise operates. Always leave all the problems at home, and go to work with a smile, like on a holiday. If the day starts with a good mood, then it will end the same way.

§ 4. Development of elements of educational and labor activity

Educational and labor activity in its developed forms develops beyond the preschool age. Educational activity is the leading activity for school-age children (as well as for adults, if they continue their education off-duty). Labor is the main activity of adults. Each of these activities has a complex structure and makes high demands on the human psyche. For their successful implementation, such mental properties are necessary

and abilities that a child of preschool age has still formed.

Preparation for systematic learning and for subsequent participation in productive work is one of the main tasks of educating and educating preschool children. This training is carried out mainly in the game and productive activities. However, along with this, adults put forward before the children tasks of a purely educational and labor nature, gradually ensuring that the children, performing such tasks, also learn certain mental actions necessary for educational and labor activities.

When evaluating the development of the elements of learning and labor in preschool childhood, it is necessary not to lose sight of the fact that the meaning of activity for the adult who organizes it and for the child in very many cases turns out to be different. The fact that a child acquires certain knowledge and skills in the process of learning, performs the duties of a duty officer or plants flowers, does not yet give grounds for the conclusion that he has developed (even in elementary forms) educational and labor activity. Up to a certain point, children are guided by interest in themselves. process actions, the desire to be like adults, to earn the approval of an adult, not realizing the value that the knowledge gained or the results of their work assignments have. And such awareness is a necessary condition for systematic study and work. The conscious fulfillment of educational and labor actions only begins to take shape at preschool age.

Appearancetraininginterestsandassimilationtrainingaction. Mainpeculiarityeducationalactivitiesthat, whathergoal- assimilationnewknowledge, skillsandskills, anotreceivingexternal result.

If a child draws, being carried away by the process of drawing or trying to get a beautiful drawing, he is busy playing or productive activities. But when in a drawing class he sets himself a special goal - to learn to draw better than before, for example, to learn how to draw straight lines or correctly paint over an image, his actions become educational in nature.

Although the entire mental development of a child is carried out in the process of learning, transferring to him the experience accumulated by previous generations, children learn most of the knowledge and skills by communicating with adults, following their requirements, advice and instructions, as well as in games, drawing, designing, in everyday communication. for a variety of reasons. Education is embedded in various forms of communication between adults and children.

However, as the child develops, it becomes more systematic. In the conditions of public preschool education, children are trained in classes conducted according to a specific program. At the same time, a significant place is occupied by

use of game techniques and productive tasks. At the same time, in the classroom, certain requirements are also being imposed on children regarding the completeness and quality of assimilation of knowledge and skills, the ability to listen and follow the instructions of the educator. Educationon theclassesIt hasimportantmeaningforinitial masteryelementseducationalactivities. Mastering the elements of educational activity includes formationcognitive interestsandassimilationskillsto study.

The various information received by the child about the world around him - what adults show and tell him, what he sees himself - generates curiosity- interest in everything new. The growth of children's curiosity during preschool childhood is manifested, in particular, in an increase in the number and change in the nature of children's questions. If at three or four years only a small part of the questions is aimed at obtaining new knowledge, clarifying the incomprehensible, then by the older preschool age such questions become predominant, and children are often interested in the causes of various phenomena, the connections between them. "Why is it raining?"; Why do plants need to be watered? "Why does the doctor tap out the patient?"; "Where do the stars come from?"; “Can a tractor pull a small house if the house is put on wheels?”; “If all the water flows into the sea, then where does it go?” - here is a small list of common questions of a six-year-old child.

But curiosity does not yet ensure the readiness to learn, to systematically acquire knowledge. Interest in this or that phenomenon quickly arises in a child, but quickly disappears, is replaced by another. Already from the above list of questions it is clear that the child is interested in phenomena related to the most diverse areas of reality. Teaching, in its developed forms, implies a steady interest in certain types and aspects of phenomena that make up the content of various academic subjects - mathematics, native language, biology, etc.

In some cases, dissected and stable interests are detected early in preschool children, leading to amazing success in the assimilation of knowledge.

Edik grew up in difficult living conditions. When he was one and a half years old, his father fell seriously ill and has since become an invalid. His mother, who had a technical education, temporarily worked as a school teacher; sometimes students came to her house. At the age of four, listening to his mother's homework, Edik suddenly became interested in learning and began to show extraordinary success (he began to walk and talk at about the same age as other children).

In the fifth year of life, without special guidance from adults, and even against their wishes, the boy learned to read, write and count within a few months. Mastering new skills happened very quickly, rapidly. Edik began to ask him to name the letters and cried if they refused to explain. Having become acquainted with the alphabet, he endlessly uttered the names of the letters, finding them everywhere with satisfaction. Parents did not notice how Edik added syllables - he went through this stage of training so quickly.

No less persistently Edik got acquainted with numbers and arithmetic operations, if he was not told how to count further, he was upset; he experienced genuine suffering if his curiosity was not satisfied.

The rapid progress in the sciences of a sickly child frightened the mother. But the boy was irresistibly drawn to mental food, yearned for no work. The child was more pleased with the knowledge he received than with a treat or a toy.

In the same preschool years, along with mathematics, at one time he studied Russian more intensively, learned declensions and established the cases of words with great interest, even began to write a grammar textbook. Acquaintance with the geographical atlas aroused interest in geography. He quickly mastered geographical concepts and learned hundreds of names. He liked to translate scale values ​​into real ones, to find all the cities located at a certain latitude and longitude. (BymaterialsH. FROM. Leites.)

Of course, children like Edik are an exception. Usually, rather stable cognitive interests arise in children only towards the end of preschool age, and only in conditions of well-organized education.

The main role is played by content preschool education.

Studies show that interest in mathematics, language, phenomena of animate and inanimate nature appears to the necessary degree in all children, if in the classroom they are given not separate scattered information, but a certain system knowledge, in which children are exposed to the basic relations of phenomena characteristic of each area of ​​reality. In the field of mathematics, this is the ratio of the measure to the measured, part and whole, units and sets, in the field of language - the ratio of the structure of the word to its meaning, in the field of wildlife - the ratio of the structural features of animals and plants to the conditions of their existence, etc.

When children get acquainted with such general patterns, they follow their manifestation in particular cases with great interest, new aspects of the world around them are revealed to them, and they begin to see that teaching is the path to amazing discoveries.

sustainableanddismemberedcognitiveinterestscreate atchilda wishto study, constantlyreceivenewknowledge. The ability to learn involves, first of all, understanding the meaning of the learning task as a task that is performed in order to learn to, the ability to distinguish learning tasks from practical, life situations. It happens that a preschooler, after listening to a mathematical problem, shows interest not in what actions should be performed to solve it, but in the situation described in the conditions of the problem. So, he refuses to solve the problem: “Mom ate four sweets, and gave her son two. How much did they eat { together?”, outraged by the “injustice” described in it: “Why did she give Misha so little?” the child asks. “It needs to be equally divided.” In other cases, the child tries to get an answer as soon as possible and for this he uses at random the actions of addition and subtraction familiar to him. Both are manifestations of the inability to learn. The child must understand that

the situation described in the conditions of the problem is important not in itself, not as a description of a life event, but as a material that serves to learn to solve problems in general, and that the point of solving a problem is not to get an answer as soon as possible, but again to learn to, based on the conditions, correctly determine which arithmetic operation needs to be applied, and use this skill in the future.

In the early and middle preschool years, children, as a rule, accept learning tasks only if the knowledge and skills gained in this process can be immediately used in playing, drawing, or in another form of activity that attracts them.

In the conditions of specially organized training at senior preschool age, children develop the ability to accept learning tasks without regard to the possibility of immediate implementation of what they have learned. It becomes possible to assimilate knowledge "for the future", for the future.

Observations show that, throughout preschool childhood, didactic play turns out to be a more effective means of mastering knowledge than the form of direct learning tasks. But if in the younger and middle preschool age the difference is very large, then in the older it is significantly reduced. This is a clear indicator of the growing ability of children to accept learning tasks.

Understanding the meaning of educational tasks leads to the fact that children begin to pay attention to ways performing the actions that an adult gives them, consciously try to master these methods. Preschoolers learn purposeful observation, description, comparison and grouping of objects, coherent transmission of the content of stories and pictures, methods of counting and solving arithmetic problems, etc. The main importance is the correct execution of the task, compliance with the requirements of adults. At the same time, children often turn to an adult, asking them to evaluate the correctness of the fulfillment of certain educational requirements. For example, in the process of teaching older preschoolers to accurately reproduce spatial relationships (when drawing up a pattern according to a model), children repeatedly turned to the teacher: “Look, please, am I doing it right?”; “It is necessary that the corner to the corner and that this triangle be opposite this. Correctly?"

The assessment given to the work of children by an adult, his comparison of the progress and results of the work of different children leads to the fact that the child himself begins to more correctly control his actions and evaluate his knowledge and skills. Children begin to develop skills self-control and self-esteem in relation to the performance of educational tasks. Often, older preschoolers are reluctant to complete tasks that they evaluate as too easy, strive to get those that, from their point of view, are more appropriate.

achieved level of knowledge and skills. Here are the statements of the children when they receive the task of drawing up a pattern according to the model: “Oh, it's easy! It costs nothing for us to do, right, Sasha? "You give me something more difficult, I can do it"; “Oh, how difficult! We've wanted to do this pattern for a long time."

Assessing their knowledge and skills, children often make mistakes. Even greater difficulties are presented for them by self-control in the process of work. But the emergence of self-control and self-esteem is an important step in mastering learning activities, which is completed during the period of schooling.

Masteryinitialformslaboractivities. Laboractivity(meaning productive work) - this isactivity, directedon thecreationpublicly usefulproducts- material and spiritual values ​​necessary for mankind. Both in its results and in its organization, labor is a social activity. It, as a rule, takes place in a team and involves the ability to coordinate one's actions with the actions of other labor participants, to jointly achieve a common goal. A person must work regardless of what his moods and desires are at the moment. The entire course of labor actions must be subordinated to obtaining the intended result. Therefore, the labor process is to some extent difficult, associated with stress, effort, overcoming external and internal obstacles.

To participate in each type of labor, certain knowledge, skills and abilities are required that allow a person to obtain a given product.

All these features of labor activity determine the range of requirements for the mental qualities of a person. Conscious participation in productive labor presupposes, first of all, an understanding of the social significance of labor, a desire to perform actions, the result of which is useful to other people. It also requires the ability to work together with others, to work together to obtain a given product. Labor requires a certain level of development of thinking, which allows one to plan one's actions and foresee their results.

Particularly high demands are made by labor on volitional qualities - the ability to subordinate actions to a specific goal, consciously regulate them, and overcome difficulties that arise.

These mental qualities in their developed form exceed the capabilities of a preschool child. But all of them in one way or another begin to take shape at preschool age. However, just as the assimilation of knowledge and skills occurs in preschool children mainly outside the fulfillment of educational tasks, the formation of the qualities necessary for work occurs in children mainly outside the fulfillment of labor tasks. When are children given

tasks, they are not immediately recognized as labor, different from the game, objective or productive activity.

The initial acquaintance with productive labor occurs in children not when they perform labor tasks, but when they observe the work of adults, through stories, listening to books, looking at pictures. Children reproduce the labor actions and relationships of adults in their games and it is in this way that they get an idea of ​​the necessity of labor, its social significance, and its collective nature. In the game, as we already know, the first forms of distribution and coordination of actions, the skills of their joint implementation are formed.

In productive activities, preschoolers learn to perform actions aimed at obtaining a given result, master the ability to set a specific goal and plan to achieve it. The fulfillment of educational tasks contributes to the development in children of the ability to act in accordance with the system of mandatory requirements, to control and evaluate their work.

All these are necessary components of labor activities, but they are, as it were, scattered over different types of activity. To unite them, to link together an understanding of the social significance of labor, the coordination of one's actions with the actions of other people, the effectiveness and purposefulness, the obedience to mandatory requirements - this means to form the initial forms of labor activity in children. And the way to such an association is the organization of conditions for the performance of labor tasks by children. Work tasks include tasks that involve the achievement of a clearly defined external result that has a certain meaning for other people. Obtaining the result is absolutely necessary and requires a certain amount of effort. BUTperformancesuchassignmentsbecomeslabor actiononlyatcondition, whatchildrenrealizesignificance andobligationreceivingthisresult, purposefully strivetohim.

The types of work assignments that are given to children in a kindergarten are quite diverse. This is the fulfillment of various assignments of adults, the duties of a duty officer, caring for indoor plants and animals, working in the kindergarten, making crafts from paper and cardboard (see the second flyleaf, on the right). These tasks acquire for children the meaning of truly labor tasks, they begin to be carried out with the help of labor actions only in cases when the work of children is properly organized and directed by adults. The organization of conditions for the performance of labor tasks includes: 1) teaching children the necessary ways of working, 2) developing their appropriate skills and abilities (in particular, the ability to handle tools and materials), 3) a detailed explanation of the meaning

work, the value that it has for other people (4) helping children in planning and coordinating actions.

Of particular importance are the forms of association of children in the joint performance of labor tasks. It often happens that although several preschoolers or even the entire group of kindergarten participate in the work, each child acts separately and the results obtained by him are considered and evaluated independently of the results achieved by other children. In other cases, each of the children does his work separately, independently of the others, but it is immediately given to the child as part of a common cause, and the results of the work of individual children are evaluated from the point of view of the overall results achieved by the group.

Significantly more effective for the formation of the beginnings of labor activity in children are such forms of their association, when the general task is divided into several interconnected more specific tasks, each of which is performed by one or two or three participants. Here, intermediate results appear, which are transferred from one work participant to another. Until the previous child (or group of children) has completed their part of the overall task, the next one cannot get down to business, and the quality of the work done by one child can be decisive for the quality of the work of another and for the overall result.

So, for example, children wash the cubes. Two wash, one rinse, two dry and one folds. If the first two children do their part of the work poorly, the third child will either have to finish for them (and then he will actually rewash the blocks and delay everyone), or leave the blocks dirty. Activities at the next stage will depend on how the children completed the task at the previous stage.

This form of association of children creates the prerequisites for them to realize the joint nature of their actions, to learn to consider individual actions as links in a common cause, to make certain demands on the results of the actions of their peers and on the results of their own actions. Uniting children in work contributes to the fact that they learn to plan better, they develop the ability to divide the entire process of work into a number of successive links. All this gradually turns the fulfillment of labor tasks into a collective labor action. We have seen that for the first time the conditions for uniting children in joint activities are created in play. However, the performance of labor tasks differs significantly from the game - here the nature of the relationship between the participants begins to be regulated by the need to necessarily obtain a given result, a product of a certain quality, i.e., conditions characteristic of labor actions, and not for a game.

Complex forms of association of children in the joint performance of labor tasks and the associated assimilation of initial

forms of labor activity become possible already at the senior preschool age. At the same time, even at this age, the efficiency of performing purely labor tasks is lower than the efficiency of performing the same tasks included in play activities. When children were offered certain tasks directly in the form of labor tasks, and the same tasks were offered during the game in the workshop, where they took on the roles of workers, it was in the latter case that the actions of the children were most similar to the real work of adults.

However, it is important not that the labor actions of children give really high results, but that these actions are perceived by children precisely as labor. It is the awareness of labor actions that determines the specifics of mental development and prepares children for a future life as conscious members of society.

Topic 1. Subject and tasks of the discipline. types of labor activity, basics of labor physiology.

1. Subject, structure, course content.

2. General concepts of human labor activity

3. Fundamentals of labor physiology

Subject, structure, content of the course.

"Fundamentals of labor protection" is a complex discipline, which is based both on general education (physics, chemistry, mathematics), and on general technical and special disciplines (strength of materials, electrical engineering, production technology and equipment).

The discipline is especially closely related to life safety, scientific organization of labor, ergonomics, engineering psychology and technical aesthetics. All the above disciplines belong to the complex of sciences that study a person in the labor process. These disciplines have a common goal - to help increase labor productivity, maintain health, and reduce the impact of adverse factors.

The methodology of the course is a scientific analysis of working conditions, technological processes, production equipment, workplaces, labor operations, production organization in order to identify harmful and dangerous production factors for the occurrence of possible emergencies. Based on this analysis, measures are developed to eliminate adverse production factors and create safe and harmless working conditions.

The main goal of the course is to equip future specialists with knowledge of the basics of labor protection, the implementation of which in practice will help improve working conditions, increase productivity, prevent occupational diseases, industrial injuries, and accidents.

Basic concepts and terms of labor protection, their characteristics:

In DSTU 2293-93 “Labor protection. Terms and definitions” defines the basic concepts and terms of labor protection.

Occupational Safety and Health- this is a system of legal, socio-economic, organizational, technical, sanitary-hygienic and therapeutic and preventive measures and means aimed at maintaining the health and working capacity of a person in the process of work.

Working conditions- a set of factors of the working environment and the production process that affect the health and performance of a person in the labor process.

Harmful production factor- a factor, the impact of which on a worker in certain conditions leads to a disease or a decrease in working capacity.

Hazardous production factor- a factor, the impact of which on a worker in certain conditions leads to injury or other sudden sharp deterioration in health.

Subdivided:

physical (mobile machines and mechanisms, increased dust and gas contamination of the air, increased or decreased temperature in the room, as well as equipment and parts, increased noise, vibration, ultrasound, infrasonic vibrations, humidity, increased electromagnetic field, humidity, insufficient lighting of rooms and etc.);

Chemical (this includes chemicals that have a harmful effect on the body and are divided into: general toxic, irritant, sensitizing, carcinogenic, mutagenic, affecting the reproductive function of the body.);

Biological (pathogenic microorganisms - bacteria, viruses, microscopic fungi, and their metabolic products; as well as macroorganisms - animals and plants);

Psychophysical - this includes body overload: physical (static and dynamic) and neuropsychic (mental overstrain, overstrain of the senses, monotony of work, emotional overload).

work injury- violation of the anatomical integrity of the human body or its functions as a result of exposure to production factors.

Classify:

By type of traumatic agent: mechanical, thermal, chemical, radiation, electrical, combined, etc.;

For industrial material reasons (carriers) of injury: moving parts of equipment, finished products, production waste;

According to the localization of the injury: injuries of the eyes, head, limbs, torso;

By severity: mild, severe, fatal;

For technological operations - lifting operations, transportation of goods and others.

Accident at work- sudden impact on the worker of a hazardous production factor or environment, as a result of which harm was caused to health or death occurred.

Occupational Illness- a pathological condition of a person, caused by work and associated with excessive stress on the body or the adverse effects of harmful production factors.

work-related diseases- this is a group of diseases, the course of which is aggravated by working conditions, and their frequency exceeds that of workers, outside the influence of certain occupational harmful factors.

General concepts of human labor activity

The concepts of "labor activity" and "man" are inextricably linked throughout the historical development of man as a biological species and mankind as a social community. It was through labor activity that Homo erectus (upright man) became Homo sapiens (reasonable man) in the course of a long evolution.

Recall that activity- a form of activity specific to a person, aimed at the expedient transformation of the surrounding world to meet certain needs of an individual or society.

The most important form of activity is labor activity.

Labor activity- this is a conscious expedient human activity that requires the application of efforts and is aimed at transforming the surrounding world to meet certain needs of an individual or society, including the production of certain goods or the provision of services.

The basis of work is simple labor process carried out by the working person ( subject of labor) by transformation subject of labor by using means of labor and tools in product of labor.

The simple process of labor embodies the process of transformation of the external world by man so completely, vividly and clearly that it is often called simply labor.

Physical work- one of the main forms of a simple labor process, which is characterized by a significant predominance of a person's physical load over mental. Working physically, a person uses muscle energy and strength to “activate” the means and tools of labor and partially “controls” this “action”.

Physical labor can require significant physical effort(lifting and moving weight) or high tension, when some movement must be performed in a high rhythm, or endurance if a certain action needs to be performed for a long time.

Brainwork- the second of the main forms of a simple labor process, which is characterized by the predominance of the mental (mental) load of a person over the physical (muscular). In the process of mental labor, a person mainly uses his intellectual capabilities. Mental work can also be reproductive, formulaic, routine, monotonous and uninteresting.

Technological progress reduces the role of physical labor in the production process and increases the role of mental labor. In this case, some problems disappear, but others inevitably arise.

The responsibility of the operator for the timely recognition of signal information and making the right decision (driver, locomotive driver, aircraft pilot, dispatcher, etc.), the speed of changing situations (airport dispatcher), the ongoing monotony of reproductive labor that requires attention and concentration (supermarket cashier), and much more put new problems of facilitating mental work on the agenda of the 21st century.

The nature of the organization of labor changes significantly when several people work together instead of one person. Everyone is well aware that the organization of the labor of one, two, three or more people is a completely different task, introducing its own problems into the planned implementation of a simple labor process.

However, the labor of a large number of people, labor in society differs significantly from the labor of one person not only in its organization, but also in the presence of social and labor relations associated with the simple process of labor.

These relations reflect the forms and methods of involvement in labor, the distribution of labor functions among people, the distribution of the product of labor and the participation of workers in the management of organizations; methods of maintaining labor discipline; ways to create healthy and safe working conditions, etc.

Man is a social being, and labor is the source of all wealth, and therefore has a dual character. It not only acts as a simple process of labor to transform the material world, but also as social attitude(often referred to as the social-labor relation) of the people participating (directly or indirectly) in it.

Social (or socio-economic) character labor due to the form of ownership of the means of production. On this basis, one distinguishes private labor(owner or tenant) and wage labor.

private labor- this is the labor of the owner of the means of production or their tenant for himself (and at his own peril and risk). At the same time, the social character of labor remains unchanged, regardless of whether the product of labor is intended for sale (commodity production) or for personal consumption (subsistence farming). The person engaged in this labor is at the same time the owner of the means of production, its organizer and executor (worker).

hired labor is labor employee(who owns only his labor force) in the interests of the employer ( employer), owning on the basis of ownership or lease the means of production and acting as the organizer of production. Such work is carried out for some kind of remuneration (most often wages). At the same time, the relationship between the employee and the employer can be considered as a transaction for the purchase and sale of labor (hiring) for labor market. For an employee, wage labor is a source of livelihood, and for an employer it is a source of profit, a source of wealth.

The worldwide and universal division of labor, the unrestrained growth of the scale of modern commodity production, led to the dominance of wage labor, often called professional work, i.e., labor in one profession or another.

Fundamentals of labor physiology

Like any other activity, labor activity is fraught with dangers, including for the life and health of a person employed in a simple labor process. To resist them, you need to know the features of the structure and functioning of the human body. This is the subject of the next question of our course.

Modern man has gone through a long evolutionary path of adaptation to the environment. The human body is a single whole, all systems and organs of which develop and function in mutual dependence and conditionality.

All body systems consist of various organs that are functionally interconnected with each other. Organs are built from various tissues, consisting of cells and intercellular substance, where various biochemical processes take place. Every organ has blood vessels, and most also have lymphatics. Nerves approach and branch out to all organs.

The musculoskeletal system forms the human musculoskeletal system and ensures the body's autonomy, the ability to make various movements and move in space. In addition, bones, muscles and skin protect internal organs from the direct effects of the external environment. In particular, the heart and lungs are protected by the chest and the muscles of the chest and back; abdominal organs (stomach, intestines, kidneys) - lower spine, pelvic bones, muscles of the back and abdomen; the brain is protected by the skull bone, and the spinal cord is hidden in the spinal canal.

The supporting, motor and protective functions are performed by the skeleton, which consists of 206 bones and their joints. The skeleton can be conditionally divided into two parts: the axial skeleton (bones of the head, neck and torso) and the accessory skeleton (bones of the upper and lower extremities and their girdle - shoulder and pelvis).

Bones consist of spongy bone tissue, covered on the outside with a periosteum, the outer layer of which has a protective function, and the inner one contains nerve fibers and blood vessels. A simple bruise of the periosteum is fraught with damage and inflammation.

All bones are connected to each other. These joints can be divided into two groups: continuous joints, which do not have a cavity, and discontinuous joints, in which there is a cavity - joints. Continuous connections are formed with the help of connective tissue (the connection of the bones of the skull) or cartilage (the body of the vertebrae). Discontinuous connections - joints - are formed inside the articular bag, and the bones that form the joints are connected by very strong ligaments of connective tissue.

Everything in the human body is "designed" for normal everyday stress. With a sharp movement with a significant amplitude, the muscles and ligaments are stretched more than usual, and sprain. Individual fibers can even break, which causes severe pain and the formation of a bruise near the joint - a hematoma. Moreover, with an unsuccessful movement with a large amplitude in the “forbidden” direction, dislocation is possible - the exit of the articular head from the articular cavity, which is sometimes accompanied by sprains and muscles, and even rupture of the articular bag. Torn ligaments cause a lot of trouble, as they are very poorly restored.

Muscles are the anatomical structures with which movement is carried out. The key to this is their ability to contract under the influence of nerve signals. Muscles become maximally elastic when they are warm. Therefore, intensive physical work should always be started with a slight warm-up of the muscles. Warmed muscles should be protected from cooling, for example, by a draft. The effect of cold on warm muscles can lead to myositis (“cold” of the muscles), and even muscle neuralgia. After increased physical exertion, lactic acid accumulates in the muscles. In small amounts, this is normal. In large ones, lactic acid can cause irreversible damage to muscle tissue.

Muscles have tendons at both ends that attach them to bones. Tendons are able to withstand a large load when stretched. A damaged tendon, like a ligament, does not recover well, unlike a quickly healing bone.

The skeleton, together with the muscles, supports all other organs, gives the body a certain shape and position in space, and forms the motor apparatus. In this case, the bones of the skeleton play a passive role, and the striated muscles play an active role. Separate parts of the skeleton, for example, the cranium, spine, protect other organs (the brain and spinal cord) from mechanical influences. Many muscles perform the same protective role.

An important protective function in the body is performed by the skin and various mucous membranes that are in direct contact with the external environment. In addition to protective functions, the skin is involved in metabolism and thermoregulation.

The heart and blood vessels form a closed system through which blood moves due to contractions of the heart muscle and vessel walls. Blood vessels are divided into three main types: arteries, capillaries, and veins.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They branch into vessels of ever smaller diameter, through which blood enters all parts of the body. Closer to the heart, the arteries have the largest diameter (about the size of a thumb), in the extremities they are the size of a pencil. In the parts of the body farthest from the heart, the blood vessels are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. It is these microscopic vessels, capillaries, that supply cells with oxygen and nutrients. After that, the blood, loaded with metabolic end products, is sent to the heart through a network of vessels called veins, and from the heart to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs, as a result of which the blood is saturated with oxygen.

Damage to capillaries is an unpleasant fact, but not dangerous. Under normal conditions, bleeding from a damaged capillary stops within a few seconds. Damage to the artery threatens the rapid loss of large amounts of blood and death.

The heart is a powerful four-chamber muscular organ that pumps blood through a system of cavities and valves into the circulatory system. The heart located in the chest is quite reliably protected from most mechanical damage to the body. However, it is not protected from severe stress or emotional tension. Heart disease is one of the leading causes of human death.

The lymphatic system returns to the circulatory system tissue fluids that have not leaked into the capillaries. These fluids enter the lymphatic capillaries, then the lymph passes through the ducts to the lymph nodes, and from there to the subclavian vein.

The respiratory, digestive and excretory systems ensure the consumption of vital substances from the environment and the removal of metabolic products (biochemical processes of life).

The respiratory system carries out gas exchange between the body and the external environment - external respiration, which is called the exchange of gases between the blood flowing through the pulmonary circulation and the external environment. External respiration is carried out entirely in the alveoli of the lungs, which are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries. A small gas exchange (1-2% of the total value) is carried out through the skin and the gastrointestinal tract.

In the airways (nasal cavity, nasopharynx, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles), the air is cleaned of dust, moistened and heated to body temperature. The intake and removal of air from the lungs is provided by the action of the respiratory muscles (intercostal muscles), as well as the diaphragm and muscles of the shoulder girdle.

The digestive system supplies the human body with the main amount of nutrients (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, salts and vitamins) necessary for its synthesis processes and energy needs.

Undigested substances and metabolic products must be removed from the body, which is what the excretory system provides.

The main amount of substances that are unnecessary to the body, formed in the process of metabolism and as a result of the decay of the body's own structures, is removed through the gastrointestinal tract in the form of feces and gases.

Another way to excrete undigested substances and decay products of one's own tissues from the body is excretion (removal) with urine and sweat.

The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts. They produce chemicals called hormones that enter directly into the blood and have a regulatory effect on organs distant from their respective glands.

Anatomically, the nervous system consists of the central and peripheral. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system includes cranial and spinal nerves, as well as nerve nodes and plexuses outside the spinal cord and brain.

Incoming sensory information is processed by passing through specific pathways: for example, pain, visual or auditory nerve fibers. Sensitive pathways go in an upward direction to the centers of the brain. The result of the activity of the central nervous system is the activity, which is based on the contraction or relaxation of muscles or the secretion or cessation of secretion of glands.

The autonomic, or autonomic, nervous system regulates the maintenance of a relatively stable state of the internal environment of the body: a constant body temperature or blood pressure that meets the needs of the body. The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic.

The sympathetic system stimulates those processes that are aimed at mobilizing the body's forces in extreme situations or under stress. The parasympathetic system contributes to the accumulation or restoration of the body's energy resources.

The central nervous system regulates the activity of all organs, systems and the whole organism in accordance with the conditions of the external environment, changing the functioning of the work of individual organs and systems.

To put all systems into operation, the central nervous system must have information about the state of the external environment. This function (providing information) is performed by various analyzers and receptors of the sense organs.

Any analyzer consists of a receptor, nerve pathways and a brain end. Some of the receptors are adapted to perceive changes in the environment (exteroreceptors), and some - in the internal (interoreceptors). The receptor converts the energy of the stimulus into a nerve impulse. Pathways transmit nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex. There is a two-way connection between the receptors and the brain end, which ensures the self-regulation of the analyzer.

The visual analyzer plays an exceptional role in a person's life and his relationship with the outside world. With its help, we get the lion's share (about 90%) of information. Through vision, we almost instantly learn the shape, size, color of an object, determine the direction and distance to it. The visual analyzer includes the eye, the optic nerve and the visual center, located in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex.

The eye is a complex optical system, where the pupil is the limiter of the light flux carrying information. Depending on the brightness of the light, its size changes. Having entered the eye through the pupil, light rays, refracted on the surface of the eyeball, in the cornea, lens and vitreous body, converge on the retina, giving an image of a visible object on it. The retina lines the back half of the eyeball and consists of light-sensitive receptors - rods and cones.

Cones and rods perform different functions. Cones allow you to clearly distinguish fine details and color of objects, but they require good illumination for this, and therefore provide the so-called "daytime" vision. "Night" vision is carried out with the help of retinal rods, which are able to respond to low light, but do not allow to distinguish fine details and color.

In addition, the eye gives us the opportunity to judge the spatial arrangement of objects in the external environment. Such an estimate of distances "by eye" is called an eye gauge.

Second in importance after the visual analyzer is auditory. Only it allows us to receive information out of sight (for example, from behind or in the dark) from various distances almost instantly.

The auditory analyzer responds to acoustic vibrations in the frequency range from 16 to 20,000 Hz. It helps us hear other people's speech.

The perceiving part of the sound analyzer is the ear, which consists of three sections: outer, middle and inner. Known to all, the outer ear consists of the auricle and the external auditory canal, tightened with an elastic tympanic membrane, which delimits the outer and middle ear. The middle ear cavity communicates with the nasopharyngeal cavity through the Eustachian tube, through which air passes into the middle ear cavity during swallowing. The inner ear is distinguished by the most complex device and is located in the thickness of the temporal bone of the skull. It is there that the receptors are located that perceive irritation and cause a nerve impulse, which is transmitted to the corresponding section of the cerebral cortex, where the auditory representation is synthesized.

The next analyzer - the sense of smell - also allows you to receive information from great distances, but representatives of the animal world are much better at it than humans. Olfactory receptors are located in the nose and perceive the smallest amount of a substance in the air, which is felt as a smell.

Another analyzer - taste - allows you to get information about the quality of food. We sense taste with receptors located on the tongue and oral mucosa.

Another analyzer is touch, by which we mean the sensations that arise when a stimulus is directly applied to the surface of the skin.

The tactile analyzer perceives touch and pressure on skin receptors. The skin of different parts of the body has different sensitivity, it is highest at the tips (pads) of the fingers. The receptors of the tactile analyzer allow us to confidently distinguish the localization of even a short-term touch. However, touch does not prevent us from sitting or lying down for hours, because a characteristic feature of the tactile analyzer is the rapid development of adaptation to the stimulus, that is, the disappearance of the feeling of touch or pressure.

The temperature sensitivity of the skin is provided by two types of receptors - cold and heat.

The spatial distribution of pain receptors is interesting. There are many of them where there are few tactile receptors, and vice versa. Pain receptors cause a withdrawal reflex from the stimulus, because a painful stimulus is a danger. Under the influence of pain, the body quickly mobilizes to fight the danger, the work of all body systems is rebuilt.

The analyzers discussed above are so important and have long been known to man that he called them sense organs: sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. But besides them, a person has other analyzers and receptors.

The human brain receives information not only from the environment, but also from the body. Sensitive nervous apparatuses are present in all internal organs. Reacting to external conditions, they give the signals necessary to regulate the activity of internal organs.

Important analyzers are proprioceptors, which allow you to feel muscle tension and the spatial arrangement of the body and limbs.

The presence of a person with two hands provided him with the possibility of activity. To do this, our ancestor had to stand on two legs from four paws. According to the laws of physics, the vertical position is completely unstable, and therefore it is skillfully maintained by the body with the help of the vestibular apparatus. Violation of the function of the vestibular analyzer can cause dizziness and nausea (seasickness).

Despite the difference in the diverse receptors and analyzers, their functioning has much in common, since they all developed in the process of evolution as a defense system.

In the real conditions of terrestrial habitation, a person is affected by a lot of very different, often weak, irritants. In the course of evolution, a person has developed the ability to perceive only those stimuli, the intensity of which reaches a certain value. Such a minimum adequately perceived value is usually called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity or the threshold of perception. At the same time, perception with respect to the onset of exposure to the stimulus is always delayed by some time, called the latent (latent) period.

Above the threshold of perception, the intensity of sensations slowly increases with increasing intensity of the stimulus, and their relationship can be approximately expressed by the Weber–Fechner logarithmic law.

High stimulus values ​​are rare in nature and are usually associated with a hazard about which the organism must be "warned". Therefore, with an increase in the intensity of the stimulus, there always comes a moment when the sensation is replaced by a special signal of danger - pain, from which the body wants only one thing - to get rid of, and, getting rid of it, saves itself from danger. Such a maximum adequately perceived value of the stimulus is usually called the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity or pain threshold.

The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately felt value (from the perception threshold to the pain threshold) determines the sensitivity range of the analyzer. Within its sensitivity range, the analyzer may no longer distinguish between two different, but close in intensity, stimuli. Assessing this ability of the analyzer, they speak of a differential threshold (or threshold of discrimination), which is understood as the minimum difference between the intensities of two stimuli, causing a barely noticeable difference in sensations.

Like everything in the living world, threshold values ​​are not strictly stable and should be considered as statistical averages.

In real conditions of activity, several stimuli simultaneously act on each analyzer of a person.

We emphasize that the division of the entire set of analyzers into separate systems is rather conditional. These systems clearly differ only in their receptors. In the vast majority of cases, a change in the nature of the organism's vital activity in response to a change in environmental conditions occurs with the participation of several analyzers, and then it is practically impossible to draw a clear line between them. For example, the vestibular apparatus, gravireceptors and proprioreceptors of muscles, tactile receptors of the skin, receptors of the organ of vision take part in the regulation of posture. In addition, in this case, all analyzer systems have the same actuator - the musculoskeletal system. It is even more difficult to single out individual analyzers in the case when the choice of reaction to an external disturbance is carried out consciously.

The human body and the external environment

The human body was formed in the course of a long evolution and is sufficiently adapted to the environment within its natural change. We feel normal and can live in winter and summer, in the cool of dawn and in the heat of noon, we can lie as if dead (with a minimum of energy), or we can run headlong, spending ten times more energy.

During the period of evolution, a number of specialized systems, fixed in the anatomical and physiological functioning, have developed in the human body, compensating for adverse changes in external conditions. Any change in environmental conditions automatically generates a corresponding change in life processes, mobilizing the body's defenses.

The changes in the body that occur under the influence of changes in the external environment are aimed, on the one hand, at adaptation (adaptation) to new environmental conditions, and on the other hand, at maintaining a stable state (homeostasis or homeostasis) and functioning.

Adaptation and homeostasis are interrelated and complementary processes, which are one of the most important features of all living systems. Without exaggeration, we can say that these are the main mechanisms for the safe functioning of the human body, which determine its health and even life.

Depending on the nature of the external influence and the individual characteristics of the internal environment of the body, the functional state of the latter can be in one of four “modes”:

1. Normal adaptation state to environmental conditions with sufficient reserves of functional capabilities of the body and maintaining homeostasis with a minimum voltage of regulatory systems. Such a functional state is optimal and comfortable for a person, and he can stay in it as long as he wants.

2. The state of intense satisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions with the expenditure of reserves of the body's functional capabilities and the maintenance of homeostasis due to the tension of regulatory systems. Such a functional state is acceptable for a person for a relatively short period, after which the body must return to a state of normal adaptation (state 1). Otherwise, the state of intense satisfactory adaptation will worsen and pass into the next state (3).

3. State of unsatisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions in case of insufficiency of the basic functional capabilities of the body and maintaining homeostasis due to the inclusion of additional - compensatory mechanisms. This condition is undesirable and without special measures it can easily worsen and move to the next state (4).

4. State of maladaptation(failure of adaptation mechanisms) with insufficient functional capabilities of the body, including compensatory ones, and violation of homeostasis. This condition requires urgent special intervention, otherwise it threatens the body with death.

Under normal conditions of a normally changing external environment, an organism that successfully copes with the need to adapt and maintain homeostasis is healthy (state 1). This state alternates with state 2 depending on environmental conditions.

When the body turns on the mechanisms of compensatory reactions to maintain homeostasis (state 3), we have to talk about the so-called "premorbid state" - the state of pre-illness. There are no clinical symptoms of the disease, as modern medicine understands it, but, unfortunately, it is impossible to say that a person is healthy.

When an organism cannot adapt to environmental conditions (state 4), it becomes ill and/or dies.

It follows from the foregoing that ensuring human security consists in such regulation of the external environment and the functioning of the internal environment of the body, which, under the influence of this external environment, allows the body to remain within its adaptive capabilities (states 1 and 2).

In addition to the above-described adverse conditions - diseases, a person in the course of his life is faced with the possibility of injury.

An injury is a violation of the anatomical integrity or physiological functions of human tissues or organs, caused by a sudden external impact with energy sufficient to injure.

Injury (sharp disturbance, as a rule, long-lasting) of mental processes is called mental trauma, or shock.

An injury that causes death is called fatal injury.

Injury is a consequence of exclusively external factors, but not the development of any processes in the body, and in this it differs from most diseases. However, with diseases such as acute poisoning, it is very similar. Poisoning is actually both a type of injury and a type of disease.

The death of a person stops his existence and is the most unfavorable phenomenon for us.

Death- irreversible cessation of the life of the body; stepwise process, including agony, clinical death, individual death and biological death.

Agony - the final moment of life preceding clinical death. Agony is characterized by a deep dysfunction of the higher parts of the brain with simultaneous excitation of the centers of the medulla oblongata. In some cases, the state of the body during agony is reversible.

clinical death- the borderline state of the body between life and death, in which there are no visible signs of life, the functions of the central nervous system fade away, but metabolic processes in the tissues remain. Clinical death lasts for a person for several minutes and through individual death passes into biological death.

individual death- the phase of dying, in which the death of brain cells occurs. At the same time, the organism (like a plant) still lives, but the personality traits and individualities have already been erased irrevocably. A person reanimated at this stage of death ceases to be fully what he was before, loses his "human" features.

biological death- complete cessation of all metabolic processes

in the body, irreversible changes in tissues and organs.

The science that studies changes in the functional state of the human body under the influence of his labor activity and substantiates the methods and means of organizing the labor process aimed at maintaining high performance and maintaining the health of workers is called physiology of work.

Tasks of labor physiology:

1. The study of the physiological patterns of labor activity.

2. Study of the physiological parameters of the body during various types of work.

3. Development of practical measures and recommendations aimed at optimizing the labor process (reducing fatigue, maintaining the health of workers, increasing efficiency, increasing labor productivity)

The concepts of working capacity, fatigue, overwork.

performance- this is the potential ability of a person to perform work of a certain volume and quality for a given time and with sufficient efficiency.

Working phases:

Phase 1 - the phase of workability (characterized by an increase in the activity of the central nervous system, an increase in the level of metabolic processes, an increase in the activity of the cardiovascular system, i.e. the level of working capacity gradually increases.).

Phase 2 - the phase of relatively stable performance (characterized by an optimal stable level of functioning of the central nervous system, stable work of all organs and systems of the body.)

Phase 3 - the phase of reduced performance (associated with the development of fatigue)

Fatigue- this is a state of the nervous system, in which, as a result of overexcitation of its individual sections, inhibition of conditioned reflexes (dynamic stereotype) and a decrease in working capacity occur.

Overwork- this is a pathological condition of the body (disease), which does not go away on its own after rest, but requires special treatment.