Communicative qualities of speech - such properties of speech that help organize communication and make it effective.
The communicative qualities of speech include: relevance of speech, accuracy, intelligibility of speech, purity of speech, richness and expressiveness, correctness.
Relevance- this is one of the most important communicative qualities of speech, because very often the success of the entire statement is determined by its appropriateness or inappropriateness.
Appropriate is the speech that corresponds to all the components of the communicative situation.Relevance is a communicative quality that, more than other qualities of speech, is focused on the situation of communication as a whole and, accordingly, more than others indicates the communicative competence of the addresser..
In this regard, relevance is a communicative quality that is transitional from ethical and communicative norms to speech norms, in relation to which relevance is distinguished in a broad and narrow sense.
Relevance in a broad sense reflects the observance of ethical and communicative norms in speech, its compliance with the main parameters of the communication situation, therefore this kind of manifestation of this quality is defined as situational relevance.
Relevance in the narrow sense involves the implementation of the named quality in the text, that is, an assessment of the appropriateness of using one or another speech means in a particular statement regarding the features of this speech work.
Both types of appropriateness of speech are determined primarily by ethical and communicative norms, and are manifested in speech in a linguistic form corresponding to all types of norms.
Relevance is situationalis an unconditional requirement of the culture of speech. Speech can only be effective when it is appropriate.
Situational relevance is mandatory for everyone in any field of communication and in any situation. The situational relevance/irrelevance of speech is determined by all the components of the communicative situation as a whole and for each separately, since they are all closely interconnected, but the inconsistency of speech with just one parameter can invariably make the whole speech inappropriate. This is the most important feature of this quality of speech.
Text relevance(relevance in the narrow sense) is associated with the choice of specific speech means within the framework of a communicative situation. Accordingly, textual relevance, in fact, is included in the situational as an integral part.
At the same time, textual relevance has its own characteristics associated with its speech nature and the fact that as a result of these features, this type of relevance is not unconditionally obligatory for compliance in speech, it allows a greater or lesser degree of manifestation in speech, as well as conscious and justifiable violations of this quality. This is what makes it possible to isolate the appropriateness of the use of one or another speech means within the framework of a given text as a special kind of manifestation of this quality of speech.
Relevance is a basic quality for the culture of speech, as it largely lays the foundation for its success. The difference between relevance and other communicative qualities of speech is that it often depends on the assessment of the relevance or inappropriateness of speech whether the speech itself will take place, since this quality of speech is laid down at the stage of predicting the speech activity itself from the point of view of how this or that speech situation is favorable for achieve these goals of communication.
Thus, relevance is a tool for assessing speech in relation to the situation of communication and text, both from the point of view of ethical and communicative norms, and from the point of view of the justification for using certain speech and language components in it.
Accuracy as a sign of speech culture is determined by the ability to think clearly and clearly, knowledge of the subject of speech and the laws of the Russian language. The accuracy of speech is most often associated with the accuracy of word usage, the correct use of polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms. When choosing lexical means, it is recommended to consider the following factors:
■meaning of the word;
■its ambiguity;
■compatibility with other words;
■emotionally expressive coloring;
■stylistic characteristic;
■scope of use.
Failure to comply with the basic criteria for the selection of lexical means leads to errors in word usage. The most typical of them are the following: the use of words in an unusual meaning; ambiguity not eliminated by the context, generating ambiguity; pleonasms and tautology; displacement of paronyms; errors in the stylistic evaluation of words; errors related to the compatibility of words, etc.
The accuracy of speech requires careful attention to homonyms, homophones, paronyms. What are they?
Homonyms- words that have the same spelling, pronunciation, but different meanings. For example: outfit -"referral to work" and outfit- "clothes", key- "source" and key- "master key".
Homophones differ from homonyms in that they only have the same sound, for example: the woods and fox.
Paronyms words are called that are different in meaning, but close in spelling and sound, for example: quorum- forum, excavator- escalator. Paronyms can be like words of the same root (misspelled and unsubscribe), as well as diverse (bison, large wild forest bull, and deer, large East Siberian deer). The indistinguishability of such words makes the speech inaccurate.
What will the students draw if the teacher tells them: “Draw a meadow”? Word meadow in the meaning of "a piece of land covered with grass, flowers" coincides in sound with homonyms onion- garden plant and onion- "weapon". Therefore, some can draw a man shooting from a bow, others an onion, others a meadow covered with daisies.
The sentences "He forgot about his glasses while playing" and "The boy
sent for grenades" are also ambiguous. This is because the words glasses and grenades have homonyms in Russian.
The inaccuracy of the sentences “Not a single injection that nurse Natasha makes is sick” and “He was a funny guy, as soon as he starts laughing, you won’t stop” is due to the fact that the speaker does not distinguish between paronyms sick and sickly, funny I'm funny."
L. N. Tolstoy said well about the need to monitor the accuracy of expressing one’s thoughts: “The only means of mental communication of people is the word, and in order for this communication to be possible, you need to use words in such a way that with each word, no doubt, they evoke in everyone relevant and precise concepts. This is what SPEECH ACCURACY means.
Conditions for achieving accuracy:
1) knowledge of the subject of speech - an aspect of general speech culture
2) knowledge of the language, its system, the opportunities that it provides (especially knowledge of the lexical system);
3) the ability to correlate knowledge of the subject with knowledge of the language system and its capabilities in a particular act of communication.
Accurate word usage is achieved primarily through the following speech skills associated with linguistic means:
- the ability to choose the right words from a synonymous series
- the ability to avoid speech inaccuracies due to inattention to the form of expression;
- the ability to distinguish between single-root words;
- the ability to distinguish between paronyms;
- the ability to use words of passive vocabulary.
Thus, we were convinced that inaccurate speech does not achieve (may not achieve) the set goal, does not have the necessary impact on the reader, and prevents the reader from correctly perceiving and evaluating the facts presented and the phenomena described.
So, the accuracy of speech is one of the main advantages of speech, the basis of its logic. At the same time, accuracy is a multifaceted quality. And conscious purposeful deviations from it are based on the observance of one of the main requirements of the culture of speech - the desire for expediency in the use of all means.
In the typology of the qualities of good speech, there is one that occupies a special place in its significance - this is relevance.
The relevance of speech is the correspondence of the content of speech, its language means to the goals and conditions of communication. Compliance with the demands of the situation, the requirements of speech etiquette accepted in society.
Speech and every word, any construction must be purposeful, stylistically appropriate. “Each of the speakers, (noted V.G. Belinsky), speaks in accordance with the subject of his speech, with the nature of the crowd listening to him, with the circumstances of the present moment.”
Relevance as a necessary quality of good speech was given more time in the oratory of the ancient Greeks and Romans, in the theory and practice of judicial and political eloquence, relevance is one of the central concepts in modern functional stylistics.
Aristotle in "Rhetoric", speaking about the quality of the style of public speaking, insistently draws the reader's attention to what is inappropriate in oratory. He considers "the use of epithets either long, or inappropriate, or in too large a number", the inappropriateness of the use of poetic phrases.
Aristotle showed the difference between written and oral speech (“... a special style is suitable for each type of speech, because the written speech and speech during a dispute, political speech and judicial speech are not the same style.”) in terms of the appropriateness of use in them certain methods of expressiveness, combinations of words.
Mark Tullius Cicero wrote: “As in life, so in speech, there is nothing more difficult than to see what is appropriate. Not for every social position, not for every degree of influence of a person, not for every age, just as not for every place and moment and listener, the same style is suitable, but in every part of speech, as well as in life, one must always have in view of what is appropriate, this is both from the essence of the matter that is being spoken about, and from the persons, both speaking and listening.
Relevance of speech (a special quality in a number of such as accuracy, expressiveness, and others). Moreover, one or another communicative quality, for example, accuracy, expressiveness, may lose its necessity without relying on relevance. The concept of good speech itself is relatively, has a functional nature and depends, in particular, on the appropriateness of certain language units, the methods of their organization, the features of use in this particular act of communication or a typical language situation - style.
Relevance is a special communicative quality of speech, which, as it were, regulates the content of other communicative qualities in a particular language situation. In the conditions of communication, depending on the specific speech situation, the nature of the message, the purpose of the statement, one or another communicative quality can be evaluated differently - positively or negatively. For example, a writer will not be able to create a "local flavor", convey the speech characteristics of persons of a certain profession, strictly following the requirements of purity of speech, which means that in this case, not compliance with the requirements of purity of speech, but, on the contrary, their violation will be positively evaluated.
The relevance of speech is understood as the strict correspondence of its structure to the conditions and tasks of communication, the content of the information expressed, the chosen genre and style of presentation, the individual characteristics of the author and the addressee.
Relevance is the functional quality of speech, it is based on the idea of the target setting of the statement. A.S. Pushkin formulated the functional understanding of the appropriateness of speech in this way: "True taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity."
Compliance with the appropriateness of speech presupposes, first of all, knowledge of the stylistic system of the language, the patterns of using language means in a particular functional style, which allows you to find the most appropriate way of expressing thoughts, transmitting information.
The relevance of speech also implies the ability to use the stylistic resources of the language, depending on the content of the utterance, the conditions and tasks of speech communication. "The ability to diversify the features of speech, changing the style in accordance with changing conditions, circumstances, goals, objectives, content of statements, themes, ideas, genre of a work, is necessary not only for the writer, but for everyone who uses literary speech."
And in this regard, it would be advisable to have the following aspects of the appropriateness of speech:
- A) stylistic relevance;
- B) contextual relevance;
- C) situational relevance;
- D) personal-psychological relevance.
A necessary condition for relevance, as well as other communicative qualities of speech, is a good knowledge and understanding of the subject of information, its volume and nature, tasks and goals. In addition, the general culture of the speaker (writer), his moral character, attitude towards the addressee, the ability to quickly navigate in changing communication conditions and bring the structure of speech in line with them, etc., are of no small importance.
In the linguistic literature of recent years, it is customary to single out stylistic, contextual, situational, and personal-psychological relevance, or relevance due to: a) extralinguistic and b) intralinguistic factors. In our opinion, it is not entirely appropriate to distinguish between the relevance due to extra- and intralinguistic factors: these concepts are closely related to each other, forming an inseparable unity. Extralinguistic factors determine the actual linguistic ones. In practice, it is difficult to distinguish between contextual and situational relevance. These are also largely interdependent concepts. In this manual, the appropriateness is stylistic, situational-contextual and personal-psychological (taking into account extra- and intralinguistic factors).
Lecture 2
Communicative qualities of speech
1.Speech communication
2. Qualities of good speech: relevance, correctness, purity, accuracy, clarity, brevity, richness, expressiveness
1. Communication ( lat. I make common, connect) - purposeful interaction of people. The main means of communication is speech, i.e. the activity itself (speaking, listening, writing, reading) and its result (statement, text).
Speech communication consists of a speech event, speech situation and speech interaction. Speech event refers to speech and communication conditions.
A speech situation is a situation in which an utterance is generated. The components of the speech situation are the time and place of the utterance, as well as the participants in communication (the speaker and the listener). The rules for conducting a conversation and the nature of statements depend on the speech situation.
Speech interaction is the interaction of the speaker and the listener, which is carried out on the basis of knowledge of the subject of speech (reality) and the language that allows information to be transmitted. The center of communicative interaction is a statement that is built on the basis of extralinguistic factors (knowledge of the subject of speech, the object of reality) and the language code.
Building an utterance, taking into account the speech situation and the communicative goal, is the key to successful communication.
Communicative qualities of speech (qualities of good speech)
Communicative qualities of speech (qualities of good speech) are speech properties that ensure optimal communication between the parties, i.e. the relative unity of the intention of the addresser and the perception of the speech work by the addressee. The addresser (author) formulates his intention in speech, the addressee perceives the speech and deciphers the author's intention.
Correctness of speech- a communicative quality that arises on the basis of the correlation of speech and language. The correctness of speech is the correspondence of its linguistic structure to the current language norms: the norms of pronunciation, word formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic and stylistic.
Speech Accuracy- an important communicative quality that ensures understanding of the thoughts of the speaker by the interlocutor. Speech that corresponds to reality (objective accuracy) and the author's intention (conceptual accuracy) can be considered accurate. Speech becomes accurate only when the author of the speech, on the one hand, knows exactly what and what he wants to say, what he wants to achieve with his speech, and on the other hand, based on a conscious understanding of his speech task, he selects from all possible language and speech means, those that allow the most successful solution of this problem.
In the book by O.A. Baeva "Oratory and business communication" provides an interesting example that shows how important the accuracy of speech is. During the Great Patriotic War, the radio operator transmitted the message “The Germans are coming back!” to the headquarters. The headquarters realized that the Nazis were retreating. The radio operator used the word "back" in the meaning of "again", as a result of which the Soviet soldiers, left without reinforcements, were defeated.
Mixing paronyms can also lead to a violation of the accuracy of speech. For example, the expression "This method has been tested" has the meaning "This method has been approved." If the speaker uses such a formulation in order to report that this method was used in practice, the accuracy of speech is violated, since the expressed meaning does not correspond to the author's thought.
Logic of speech communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and thinking. Logical speech can be called, which corresponds to the laws of logic.
Law of Identity reads: each thought of the text, when repeated, must have a definite, stable content. Thought in the process of reasoning must be identical to itself.
The following errors at the level of the logic of concepts are associated with the violation of this law:
Substitution of the concept (full and partial): The language of Sholokhov's heroes is different from all other heroes;
Unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept (Reason - confusion of generic and specific concepts): We read the works and poems of A.S. Pushkin;
Fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts: The students read the ideas of this politician;
Comparison of logically heterogeneous concepts: Looking for a husband. I'm still young. Height is tall, waist is thin. The farm also has a tractor (announcement).
Typical errors at the level of the logic of judgments are the uncertainty of the topic; slipping off the topic (replacement of the subject of presentation, inconsistency of the answer with the question, argument with the thesis, inconsistency of the title with the topic of the text); missing a semantic link ( Rent an apartment with a child).
The consistency and consistency of the text is ensured the law of non-contradiction, the essence of which is that two opposite judgments about the same object, taken in the same relation (the object is characterized from one point of view) at the same time, cannot be true at the same time. One of the statements is false.
The law of contradiction is violated in the sentence This story has been going on for almost a year. It started in 1998. (Publication 2005).
Law of the excluded middle helps to determine which of the opposite propositions is true. The Law of the Excluded Middle is formulated thus : of two opposite judgments about the same subject, taken simultaneously in the same relation, one is necessarily true. There is no third.
The law of sufficient reason is thata true thought must be substantiated by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven.
The discrepancy between the premise and the consequence is observed in the following text: The forest was quiet. Nearby, an oriole sang a lyrical song in a sonorous voice, flying from tree to tree. Somewhere in the distance, an invisible cuckoo was chirping.
Appropriateness of speech communicative quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of language means to the conditions of communication. The relevance of speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, the composition of listeners or readers, informational, educational, aesthetic and other tasks of a written or oral presentation. Appropriateness of speech covers different levels of the language(the use of phrases, grammatical categories and forms, syntactic constructions and entire compositional speech systems).
Distinguish the appropriateness of speech textual and situational. Text relevance lies in the expediency of using one or another speech means in a particular utterance. Speech means should correspond to the genre and functional style of the text. For example, words and expressions of official business style are inappropriate in colloquial speech: Due to the lack of discipline, our class did not go to the cinema. K. Chukovsky, struggling with clericalism, in his book “Living Like Life” gives the following example: The student bends over the crying girl: “What are you crying about?”
situational relevance- the correspondence of the speech to the situation of communication, which is manifested in the construction of the statement, taking into account the interests of the addressee, the level of his education, mood, etc.
Richness of speech- the communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and language. The richness of speech refers to the diverse use of language means in speech to achieve the goal of communication. The richness of speech depends on the active and passive vocabulary of a person. Under active vocabulary is understood as a set of words that are used in speech. Under passive vocabulary- a set of words that are understandable to a native speaker, but he does not use them or uses them very rarely, as a rule, in a prepared speech. Words from a passive vocabulary can be converted to an active one through regular use in prepared speech. The richness of speech is achieved by the desire to diversify one's speech, by observing the speech of other people, reading books, etc.
The richness of speech depends on the level of language proficiency and on the content of speech. Intonational richness expressed in oral speech: in a change in the tempo of speech, voice volume, timbre, etc. Intonation allows you to express emotions: there is interrogative, declarative, exclamatory intonation, with the help of intonation, semantic relationships between segments of a sentence are expressed: intonation of clarification, explanation, enumeration, opposition, comparison, etc. Intonation is an important means of logical stress, which is necessary to highlight any piece of text.
Intonation allows you to convey many meanings using the same lexical and grammatical means. For example, the expression "Wonderful!" can sound both enthusiastic and ironic. Intonational richness is closely related to lexical, semantic and syntactic richness.
Lexical wealth manifested in the use of non-repeating language means that carry a semantic load. The lexical richness of speech depends on the vocabulary of the participants in communication. Lexical richness also reflects the informative saturation of the text, i.e. saturation with thoughts, feelings of the author.
Grammatical richness- a variety of morphological and syntactic means that are used in speech.
Semantic richness- a wealth of meanings that can be expressed in speech using linguistic means. Semantic richness is created by connecting words to each other. The basis of semantic richness is the richness of additional emotional, evaluative, stylistic, associative meanings.
The richness of speech is understood not only as a variety of language means, but also as their appropriateness and expediency.
Poverty of speech can manifest itself in the following: 1) inappropriate repetition of the same word in a small text; 2) in the use of close or closely related words (the writer wrote this work for ten years); 3) in the uniformity of syntactic constructions:
The richness of speech allows you to select words depending on the audience. The richness of speech helps to make speech clear, concise, precise.
Clarity of speech
Clarity of speech is a communicative quality of speech that arises on the basis of the ratio of speech and its perception. Clear speech is the meaning of which is understood by the addressee without difficulty. The basis of clarity of speech is accuracy and consistency.
Clarity of speech is such a communicative quality that always depends on the addressee, his erudition, education, etc. What can lead to slurred speech?
Inaccurate word usage can lead to ambiguity ( The cart shakes on the cobblestones of the dirt road. Dirt road - unpaved road, unpaved road), the use of two contradictory words in one sentence ( very pretty; exactly, probably), missing a semantic link ( Rent an apartment with a child).
The cause of ambiguity may also be the use of terms unknown to the addressee. Therefore, in educational and scientific texts, the meaning of terms is given in the main text or in footnotes, a post-text dictionary, etc. In journalism, a descriptive explanation, figurative analogy, and the use of a synonym are possible. Speech practice has developed several ways of explaining words.
The most rational way of interpreting words is considered boolean definition(definition), i.e. definition of the concept through the nearest genus and specific difference. For example, Logic is the science of the laws and forms of correct thinking. First of all, the genus of the concept being defined is named, the answer to the question “what is it?” is given. - the science. Then the signs of the species concept of the same genus are indicated - about the laws and forms of correct thinking.
Common is synonymous way, i.e. explanation using the selection of synonyms or a whole synonymic series: restoration restoration, confrontation - opposition, confrontation, clash. This method allows, through a word familiar to listeners, to reveal the meaning of a new term or concept for them.
In some cases it is advisable to use descriptive way, in which the meaning of the word is conveyed by describing the very object, concept, phenomenon. Often, the speaker puts his understanding of this concept into such an interpretation.
When interpreting a word, it is useful to refer to its origin, etymology. This allows you to better understand the essence of the words used, their exact meaning, the boundaries of application. No wonder the term "etymology" itself comes from two Greek words: etymon - "true, true" and logos - "meaning". The unmotivated use of jargon, dialectisms, neologisms and obsolete words can also lead to ambiguity of speech. The understanding of these words largely depends on the context (context plays an explanatory role).
B.S. Muchnik identifies the following errors that lead to a violation of the clarity of speech: a shift in logical stress, a misunderstanding of the meaning of a word form, an erroneous semantic connection of words, and an erroneous semantic separation of words.
Logical stress is the intonational emphasis of the word, the meaning of which must be emphasized in the statement. How is logical stress conveyed in writing? used positional method, i.e. moving a word into a stressed position in a sentence. Such a position is the end of the sentence and the position before the comma, bracket, dash.
Logical stress can be transferred in a lexical way: with the help of releasing particles and, indeed, even in position before the word to be highlighted in the sentence ( He didn't even know it); clarifying synonyms (the second of two adjacent synonyms is perceived as stressed: We cannot, we have no right to forget about it. The logical stress is perceived on the second of the two synonyms, because at the time of reading the first synonym, we still do not know what the second will be next); adverbs of measure and degree ( very, extremely, very, completely, absolutely etc.), repetition of the same word ( We, we have to do it) or single-root words ( She ate her stepdaughter) oppositions ( This book is not here, but there).
To convey logical stress in writing, and are used graphic aids: font (italic), acute (accent), exclamation point in brackets, dash (where, according to the rules of punctuation, it should not be: Class - rejoiced - it is not known why). If the listed means are not used to highlight a word in a sentence, then there may be ambiguity in the statement when reading it for the first time ( Davydov's speeches are striking in their logic and clarity of argument. To tell the people the truth, even the most bitter, was the law for Davydov).
Misunderstanding the meaning of the word form can lead to speech ambiguity: "Mother loves daughter"(Is the word "mother" a subject in a sentence or an object?) , "What generates such a choice?"(What are the reasons for such a choice? or What are the consequences of such a choice?).
Very often, when reading a sentence, an erroneous semantic connection is established between words, i.e. connection that does not correspond to the author's intention.
Which sentences contain such errors?
1. In constructions with the allied word "which": We bought flowers for our parents, which we really liked.
2. In constructions with the genitive case: We read the description of the fascist atrocities by Ilya Ehrenburg.
3. In constructions with adverbial turnover: People were evacuated from the hall, fearing the collapse of the ceiling.
4. In constructions with participial revolutions: Dozens of university students sent to agricultural work did not arrive at their destination.
5. In sentences with homogeneous members: They wished him to get rid of the disease and long life.
6. In constructions with the allied word "where": Sergei Ivanovich was sitting in a room with a book, which he took from a chest of drawers, where it was cold and uncomfortable.
To eliminate the erroneous semantic connection of words, it is necessary:
§ bring together elements that should be related in meaning;
§ insert a word that is suitable in meaning between the elements of an erroneous semantic connection;
§ replace one of the elements of the erroneous semantic connection with a synonym;
§ divide the sentence at the place where the erroneous semantic connection occurs. Submit two separate proposals.
In addition to the erroneous semantic connection of words, sometimes there is a mistaken semantic separation of words, those. the reader or listener does not combine in meaning the words that were combined in the mind of the writer or speaker: It was cold in the winter quarters, the heat was kept only as long as the stove was heated.(S. Voronin. In the taiga).
Shortness of speech- the communicative quality of speech, which consists in the proportionality of the content of speech to its volume. This communicative quality is violated if the speaker or writer has a poor vocabulary, which leads to unjustified speech repetitions ( There were twenty students. At the same time we saw two), the use of superfluous words in search of the right one. Violation of the brevity of speech may be associated with a lack of thoughts, ignorance of the subject of speech and the desire to speak beautifully at the same time (For example, a student's answer to a question in an exam that is poorly studied).
Expressiveness of speech- this is the communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the relationship between speech and aesthetics. The expressiveness of speech is necessary to attract the attention of listeners, readers to the subject of speech.
The expressiveness of speech exists in two varieties: logical and emotional. The first is typical for "strict" styles of speech - official business and scientific, the second - for journalistic, artistic, colloquial speech. Within the second variety, such a quality of speech as figurativeness stands out - the creation of visual-sensory images by means of language and speech. Both logical and emotional expressiveness can be realized in an open and hidden way. Open consists in the use of intonational and lexical means, i.e. external techniques, the hidden method involves special grammatical means - conciseness, placement of material in the text, sentence constructions.
The expressiveness of speech is supported by special language and speech means, which include tropes and figures of speech. Tropes are means of expression based on the transfer of meaning and, as a result, the combination of meanings in the same form. The generally accepted and new meanings are combined, and an image appears - a non-standard, expressive representation of the signified. The most common trails are as follows.
Metaphor- the main trope, which consists in transferring the properties of one object to another according to the principle of their similarity:
personification - verbal representation of an inanimate object in the form of a living one: prices are rising.
Metonymy - the main trope of adjacency, the use of the word in a figurative sense based on the adjacency of concepts: oil conflict instead of conflict over oil.
Synecdoche - a kind of metonymy based on quantitative relations, replacing the name of the whole with the name of the part and vice versa: labor penny saves the ruble.
Hyperbola- a trope based on deliberate exaggeration: The table is bursting with food.
Litotes- a trope consisting in a deliberate understatement: Not a penny left in the treasury.
Irony- a trope in which a word or phrase acquires a meaning opposite to the literal meaning. Irony can be conveyed through intonation, as well as the context in which the statement is used. Irony is often used in the fables of I.A. Krylov: Where, smart, are you wandering, head?(Appeal to the donkey). Irony is a common technique in colloquial speech: Original! You can't imagine better! What a creative approach!
Allegory - allegory, detailed assimilation, developing into a system of hints; from socially recognized allegories, a symbolism is formed that is characteristic of a given society: on the example of fables, images-symbols of diligence, thrift - a bee, power - a lion, etc. have developed.
paraphrase- replacing a word with a descriptive expression: northern capital instead of Petersburg.
If a new name arises as a synonym for an already existing name in the language and figurativeness is the meaning of its creation, then the widespread use of figurative nomination can lead to its negative perception, which is denoted by the term "stamp". For example, expressions have become stamps black gold(oil), people in white coats(doctors), etc.
Figures of speech are techniques based on the juxtaposition of linguistic units in the text, i.e. special ways of constructing sentences. Figures of speech are divided into two types - semantic and syntactic. Semantic figures of speech are formed by the juxtaposition of words, phrases or larger segments of text, interconnected by similarity, contrast, incompatibility, increase or decrease in the intensity of meaning. These include the following figures of speech.
Comparison - differs from a trope (metaphor) in that both compared components are indicated in the comparison: Advertising is like a deal: product information is the product, and the viewer's time is money..
Antithesis- opposition: Strong governor - great rights, weak governor - no rights. The antithesis has good expressive properties and is often used to structure the entire text.
Similar information.
Accuracy
The accuracy of speech is the communicative quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of its semantic side to the reflected reality and the communicative intention of the speaker. The accuracy of speech depends on the correctness of word usage, the ability to choose the necessary synonym, accounting ambiguity and homonymy the correct combination of words. Accuracy as a sign of speech culture is determined by the ability to think clearly and clearly, knowledge of the subject of speech and the laws of the Russian language. The accuracy of speech is most often associated with the accuracy of word usage, the correct use of polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms.
Causes of violation of the accuracy of speech: syntactic homonymy unnoticed by the speaker, the use of long grammatical constructions of the same type, violation word order in a sentence, sentence clutter separate turnovers and insert structures, speech redundancy and insufficiency.
The accuracy of speech is achieved on the basis of clear ideas about the meanings of words, the ability to accurately use synonyms, to distinguish contexts the use of a multi-valued word.
Meaning of the word,
Its ambiguity
Matching with other words
Emotionally expressive coloring,
stylistic feature,
scope of use,
Grammar structure, feature of affixes.
Failure to comply with the basic criteria for the selection of lexical means leads to errors in word usage. The most typical of them are the following: the use of words in an unusual meaning; polysemy not eliminated by the context, generating ambiguity; pleonasms and tautology; displacement of paronyms; errors in the stylistic evaluation of words; errors associated with the compatibility of words; the use of satellite words, words in a universal sense, etc.
Let's consider several situations.
The student, standing at the blackboard, makes excuses: “I know this, but I can’t say it.”
Some will say: "This can be." However, the answerer at the blackboard only seems to know. In reality, his information about the subject is fragmentary, unsystematic, and superficial. Probably, when he read a textbook, listened to a teacher at a lesson, he did not get into the essence of the issue, did not understand the logic of the subject, did not comprehend what its specificity is, what are the distinguishing features. In this case, some fragmentary information remains in the memory, a vague idea, and it seems that you know, but you just cannot say.
Others judge differently: “No! This cannot be. If a person understands the issue, has studied the subject well, then he will be able to talk about it. This is correct. In order for speech to be accurate, it is necessary to constantly expand your horizons, strive to become an erudite person.
Next situation.
People's Artist Arkady Raikin created on stage a parody image of Fedya the propagandist, whose speech is devoid of elementary logic:
“The new chief is twenty-four years old, he is forty-second year of birth, the old one is also twenty-four, but he is thirty-sixth year of birth ... In the sponsored collective farm, two of ours reaped the best fruits: they loaded manure. One engineer took the veil as a monk and goes to work like this... People need to be taken to museums and shown by the example of a primitive man how far we have come off... I turn to sports.
The violation of logic in the speaker's speech is obvious.
But here is an example from the speech of a professional lecturer who, teaching lecturing skills, said:
1. Impeccable knowledge of Russian grammar.
2. Knowledge of literature about oratory, about the culture of speech.
3. Possession of orthoepic norms, i.e., a clear pronunciation of every sound, every word, every phrase, the correct placement of stress, the perfect pronunciation of sounds, and so on.
4. Skillful use of language visual means.
What is the violation of logic here? To what/to whom can the demands that the lecturer speaks about be made? Only to the lecturer himself, and not to his speech, since speech cannot “perfectly know grammar”, “know the literature on oratory”, “own orthoepic norms”, “be able to use expressive means”.
The logic is not broken if you say:
“The requirements for a lecturer's speech can be briefly summarized as follows:
1) it must be literate, comply with the norms of the literary language;
2) figurative, expressive;
3) informative;
4) causing interest.
Violation of the logical sequence, lack of logic in the presentation leads to inaccurate speech.
Third situation.
Friends conversation:
Borrow me two hundred roubles.
I don't know who.
I ask you to take me!
I understand that you are asking me. But tell me who?
Why do the facilitators of the dialogue not understand each other? One of them does not know the culture of speech, makes a mistake. It should have said: “Lend me a loan” or “Lend me a loan”, “Lend”, because the verb borrow means “to borrow”, not “to lend”. Thus, the accuracy of speech is due to the accuracy of word usage.
Right
The correctness of speech is the observance of the current norms of the Russian literary language. The correctness of speech is the quality of speech, consisting in the correspondence of its sound (spelling), lexical and grammatical structure to the literary norms accepted in the language. Correctness is the basic quality of speech, which provides speech with other, more complex qualities, such as expressiveness, richness, logic.
The correctness of speech is achieved through knowledge of the norms of the literary language and their careful application in the construction of speech.
Appropriateness of speech
The relevance of speech is a strict correspondence of the structure and stylistic features of speech to the conditions and tasks of communication, the content of the information expressed, the chosen genre and style of presentation, and the individual characteristics of the author and addressee. The relevance of speech implies the ability to use the stylistic resources of the language in accordance with the situation of communication. Allocate appropriateness stylistic, contextual, situational and personal-psychological.
The relevance of speech is ensured by a correct understanding of the situation and knowledge of the stylistic features of words and stable turns of speech.
Purity of speech
The purity of speech is the absence of superfluous words, weed words, non-literary words (slang, dialect, obscene words) in it.
The purity of speech is achieved on the basis of a person's knowledge of the stylistic characteristics of the words used, the thoughtfulness of speech and the ability to avoid verbosity, repetition and weed words (meaning, so to speak, so, in fact, as it were, type).
Logic of speech
The logic of speech is the logical correlation of statements with each other.
Logic is achieved through careful attention to the whole text, the coherence of thoughts and a clear compositional intent of the text. Logical errors can be eliminated when reading the finished written text; in oral speech, it is necessary to remember well what has been said and consistently develop the thought.
stylistic relevance;
contextual relevance;
situational relevance;
personal-psychological relevance.
Style relevance- the appropriateness of a word, turnover, construction, predetermined and regulated by the style of the language.
Each of the functional styles has its own specifics, its own laws of selection and use of language material. The specificity of the style is predetermined by the so-called style-forming features. Unmotivated transfer of language units characteristic of a particular style to other communication conditions is a violation stylistic relevance.
In a statement relating to artistic style Before Mtsyri opened newNatural resources , misused phrase Natural resources belonging to the official business style.
In an article from the newspaper "Vostochno-Sibirskie Vesti" we read: Today the second ice expedition on Baikal took place. The conclusions are even sadder:completely hana comes like a beast. In this case, the author violates stylistic relevance by using the colloquial expression completely hana in a text written in a journalistic style.
A specific means that violates stylistic relevance are the words and expressions used by the speaker in order to give his speech significance, weight. A person who does not know the literary language well enough, being in an unusual official situation for himself or when changing the situational conditions of communication, uses the so-called bureaucracy- words and expressions characteristic of the official business style, but used in a different style environment and not carrying a special style load.
There is a lack of spare parts.
You have no reason to speak to me in that tone.
I waited a long time for the bus, which is why I was late.
The appropriateness of speech implies the justified use of language units belonging to a certain type of literary language. Therefore, you should be careful when using language features that belong to a different style.
Contextual relevance
The appropriateness of using a separate language unit is necessarily subject to such a factor as context, i.e. speech environment.
The context is not a random set of words, it is an integral conglomeration consisting of linguistic means, united by a common communicative task, and therefore, suggesting the unity of the content plan and the expression plan. Therefore, each language tool in a certain context must be subject to the requirements that form its integrity.
The organizing principle in the formation of contextual relevance is the emotionally expressive stylistic coloring of 31 language units. Emotionally expressive coloring is associated with the expression of evaluation: positive ( inspiration, valiant, destiny) or negative ( brainless, window dressing, defoamer).
In the case of rapprochement, mixing in the context of words of different stylistic coloring, one can state a violation of communicative expediency, which means a violation of contextual relevance.
If your password is simple, you give almost anyone the opportunity to read your personal mail plusfree Internet access.
Stress will not defeat you if you face it head on.Get high from life! Enjoy life!
You think of me better than I really am, for I am a simple, unsophisticatedyap .
The authorities said they were tired of fightingfilthy terrorists.
situational relevance
The relevance of speech is found not only when choosing stylistically colored units - we can talk about relevance in a speech situation. Situational relevance is violated by a replica-wish uttered by the unlucky hero of a fairy tale, who was ordered to wish people more than they have at the time of the speech: “ Drag you, don't drag". So he wishes them drag - do not drag» the coffin with the dead, which they are now carrying, and at the same time they do not think that he thereby violates the norms of society.
Thus, situational relevance regulates speech not only from a linguistic, but also a social point of view, thereby controlling the speech behavior of the communicants.
A 5th grade student should not know what is predicative sentence stem, so the task given to him by a student-trainee at a Russian language lesson Find the predicative basis of the sentence, stuns the child, he is lost, answering at the blackboard, he is afraid that his answer does not meet the requirements of the teacher (formulating this, of course, within his own understanding), the attention of the other students is scattered, noise begins in the class. And all this happens as a result of a violation by the novice teacher of situational relevance.
The situation that occurred at the New Year's party in kindergarten, in the younger group, is similar. The teacher, dressed in a Santa Claus costume, addresses three-year-old kids: And now, children, together with me we will shout to my granddaughter Snegurochka. And where does she hang around with us?
Situational relevance is closely related to personal-psychological relevance.
At the lesson, the teacher, addressing the class, says: I asked you to shut up, but you did not respond properly to this remark of mine, which not only violates the appropriateness in this situation, but also offends the listeners.
Personal-psychological relevance
The speaker must always consider how his speech will affect the listener. The ability to find the right words, intonation in a given communication situation is the key to successful interlocutor relationships.
Personal-psychological relevance is the appropriateness of the use of speech means by an individual in accordance with his sensitive, benevolent and respectful attitude towards people. Examples of violations of personal-psychological appropriateness are given below.
You, grandmother, would sit at home, watch your TV shows, otherwise you roam back and forth, preventing people from working!
If you don't take off those trinkets right now, you won't even stick your nose out into the street.
Ah, girl! You're so cute, just a little bit stupid.
“When speaking with an interlocutor, speaking to an audience, we not only communicate information, but also voluntarily or involuntarily convey our attitude to reality, to the people around us. Therefore, it is important to take care of how our speech will affect the interlocutor - whether it will injure with rudeness, whether it will humiliate his dignity" [Golovin: 252].
