What were the rules of the laws of classicism. Artistic principles of literature of classicism

1. Introduction.Classicism as an artistic method...................................2

2. Aesthetics of classicism.

2.1. Basic principles of classicism .................................…………….….....5

2.2. The picture of the world, the concept of personality in the art of classicism...…...5

2.3. Aesthetic nature of classicism .............................................................. ........9

2.4. Classicism in painting ....................................................... .........................fifteen

2.5. Classicism in sculpture .............................................................. .......................16

2.6. Classicism in architecture ............................................................... .....................eighteen

2.7. Classicism in Literature .................................................................. .......................twenty

2.8. Classicism in music .............................................................. ...............................22

2.9. Classicism in the theater .............................................................. ...............................22

2.10. The originality of Russian classicism .............................................................. ....22

3. Conclusion……………………………………...…………………………...26

Bibliography..............................…….………………………………….28

Applications ........................................................................................................29

1. Classicism as an artistic method

Classicism is one of the artistic methods that really existed in the history of art. Sometimes it is denoted by the terms "direction" and "style". Classicism (fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

The concept of classicism as a creative method implies a historically conditioned way of aesthetic perception and modeling of reality in artistic images: the picture of the world and the concept of personality, the most common for the mass aesthetic consciousness of a given historical era, are embodied in ideas about the essence of verbal art, its relationship with reality , its own internal laws.

Classicism arises and is formed in certain historical and cultural conditions. The most common research belief connects classicism with the historical conditions of the transition from feudal fragmentation to a single national-territorial statehood, in the formation of which the absolute monarchy plays a centralizing role.

Classicism is an organic stage in the development of any national culture, despite the fact that different national cultures go through the classic stage at different times, due to the individuality of the national variant of the formation of a general social model of a centralized state.

The chronological framework for the existence of classicism in different European cultures is defined as the second half of the 17th - the first thirty years of the 18th century, despite the fact that early classicist trends are palpable at the end of the Renaissance, at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Within these chronological limits, French classicism is considered the standard embodiment of the method. Closely associated with the flowering of French absolutism in the second half of the 17th century, it gave European culture not only the great writers - Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Lafontaine, Voltaire, but also the great theorist of classic art - Nicolas Boileau-Depreo. Being himself a practicing writer who earned fame during his lifetime with his satires, Boileau was mainly famous for creating the aesthetic code of classicism - the didactic poem "Poetic Art" (1674), in which he gave a coherent theoretical concept of literary creativity, derived from the literary practice of his contemporaries. Thus, classicism in France became the most self-conscious embodiment of the method. Hence its reference value.

The historical prerequisites for the emergence of classicism connect the aesthetic problems of the method with the era of aggravation of the relationship between the individual and society in the process of becoming an autocratic statehood, which, replacing the social permissiveness of feudalism, seeks to regulate the law and clearly distinguish between the spheres of public and private life and the relationship between the individual and the state. This defines the content aspect of art. Its main principles are motivated by the system of philosophical views of the era. They form a picture of the world and the concept of personality, and already these categories are embodied in the totality of artistic techniques of literary creativity.

The most general philosophical concepts present in all philosophical currents of the second half of the 17th - late 18th centuries. and directly related to the aesthetics and poetics of classicism - these are the concepts of "rationalism" and "metaphysics", relevant for both idealistic and materialistic philosophical teachings of this time. The founder of the philosophical doctrine of rationalism is the French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650). The fundamental thesis of his doctrine: "I think, therefore I exist" - was realized in many philosophical currents of that time, united by the common name "Cartesianism" (from the Latin version of the name Descartes - Cartesius). In essence, this is an idealistic thesis, since it derives the material existence from an idea. However, rationalism, as an interpretation of reason as the primary and highest spiritual ability of a person, is equally characteristic of the materialistic philosophical currents of the era - such as, for example, the metaphysical materialism of the English philosophical school of Bacon-Locke, which recognized experience as a source of knowledge, but put it below the generalizing and analytical activity of the mind, extracting from the multitude of facts obtained by experience the highest idea, a means of modeling the cosmos - the highest reality - from the chaos of individual material objects.

To both varieties of rationalism - idealistic and materialistic - the concept of "metaphysics" is equally applicable. Genetically, it goes back to Aristotle, and in his philosophical doctrine it denoted a branch of knowledge that explores the inaccessible to the senses and only rationally speculatively comprehended by the highest and unchanging principles of everything that exists. Both Descartes and Bacon used the term in the Aristotelian sense. In modern times, the concept of "metaphysics" has acquired an additional meaning and has come to denote an anti-dialectical way of thinking that perceives phenomena and objects without their interconnection and development. Historically, this very accurately characterizes the peculiarities of thinking of the analytical era of the 17th-18th centuries, the period of differentiation of scientific knowledge and art, when each branch of science, standing out from the syncretic complex, acquired its own separate subject, but at the same time lost its connection with other branches of knowledge.

2. Aesthetics of classicism

2.1. Basic principles of classicism

1. The cult of reason 2. The cult of civic duty 3. Appeal to medieval subjects 4. Abstraction from the image of everyday life, from historical national identity 5. Imitation of antique samples 6. Compositional harmony, symmetry, unity of a work of art 7. Heroes are carriers of one main feature, given outside development 8. Antithesis as the main technique for creating a work of art

2.2. Worldview, personality concept

in the art of classicism

The picture of the world generated by the rationalistic type of consciousness clearly divides reality into two levels: empirical and ideological. The external, visible and tangible material-empirical world consists of many separate material objects and phenomena that are not connected with each other in any way - this is a chaos of individual private entities. However, above this chaotic multitude of individual objects, their ideal hypostasis exists - a harmonious and harmonious whole, the universal idea of ​​the universe, which includes the ideal image of any material object in its highest, purified from particulars, eternal and unchanging form: in the way it should be according to original intention of the Creator. This general idea can only be comprehended in a rational-analytical way by gradually clearing an object or phenomenon from its specific forms and appearance and penetrating into its ideal essence and purpose.

And since the idea precedes creation, and the indispensable condition and source of existence is thinking, this ideal reality has the highest primary character. It is easy to see that the main patterns of such a two-level picture of reality are very easily projected onto the main sociological problem of the period of transition from feudal fragmentation to autocratic statehood - the problem of the relationship between the individual and the state. The world of people is the world of individual private human beings, chaotic and disorderly, the state is a comprehensive harmonious idea that creates a harmonious and harmonious ideal world order from chaos. It is this philosophical picture of the world of the XVII-XVIII centuries. determined such substantive aspects of the aesthetics of classicism as the concept of personality and the typology of conflict, universally characteristic (with the necessary historical and cultural variations) for classicism in any European literature.

In the field of human relations with the outside world, classicism sees two types of connections and positions - the same two levels that make up the philosophical picture of the world. The first level is the so-called "natural person", a biological being, standing along with all the objects of the material world. This is a private entity, possessed by selfish passions, disorderly and unrestricted in its desire to ensure its personal existence. At this level of human connections with the world, the leading category that determines the spiritual image of a person is passion - blind and unrestrained in its desire for realization in the name of achieving individual good.

The second level of the concept of personality is the so-called "social person", harmoniously included in society in his highest, ideal image, conscious that his good is an integral part of the common good. A “public person” is guided in his worldview and actions not by passions, but by reason, since it is reason that is the highest spiritual ability of a person, giving him the opportunity for positive self-determination in the conditions of a human community based on the ethical norms of consistent community life. Thus, the concept of the human personality in the ideology of classicism turns out to be complex and contradictory: a natural (passionate) and social (reasonable) person is one and the same character, torn apart by internal contradictions and in a situation of choice.

Hence - the typological conflict of the art of classicism, which directly follows from such a concept of personality. It is quite obvious that the source of the conflict situation is precisely the character of the person. Character is one of the central aesthetic categories of classicism, and its interpretation is significantly different from the meaning that modern consciousness and literary criticism puts into the term "character". In the understanding of the aesthetics of classicism, character is precisely the ideal hypostasis of a person - that is, not an individual warehouse of a particular human personality, but a certain universal view of human nature and psychology, timeless in its essence. Only in this form of an eternal, unchanging, universal human attribute could character be an object of classic art, unambiguously related to the highest, ideal level of reality.

The main components of character are passions: love, hypocrisy, courage, stinginess, a sense of duty, envy, patriotism, etc. It is by the predominance of one passion that the character is determined: “in love”, “stingy”, “envious”, “patriot”. All these definitions are precisely "characters" in the understanding of the classic aesthetic consciousness.

However, these passions are not equivalent to each other, although according to the philosophical concepts of the XVII-XVIII centuries. all passions are equal, since they are all from human nature, they are all natural, and it is not possible for any passion to decide which passion is consistent with the ethical dignity of a person and which is not. These decisions are made only by the mind. While all passions are equally categories of emotional spiritual life, some of them (such as love, avarice, envy, hypocrisy, etc.) are less and more difficult to agree with the dictates of reason and are more connected with the concept of selfish good. Others (courage, sense of duty, honor, patriotism) are more subject to rational control and do not contradict the idea of ​​the common good, the ethics of social ties.

So it turns out that reasonable and unreasonable passions, altruistic and egoistic, personal and public passions collide in conflict. And reason is the highest spiritual ability of a person, a logical and analytical tool that allows you to control passions and distinguish good from evil, truth from falsehood. The most common type of classic conflict is a conflict situation between personal inclination (love) and a sense of duty to society and the state, which for some reason excludes the possibility of realizing love passion. It is quite obvious that by its nature this is a psychological conflict, although a necessary condition for its implementation is a situation in which the interests of an individual and society collide. These most important ideological aspects of the aesthetic thinking of the era found their expression in the system of ideas about the laws of artistic creativity.

2.3. Aesthetic nature of classicism

The aesthetic principles of classicism have undergone significant changes during its existence. A characteristic feature of this trend is the worship of antiquity. The art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome was considered by the classicists as an ideal model of artistic creativity. Aristotle's "Poetics" and Horace's "Art of Poetry" had a great influence on the formation of the aesthetic principles of classicism. Here, there is a tendency to create sublimely heroic, ideal, rationalistically clear and plastically completed images. As a rule, in the art of classicism, modern political, moral and aesthetic ideals are embodied in characters, conflicts, situations borrowed from the arsenal of ancient history, mythology, or directly from ancient art.

The aesthetics of classicism oriented poets, artists, composers to the creation of works of art that are distinguished by clarity, logic, strict balance and harmony. All this, according to the classicists, was fully reflected in ancient artistic culture. For them reason and antiquity are synonymous. The rationalistic nature of the aesthetics of classicism manifested itself in the abstract typification of images, the strict regulation of genres and forms, in the interpretation of the ancient artistic heritage, in the appeal of art to reason, and not to feelings, in the desire to subordinate the creative process to unshakable norms, rules and canons (norm - from lat. norma - guiding principle, rule, pattern; generally accepted rule, pattern of behavior or action).

As in Italy, the aesthetic principles of the Renaissance found their most typical expression, so in France of the 17th century. - aesthetic principles of classicism. By the 17th century the artistic culture of Italy has largely lost its former influence. But the innovative spirit of French art was clearly indicated. At this time, an absolutist state was formed in France, which united society and centralized power.

The strengthening of absolutism meant the victory of the principle of universal regulation in all spheres of life, from the economy to the spiritual life. Debt is the main regulator of human behavior. The state embodies this duty and acts as a kind of entity alienated from the individual. Submission to the state, fulfillment of public duty is the highest virtue of the individual. A person is no longer thought of as free, as was typical of the Renaissance worldview, but as subordinate to norms and rules alien to him, limited by forces beyond his control. The regulating and limiting force appears in the form of an impersonal mind, to which the individual must obey and act, following his commands and prescriptions.

The high rise in production contributed to the development of the exact sciences: mathematics, astronomy, physics, and this, in turn, led to the victory of rationalism (from Latin ratio - mind) - a philosophical direction that recognizes the mind as the basis of human knowledge and behavior.

Ideas about the laws of creativity and the structure of a work of art are due to the same epoch-making type of worldview as the picture of the world and the concept of personality. Reason, as the highest spiritual ability of man, is thought not only as an instrument of knowledge, but also as an organ of creativity and a source of aesthetic pleasure. One of the most striking leitmotifs of Boileau's Poetic Art is the rational nature of aesthetic activity:

French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.

Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome emerged as early as the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens" (1511).

The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

Following Aristotle, classicism considered art to be an imitation of nature:

However, nature was by no means understood as a visual picture of the physical and moral world, which appears to the senses, but precisely as the highest intelligible essence of the world and man: not a specific character, but its idea, not a real-historical or modern plot, but a universal human conflict situation, not given landscape, but the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of natural realities in an ideally beautiful unity. Classicism found such an ideally beautiful unity in ancient literature - it was it that was perceived by classicism as the already reached pinnacle of aesthetic activity, the eternal and unchanging standard of art, which recreated in its genre models that very highest ideal nature, physical and moral, which art should imitate. It so happened that the thesis about imitation of nature turned into a prescription to imitate ancient art, from where the term “classicism” itself came from (from Latin classicus - exemplary, studied in class):

Thus, nature in classic art appears not so much reproduced as modeled after a high model - "decorated" by the generalizing analytical activity of the mind. By analogy, one can recall the so-called “regular” (i.e., “correct”) park, where the trees are trimmed in the form of geometric shapes and symmetrically seated, paths that have the correct shape are sprinkled with multi-colored pebbles, and water is enclosed in marble pools and fountains. This style of landscape gardening art reached its peak precisely in the era of classicism. The absolute predominance of poetry over prose in classicism literature follows from the desire to present nature “decorated”: if prose is identical with simple material nature, then poetry, as a literary form, is certainly an ideal “decorated” nature.

In all these ideas about art, namely, as a rational, ordered, normalized, spiritual activity, the hierarchical principle of thinking of the 17th-18th centuries was realized. Within itself, literature was also divided into two hierarchical rows, low and high, each of which was thematically and stylistically associated with one - material or ideal - level of reality. Satire, comedy, fable were classified as low genres; to high - ode, tragedy, epic. In the low genres, everyday material reality is depicted, and a private person appears in social connections (at the same time, of course, both a person and reality are still the same ideal conceptual categories). In high genres, a person is presented as a spiritual and social being, in the existential aspect of his existence, alone and along with the eternal foundations of the questions of being. Therefore, for high and low genres, not only thematic, but also class differentiation on the basis of the character's belonging to one or another social stratum turned out to be relevant. The hero of low genres is a middle-class person; high hero - a historical person, a mythological hero or a fictional high-ranking character - as a rule, a ruler.

In low genres, human characters are formed by base everyday passions (stinginess, hypocrisy, hypocrisy, envy, etc.); in high genres, passions acquire a spiritual character (love, ambition, revenge, sense of duty, patriotism, etc.). And if everyday passions are unambiguously unreasonable and vicious, then existential passions are divided into reasonable - public and unreasonable - personal, and the ethical status of the hero depends on his choice. It is unambiguously positive if it prefers a rational passion, and unambiguously negative if it chooses an unreasonable one. Classicism did not allow semitones in ethical assessment - and this was also affected by the rationalistic nature of the method, which excluded any mixture of high and low, tragic and comic.

Since in the genre theory of classicism those genres that reached the greatest flourishing in ancient literature were legitimized as the main ones, and literary creativity was conceived as a reasonable imitation of high standards, the aesthetic code of classicism acquired a normative character. This means that the model of each genre was established once and for all in a clear set of rules, from which it was unacceptable to deviate, and each specific text was aesthetically evaluated according to the degree of compliance with this ideal genre model.

Ancient examples became the source of the rules: the epic of Homer and Virgil, the tragedy of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Seneca, the comedy of Aristophanes, Menander, Terence and Plautus, the ode of Pindar, the fable of Aesop and Phaedrus, the satire of Horace and Juvenal. The most typical and illustrative case of such genre regulation is, of course, the rules for the leading classic genre, tragedies, drawn both from the texts of ancient tragedians and from Aristotle's Poetics.

For the tragedy, a poetic form (“Alexandrian verse” - a six-foot iambic with a pair of rhymes), an obligatory five-act construction, three unities - times, places and actions, high style, a historical or mythological plot and a conflict, suggesting a mandatory situation of choosing between reasonable and unreasonable passion, and the very process of choice was supposed to constitute the action of the tragedy. It was in the dramatic section of the aesthetics of classicism that rationalism, hierarchy and normativity of the method were expressed with the greatest completeness and obviousness:

Everything that has been said above about the aesthetics of classicism and the poetics of classic literature in France applies equally to almost any European variety of the method, since French classicism was historically the earliest and aesthetically the most authoritative incarnation of the method. But for Russian classicism, these general theoretical provisions found a kind of refraction in artistic practice, as they were due to the historical and national features of the formation of a new Russian culture of the 18th century.

2.4. Classicism in painting

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

Poussin's coldly rational normativism evoked the approval of the court of Versailles and was continued by court painters like Lebrun, who saw in classic painting an ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although private clients favored variations of the Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept Classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the School of Fine Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for a direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art historian Winckelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").

In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor (“Turkish baths”); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (such as, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

2.5. Classicism in sculpture

The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of baroque and classicism, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were initially depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a rather dry pathos. The purity of lines, the restraint of gestures, the impassivity of expressions are especially valued. In the choice of role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in the interpretation of Thorvaldsen, make a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. The tomb sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

2.6. Classicism in architecture

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.

By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaus-Arts).

2.7. Classicism in literature

The French poet Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons, is considered the founder of the poetics of classicism. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. The English prose of the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the positions of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson surveyed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Three unities are characteristic of dramatic works: the unity of time (the action takes place one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (one storyline).

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are intended primarily to capture stable generic features that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that imply a mandatory authorial assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

In connection with the call proclaimed by Rousseau to closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena are growing in the classicism of the late 18th century; the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism - comes to replace the absolutization of reason. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in the German literature of the Sturm und Drang era, represented by the names of J. W. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw in art the main force of education person.

2.8. Classicism in music

The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical music", which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.

The music of the era of Classicism sings of the actions and deeds of a person, the emotions and feelings experienced by him, the attentive and holistic human mind.

2.10. The originality of Russian classicism

Russian classicism arose in similar historical conditions - its prerequisite was the strengthening of autocratic statehood and national self-determination of Russia since the era of Peter I. The Europeanism of the ideology of Peter the Great's reforms aimed Russian culture at mastering the achievements of European cultures. But at the same time, Russian classicism arose almost a century later than French: by the middle of the 18th century, when Russian classicism was just beginning to gain strength, in France it had reached the second stage of its existence. The so-called "enlightenment classicism" - the combination of classic creative principles with the pre-revolutionary ideology of the Enlightenment - flourished in French literature in the work of Voltaire and acquired an anti-clerical, socially critical pathos: a few decades before the French Revolution, the times of apologia for absolutism were already a distant history. Russian classicism, by virtue of its strong connection with the secular cultural reform, firstly, initially set itself educational tasks, striving to educate its readers and set the monarchs on the path of public good, and secondly, acquired the status of a leading trend in Russian literature towards the time when Peter I was no longer alive, and the fate of his cultural reforms was put in jeopardy in the second half of the 1720s - 1730s.

Therefore, Russian classicism begins “not with the fruit of spring - an ode, but with the fruit of autumn - satire”, and socially critical pathos is inherent in it from the very beginning.

Russian classicism also reflected a completely different type of conflict than Western European classicism. If in French classicism the socio-political principle is only the ground on which the psychological conflict of rational and unreasonable passions develops and the process of free and conscious choice between their dictates is carried out, then in Russia, with its traditionally anti-democratic catholicity and the absolute power of society over the individual, the situation was completely otherwise. For the Russian mentality, which had just begun to comprehend the ideology of personalism, the need to humble the individual in front of society, the individual in front of the authorities was not at all such a tragedy as for the Western worldview. The choice, relevant for the European consciousness as an opportunity to prefer one thing, in Russian conditions turned out to be imaginary, its outcome was predetermined in favor of society. Therefore, the very situation of choice in Russian classicism lost its conflict-forming function, and was replaced by another.

The central problem of Russian life in the XVIII century. there was a problem of power and its succession: not a single Russian emperor after the death of Peter I and before the accession of Paul I in 1796 came to power legally. 18th century - this is the age of intrigues and palace coups, which too often led to the absolute and uncontrolled power of people who by no means corresponded not only to the ideal of an enlightened monarch, but also to ideas about the role of the monarch in the state. Therefore, Russian classic literature immediately took a political and didactic direction and reflected precisely this problem as the main tragic dilemma of the era - the inconsistency of the ruler with the duties of the autocrat, the conflict of experiencing power as an egoistic personal passion with the idea of ​​​​power exercised for the benefit of subjects.

Thus, the Russian classicist conflict, having preserved the situation of choosing between rational and unreasonable passion as an external plot pattern, was fully realized as a socio-political one in nature. The positive hero of Russian classicism does not humble his individual passion in the name of the common good, but insists on his natural rights, defending his personalism from tyrannical encroachments. And the most important thing is that this national specificity of the method was well understood by the writers themselves: if the plots of the French classicist tragedies were drawn mainly from ancient mythology and history, then Sumarokov wrote his tragedies on the plots of Russian chronicles and even on plots of not so distant Russian history.

Finally, another specific feature of Russian classicism was that it did not rely on such a rich and continuous tradition of national literature as any other national European variety of method. What any European literature had at the time of the emergence of the theory of classicism - namely, a literary language with an ordered style system, the principles of versification, a well-defined system of literary genres - all this had to be created in Russian. Therefore, in Russian classicism, literary theory was ahead of literary practice. The normative acts of Russian classicism - the reform of versification, the reform of style and the regulation of the genre system - were carried out between the middle of 1730 and the end of the 1740s. - that is, basically before a full-fledged literary process unfolded in Russia in line with classic aesthetics.

3. Conclusion

For the ideological premises of classicism, it is essential that the desire of the individual for freedom is assumed here to be just as legitimate as the need of society to bind this freedom with laws.

The personal principle continues to retain that immediate social significance, that independent value, with which the Renaissance first endowed it. However, in contrast to him, now this beginning belongs to the individual, along with the role that society now receives as a social organization. And this implies that any attempt by the individual to defend his freedom in spite of society threatens him with the loss of the fullness of life ties and the transformation of freedom into a devastated subjectivity devoid of any support.

The category of measure is a fundamental category in the poetics of classicism. It is unusually multifaceted in content, has both a spiritual and plastic nature, touches, but does not coincide with another typical concept of classicism - the concept of the norm - and is closely connected with all aspects of the ideal affirmed here.

The classic mind, as a source and guarantor of balance in nature and people's lives, bears the stamp of poetic faith in the original harmony of everything that exists, confidence in the natural course of things, confidence in the presence of an all-encompassing correspondence between the movement of the world and the formation of society, in the humanistic, human-oriented nature of this connections.

I am close to the period of classicism, its principles, poetry, art, creativity in general. The conclusions that classicism makes about people, society, the world seem to me the only true and rational. Measure, as the middle line between opposites, the order of things, systems, and not chaos; a strong relationship of a person with society against their rupture and enmity, excessive genius and selfishness; harmony against extremes - in this I see the ideal principles of being, the foundations of which are reflected in the canons of classicism.

List of sources

Peoples' Friendship University of Russia

Faculty of Philology

Department of Russian and Foreign Literature

on the course "History of Russian literature of the 19th century"

Topic:

"Classicism. Basic principles. The originality of Russian classicism"

Completed by student Ivanova I.A.

Group FZhB-11

Scientific adviser:

Associate Professor Pryakhin M.N.

Moscow

The concept of classicism

Philosophical doctrine

Ethical and aesthetic program

genre system

Representatives of classicism

The concept of classicism

Classicism is one of the most important trends in the literature of the past. Having established itself in the works and creativity of many generations, putting forward a brilliant galaxy of poets and writers, classicism left such milestones on the path of the artistic development of mankind as the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, Milton, Voltaire, the comedies of Molière and many other literary works. The history itself confirms the viability of the traditions of the classicist artistic system and the value of the concepts of the world and the human person underlying it, primarily the moral imperative characteristic of classicism.

Classicism did not always remain identical to itself in everything, constantly developing and improving. This is especially obvious if we consider classicism in the perspective of its three centuries of existence and in various national variants, in which it appears to us in France, in Germany and in Russia. Taking its first steps in the 16th century, that is, at the time of the mature Renaissance, classicism absorbed and reflected the atmosphere of this revolutionary era, and at the same time it carried new trends that were destined to be energetically manifested only in the next century.

Classicism is one of the most studied and theoretically thought out literary movements. But, despite this, its detailed study is still an extremely relevant topic for a modern researcher, largely due to the fact that it requires special flexibility and subtlety of analysis.

The formation of the concept of classicism requires a systematic, purposeful work of the researcher based on attitudes towards artistic perception and the development of value judgments in the analysis of the text.

Russian classicism literature

Therefore, in modern science, contradictions often arise between the new tasks of literary research and the old approaches to the formation of theoretical and literary concepts about classicism.

Basic principles of classicism

Classicism, as an artistic movement, tends to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards the universal "norm" model. Hence the cult of antiquity of classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.

Both high genres and low ones were obliged to instruct the public, to elevate its morals, to enlighten feelings.

The most important norms of classicism are the unity of action, place and time. In order to more accurately convey the idea to the viewer and inspire him to selfless feelings, the author should not complicate anything. The main intrigue should be simple enough so as not to confuse the viewer and not deprive the picture of integrity. The demand for unity of time was closely linked to the unity of action. The unity of the place was interpreted in different ways. It could be the space of one palace, one room, one city, and even the distance that the hero could cover within twenty-four hours.

Classicism is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it repels the aesthetics of the Renaissance that preceded it and opposes the Baroque.

Historical basis of classicism

The history of classicism begins in Western Europe at the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century reaches its highest development, associated with the flowering of the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV in France and the highest rise in theatrical art in the country. Classicism continued to fruitfully exist in the 18th and early 19th centuries, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.

As an artistic system, classicism finally took shape in the 17th century, although the very concept of classicism was born later, in the 19th century, when an irreconcilable war of romance was declared on it.

Having studied the poetics of Aristotle and the practice of the Greek theater, the French classics proposed the rules of construction in their works, based on the foundations of rationalistic thinking of the 17th century. First of all, this is strict observance of the laws of the genre, division into higher genres - an ode (a solemn song (lyrical) poem praising glory, praise, greatness, victory, etc.), tragedy (a dramatic or stage work that depicts an irreconcilable conflict of personality with opposing forces), epic (depicts actions or events in an objectively narrative form, characterized by a calmly contemplative attitude to the depicted subject) and lower - comedy (dramatic performance or composition for the theater, where society is presented in a funny, funny way), satire (a kind of comic , which differs from other types (humor, irony) by the sharpness of the denunciation).

The laws of classicism were most characteristically expressed in the rules for constructing a tragedy. From the author of the play, first of all, it was required that the plot of the tragedy, as well as the passions of the characters, be believable. But the classicists have their own understanding of plausibility: not just the similarity of what is depicted on the stage with reality, but the consistency of what is happening with the requirements of reason, with a certain moral and ethical norm.

Philosophical doctrine

Unlike the irrational Baroque, Classicism was rational and appealed not to faith, but to reason. He sought to balance among themselves all the worlds - divine, natural, social and spiritual. He stood up for the dynamic balance of all these spheres, which should not conflict with each other, but coexist peacefully within the boundaries and imperatives set by the mind.

The central place in Classicism was occupied by the idea of ​​order, in the establishment of which the leading role belongs to reason and knowledge. From the idea of ​​the priority of order and reason followed a characteristic concept of man, which could be reduced to three leading foundations or principles:

) the principle of the priority of reason over passions, the belief that the highest virtue consists in resolving the contradictions between reason and passions in favor of the first, and the highest valor and justice lie, respectively, in actions prescribed not by affects, but by reason;

) the principle of the original morality and law-abidingness of the human mind, the belief that it is the mind that is able to lead a person to truth, goodness and justice in the shortest way;

) the principle of social service, which asserted that the duty prescribed by reason is the honest and selfless service of a person to his sovereign and state.

In socio-historical and moral-legal terms, Classicism turned out to be associated with the process of centralization of power and the strengthening of absolutism in a number of European states. He took on the role of ideology, defending the interests of the royal houses, seeking to unite nations around him.

Ethical and aesthetic program

The initial principle of the aesthetic code of classicism is the imitation of beautiful nature. Objective beauty for the theorists of classicism (Boileau, Andre) is the harmony and regularity of the universe, which has as its source a spiritual principle that forms matter and puts it in order. Beauty thus, as an eternal spiritual law, is opposed to everything sensual, material, changeable. Therefore, moral beauty is higher than physical beauty; the creation of human hands is more beautiful than the rough beauty of nature.

The laws of beauty do not depend on the experience of observation, they are derived from the analysis of inner spiritual activity.

The ideal of the artistic language of classicism is the language of logic - accuracy, clarity, consistency. The linguistic poetics of classicism avoids, as far as possible, the objective depiction of the word. Her usual remedy is an abstract epithet.

The ratio of individual elements of a work of art is built on the same principles, i.e. composition, which is usually a geometrically balanced structure based on a strict symmetrical division of the material. Thus the laws of art are likened to the laws of formal logic.

The political ideal of classicism

In their political struggle, the revolutionary bourgeois and plebeians in France, both in the decades preceding the revolution and in the turbulent years of 1789-1794, made extensive use of ancient traditions, the ideological heritage and external forms of Roman democracy. So, at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. in European literature and art, a new type of classicism has developed, new in its ideological and social content in relation to the classicism of the 17th century, to the aesthetic theory and practice of Boileau, Corneille, Racine, Poussin.

The art of classicism of the era of the bourgeois revolution was strictly rationalistic, i.e. required a complete logical correspondence of all elements of the artistic form to an extremely clearly expressed plan.

Classicism XVIII-XIX centuries. was not a homogeneous phenomenon. In France, the heroic period of the bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794. preceded and accompanied by the development of revolutionary republican classicism, which was embodied in the dramas of M.Zh. Chenier, in the early painting of David, etc. In contrast, during the years of the Directory and especially the Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire, classicism lost its revolutionary spirit and turned into a conservative academic trend.

Sometimes under the direct influence of French art and the events of the French Revolution, and in some cases independently of them and even preceding them in time, a new classicism developed in Italy, Spain, the Scandinavian countries, and the USA. In Russia, classicism reached its highest height in the architecture of the first third of the 19th century.

One of the most significant ideological and artistic achievements of this time was the work of the great German poets and thinkers - Goethe and Schiller.

With all the variety of variants of classic art, it had much in common. Both the revolutionary classicism of the Jacobins, and the philosophical and humanistic classicism of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, and the conservative classicism of the Napoleonic Empire, and the very diverse - sometimes progressive-patriotic, sometimes reactionary-great-power - classicism in Russia were contradictory creations of the same historical era.

genre system

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable).

O? Yes- a poetic, as well as musical and poetic work, distinguished by solemnity and sublimity, dedicated to some event or hero.

Tragé? diya- a genre of fiction based on the development of events, which, as a rule, is inevitable and necessarily leads to a catastrophic outcome for the characters.

The tragedy is marked by severe seriousness, depicts reality most sharply, as a clot of internal contradictions, reveals the deepest conflicts of reality in an extremely intense and rich form, which acquires the meaning of an artistic symbol; It is no coincidence that most tragedies are written in verse.

epic? I- generic designation of major epic and similar works:

.An extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events.

2.A complex, long history of something, including a number of major events.

Comé? diya- a genre of fiction characterized by a humorous or satirical approach.

Satire- a manifestation of the comic in art, which is a poetic humiliating denunciation of phenomena using various comic means: sarcasm, irony, hyperbole, grotesque, allegory, parody, etc.

Ba? taking off- a poetic or prose literary work of a moralizing, satirical nature. At the end of the fable there is a brief moralizing conclusion - the so-called morality. The actors are usually animals, plants, things. In the fable, the vices of people are ridiculed.

Representatives of classicism

In literature, Russian classicism is represented by the works of A.D. Kantemira, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov.

HELL. Kantemir was the ancestor of Russian classicism, the founder of the most vital real-satirical direction in it - such are his well-known satires.

VC. Trediakovsky, with his theoretical works, contributed to the establishment of classicism, but in his poetic works the new ideological content did not find an appropriate artistic form.

In a different way, the traditions of Russian classicism manifested themselves in the works of A.P. Sumarokov, who defended the idea of ​​the inseparability of the interests of the nobility and the monarchy. Sumarokov laid the foundation for the dramatic system of classicism. In tragedies, under the influence of the reality of that time, he often refers to the theme of the uprising against tsarism. In his work, Sumarokov pursued social and educational goals, preaching high civic feelings and noble deeds.

The next prominent representative of Russian classicism, whose name is known to everyone without exception, is M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). Lomonosov, unlike Kantemir, rarely ridicules the enemies of enlightenment. He managed to almost completely rework the grammar based on the French canons, and made changes to the versification. Actually, it was Mikhail Lomonosov who became the first who was able to introduce the canonical principles of classicism into Russian literature. Depending on the quantitative mixing of words of three kinds, this or that style is created. This is how the "three styles" of Russian poetry developed: "high" - Church Slavonic words and Russian.

The pinnacle of Russian classicism is the work of D.I. Fonvizin (Brigadier, Undergrowth), the creator of a truly original national comedy, who laid the foundations of critical realism within this system.

Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin was the last among the largest representatives of Russian classicism. Derzhavin managed to combine not only the themes of these two genres, but also vocabulary: in "Felitsa" the words "high calm" and vernacular are organically combined. Thus, Gavriil Derzhavin, who developed the possibilities of classicism to the maximum in his works, became at the same time the first Russian poet to overcome the canons of classicism.

Russian classicism, its originality

A significant role in the shift of the genre dominant in the artistic system of Russian classicism was played by a qualitatively different attitude of our authors to the traditions of the national culture of previous periods, in particular to national folklore. The theoretical code of French classicism - "The Poetic Art" of Boileau demonstrates a sharply hostile attitude towards everything that in one way or another had a connection with the art of the masses. In attacks on the theater of Tabarin, Boileau denies the traditions of folk farce, finding traces of this tradition in Molière. The sharp criticism of burlesque poetry also testifies to the well-known anti-democratism of his aesthetic program. There was no place in Boileau's treatise to characterize such a literary genre as a fable, which is closely connected with the traditions of the democratic culture of the masses.

Russian classicism did not shy away from national folklore. On the contrary, in the perception of the traditions of folk poetic culture in certain genres, he found incentives for his enrichment. Even at the origins of the new direction, undertaking the reform of Russian versification, Trediakovsky directly refers to the songs of the common people as a model that he followed in establishing his rules.

The absence of a gap between the literature of Russian classicism and the traditions of national folklore explains its other features. Thus, in the system of poetic genres of Russian literature of the 18th century, in particular in the work of Sumarokov, the genre of the lyrical love song, which Boileau does not mention at all, suddenly flourishes. In Epistle 1 on Poetry, Sumarokov gives a detailed description of this genre along with characteristics of recognized classicist genres, such as ode, tragedy, idyll, etc. Sumarokov includes in his Epistle a description of the fable genre, while relying on the experience of La Fontaine . And in his poetic practice, both in songs and in fables, Sumarokov, as we will see, often directly focused on folklore traditions.

The originality of the literary process of the late XVII - early XVIII century. explains another feature of Russian classicism: its connection with the baroque art system in its Russian version.

Bibliography

1. Natural-legal philosophy of classicism of the 17th century. #"justify">Books:

5.O.Yu. Schmidt "The Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume 32." Ed. "Soviet Encyclopedia" 1936

6.A.M. Prokhorov. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Volume 12. "Publishing house" Soviet Encyclopedia "1973

.S.V. Turaev "Literature. Reference materials". Ed. "Enlightenment" 1988

Tutoring

Need help learning a topic?

Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

In literature, classicism was born and spread in France in the 17th century. The theoretician of classicism is Nicolas Boileau, who formed the basic principles of style in the article "Poetic Art". The name comes from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary, which emphasizes the artistic basis of the style - the images and forms of antiquity, which began to have a special interest at the end of the Renaissance. The emergence of classicism is associated with the formation of the principles of a centralized state and the ideas of "enlightened" absolutism in it.

Classicism glorifies the concept of reason, believing that only with the help of the mind can one obtain and streamline a picture of the world. Therefore, the main thing in the work is its idea (that is, the main idea and form of the work must be in harmony), and the main thing in the conflict of reason and feelings is reason and duty.

The main principles of classicism, characteristic of both foreign and domestic literature:

• Forms and images from ancient (Greek and Roman) literature: tragedy, ode, comedy, epic, poetic odic and satirical forms.
• A clear division of genres into "high" and "low". The "high" include ode, tragedy and epic, the "low", as a rule, funny - comedy, satire, fable.
• Distinctive division of heroes into good and bad.
• Compliance with the principle of the trinity of time, place, action.

Classicism in Russian literature

18th century

In Russia, classicism appeared much later than in European countries, as it was "brought" along with European works and enlightenment. The existence of style on Russian soil is usually placed in the following framework:

1. The end of the 1720s, the literature of the time of Peter the Great, secular literature, which differs from the church literature that had previously dominated Russia.

The style began to develop first in translations, then in original works. The names of A. D. Kantemir, A. P. Sumarokov and V. K. Trediakovsky (reformers and developers of the literary language, they worked on poetic forms - on odes and satires) are associated with the development of the Russian classical tradition.

1. 1730-1770 - the heyday of style and its evolution. It is associated with the name of M. V. Lomonosov, who wrote tragedies, odes, and poems.
2. The last quarter of the XVIII century - the emergence of sentimentalism and the beginning of the crisis of classicism. The time of late classicism is associated with the name of D. I. Fonvizin, the author of tragedies, dramas and comedies; G. R. Derzhavin (poetic forms), A. N. Radishcheva (prose and poetry).

(A. N. Radishchev, D. I. Fonvizin, P. Ya. Chaadaev)

D. I. Fonvizin and A. N. Radishchev became not only developers, but also destroyers of the stylistic unity of classicism: Fonvizin in comedies violates the trinity principle, introduces ambiguity in the assessment of heroes. Radishchev becomes a harbinger and developer of sentimentalism, providing psychologism to the narrative, rejecting its conventions.

(Representatives of classicism)

19th century

It is believed that classicism existed by inertia until the 1820s, however, during the late classicism, the works created within its framework were only formally classical, or its principles were used intentionally, to create a comic effect.

Russian classicism of the early 19th century is moving away from its breakthrough features: the assertion of the primacy of reason, civic pathos, opposition to the arbitrariness of religion, against its oppression of reason, criticism of the monarchy.

Classicism in foreign literature

The original classicism relied on the theoretical developments of ancient authors - Aristotle and Horace ("Poetics" and "Epistle to the Pisons").

In European literature, with identical principles, style ends its existence from the 1720s. Representatives of classicism in France: Francois Malherbe (poetic works, reformation of the poetic language), J. La Fontaine (satirical works, fable), J.-B. Molière (comedy), Voltaire (drama), J.-J. Rousseau (late classic prose writer, forerunner of sentimentalism).

There are two stages in the development of European classicism:

• The development and flourishing of the monarchy, contributing to the positive development of the economy, science and culture. At this stage, representatives of classicism see as their task the glorification of the monarch, the assertion of its inviolability (Francois Malherbe, Pierre Corneille, the leading genres are ode, poem, epic).
• The crisis of the monarchy, the discovery of shortcomings in the political system. Writers do not glorify, but rather criticize the monarchy. (J. Lafontaine, J.-B. Moliere, Voltaire, leading genres - comedy, satire, epigram).

LESSON #7

Topic. Classicism as an artistic movement in literature of the 17th century. Philosophical and aesthetic basis of classicism. Basic rules of classicism.

Target: to acquaint students with the literary direction of classicism, its features, basic rules, causes of occurrence; arouse students' interest in the topic, give the opportunity to feel the then historical and cultural atmosphere; develop oral and note-taking skills; cultivate aesthetic taste.

Equipment: portraits of Louis XIII and Louis XIV, Cardinal Richelieu, Corneille, Racine, Molière; reproductions of paintings by French artists of the 17th century. with images of Versailles and representatives of the nobility.

Lesson type: problematic lesson with elements of research work.

DURING THE CLASSES

I. Announcement of the results of thematic attestation N° 1. Analysis of typical mistakes

II. Motivation for learning activities

Teacher. The era of the Baroque, which we got acquainted with in the previous lessons, was the era of great mystics and idealist philosophers. And not all thinkers and artists of the late XVI - early XVII century. gravitated towards the baroque style, i.e. focused their attention on the complexity, paradox, uncertainty of being. Simultaneously with the irrational baroque consciousness, which claims that “life is a dream”, a fundamentally new one arises - a rational one, which has formed a different approach to understanding the meaning of human existence and offered another way out of the seemingly hopeless situation of human existence. We will begin to get acquainted with another historical and literary era, which is called classicism. (Students write the topic in their notebooks). Today we will try to find out the causes of classicism and its features.

III. Work on the topic of the lesson

Teacher. Classicism is an artistic system that reigned not only in literature, but also in painting, sculpture, architecture and music. During the Renaissance, Italy was the cultural center of Europe, in the 17th century. it becomes France. Some scientists consider it to be the birthplace of classicism. The question is quite natural: “Why France, and not Germany or Italy?” Let's try to look into history to answer it.

Student messages on advanced assignments

The situation in France in the XVII century.

In the 17th century in France there was a special form of government - absolutism (all power belonged to one person - the king). Feudal fragmentation was overcome, the resistance of the feudal lords was broken; certain laws were established that limited the freedom of people.

The creator of French absolutism was Cardinal Richelieu, who actually led the state (economy, finance, army, diplomatic relations) during the reign of the weak-willed and mediocre King Louis XIII. In an effort to make France as powerful and enlightened as the ancient Rome of the Augustan era, Richelieu was engaged in art. He founded the French Academy, through which he influenced the work of writers. Richelieu made literature part of the state ideology, which imposed certain views and stereotypes on people.

After the death of Richelieu (1642) and King Louis XIII (1643), the nobility tried to take power away from the infant king Louis XIV, who at that time was five years old, but this attempt was unsuccessful; the country was ruled by the king's mother Anna of Austria. in 1661 the twenty-three-year-old king came to rule. Louis XIV (1638-1715), who was called the "Sun King", turned France into the most powerful power in Europe. The king - the sun for political purposes used the image of an open, cheerful and accessible person, connoisseur of muses and patron of the arts. However, in reality, he was a cunning and cunning politician, a dangerous master of court intrigue, who remembered the former rebellion.

The king considered himself the successor of the Roman emperors, and his subjects - the descendants of the Romans. He surrounded himself with artists, poets, musicians, who were required to glorify the power and splendor of the king's reign. The French court became the center of the arts and the trendsetter. Noble people of Germany, Russia, and other European countries tried to imitate the customs, fashion, luxury of Paris. In the new Palace of Versailles, the king arranged court balls, which were supposed to be attended by all the nobility. The favorite pastime of Louis XIV was the theatre. During his reign, French art (in particular theater and literature) reached its highest peak, French classicism was fully formed.

Conversation with a synthesis of the information heard

What caused the emergence of classicism? (Strengthening monarchical power)

Writing in a notebook

State ideology of France = economy + politics + science + + art.

Absolutism - state power belongs to the monarch.

The main political figures of France in the 17th century: Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIV ("The Sun King") - "The state is me!".

The reason for the emergence of classicism is the strengthening of monarchism in the state.

Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic direction (flow) in art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which is characterized by civil themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules.

Teacher. From the art of the Greeks and Romans, the classicists took only those rules that required the observance of strict order, logic and harmony. As you know, the basis of ancient architecture is the principle of straight lines or a perfect circle. The classicists considered this principle the victory of reason over feelings, and in the Renaissance, feelings were valued above all. This is the difference in the maintenance and revival of ancient art of different times. Classicists believed that there are certain rules by which beauty is created. If the artist followed them exactly, he will have a perfect work of art. In addition, classicism is a style in art that requires the strictest discipline of form and content. The French writer Nicolas Bull is considered the theorist of the era of classicism. In the treatise "Poetic Art" he deduced the rules of classicism.

The era of classicism gave rise to the great playwrights, who were the tragedians Corneille and Racine, the comedian Molière.

Criteria of perfect art - mind, logic, rules.

Classicism rules

1) The image of the heroes is positive (role model) or negative (moral lesson to readers).

2) Compliance with the rule of three unities in dramaturgy: unity of action (clear composition), unity of time (one day), unity of place (in one place).

3) Emphasizing in the images of heroes one trait of character (honor, duty, courage, hypocrisy, greed, etc.).

4) The conflict of passion (heart) and duty (mind) - the mind wins.

5) Literary genres were divided into "high" (ode, tragedy, epic, heroic poem; majestic, solemn speech), "medium" (scientific works, elegies, satires; common speech), "low" (comedy, songs, letters in prose, epigrams; colloquial style).

IV. Reflection

1. Work in pairs

Formulate an answer to the question: "What should be a work of art in accordance with the rules of classicism?" (According to the rules of classicism, each work must be integral in terms of design and form, themes and speech, genre and composition. Logic, unity, balance of all elements of the text is the path to perfection and aesthetic perfection.)

2. "Microphone"

Continue the sentence: “Today at the lesson I learned (surprised, felt, imagined) ...”

v. Homework

Find in dictionaries and write out in a notebook the meaning of such concepts: "tragedy", "tragicomedy", "drama"; find information about the biography and work of Molière.

The content of the article

CLASSICISM, one of the most important areas of art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, unities. The rules of classicism are of paramount importance as a means to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, referring it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire for the idealization of reality, due to the rejection of the image of a complex and multifaceted reality. In theatrical art, this direction has established itself in the work, first of all, of French authors: Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Molière. Classicism had a great influence on the Russian national theater (A.P. Sumarokov, V.A. Ozerov, D.I. Fonvizin and others).

Historical roots of classicism.

The history of classicism begins in Western Europe at the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century reaches its highest development, associated with the flowering of the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV in France and the highest rise of theatrical art in the country. Classicism continues to fruitfully exist in the 18th - early 19th centuries, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.

As an artistic system, classicism finally took shape in the 17th century, although the very concept of classicism was born later, in the 19th century, when an irreconcilable war of romance was declared on it.

"Classicism" (from the Latin "classicus", i.e. "exemplary") assumed a stable orientation of the new art to the antique way, which did not at all mean a simple copying of antique samples. Classicism carries out continuity with the aesthetic concepts of the Renaissance, which were oriented towards antiquity.

Having studied the poetics of Aristotle and the practice of the Greek theater, the French classics proposed the rules of construction in their works, based on the foundations of rationalistic thinking of the 17th century. First of all, this is strict observance of the laws of the genre, the division into higher genres - ode, tragedy, epic and lower ones - comedy, satire.

The laws of classicism were most characteristically expressed in the rules for constructing a tragedy. From the author of the play, first of all, it was required that the plot of the tragedy, as well as the passions of the characters, be believable. But the classicists have their own understanding of plausibility: not just the similarity of what is depicted on the stage with reality, but the consistency of what is happening with the requirements of reason, with a certain moral and ethical norm.

The concept of a reasonable predominance of duty over human feelings and passions is the basis of the aesthetics of classicism, which differs significantly from the concept of a hero adopted in the Renaissance, when complete freedom of the individual was proclaimed, and man was declared the “crown of the universe”. However, the course of historical events disproved these ideas. Overwhelmed by passions, a person could not decide, find support. And only in serving society, a single state, the monarch, who embodied the strength and unity of his state, could a person express himself, assert himself, even at the cost of abandoning his own feelings. The tragic collision was born on a wave of colossal tension: ardent passion collided with inexorable duty (in contrast to the Greek tragedy of fatal predestination, when the will of a person turned out to be powerless). In the tragedies of classicism, reason and will were decisive and suppressed spontaneous, poorly controlled feelings.

Hero in the tragedies of classicism.

The classicists saw the veracity of the characters' characters in strict subordination to internal logic. The unity of the character of the hero is the most important condition for the aesthetics of classicism. Summarizing the laws of this direction, the French author N. Boileau-Depreo in his poetic treatise poetic art, claims:

Let your hero be carefully thought out,

May he always be himself.

The one-sidedness, the inner static nature of the hero does not, however, exclude the manifestation of living human feelings on his part. But in different genres, these feelings manifest themselves in different ways, strictly according to the chosen scale - tragic or comic. N. Boileau says about the tragic hero:

The hero, in whom everything is small, is only suitable for a novel,

May he be brave, noble,

But still, without weaknesses, he is not nice to anyone ...

He cries from resentment - a useful detail,

So that we believe in its plausibility ...

So that we crown you with enthusiastic praise,

We should be excited and touched by your hero.

From unworthy feelings let him be free

And even in weaknesses he is mighty and noble.

To reveal the human character in the understanding of the classicists means to show the nature of the action of eternal passions, unchanged in their essence, their influence on the fate of people.

Basic rules of classicism.

Both high genres and low ones were obliged to instruct the public, to elevate its morals, to enlighten feelings. In tragedy, the theater taught the spectator resilience in the struggle of life, the example of a positive hero served as a model of moral behavior. The hero, as a rule, a king or a mythological character was the main character. The conflict between duty and passion or selfish desires was necessarily resolved in favor of duty, even if the hero died in an unequal struggle.

In the 17th century the idea became dominant that only in serving the state does a person acquire the possibility of self-affirmation. The flowering of classicism was due to the assertion of absolute power in France, and later in Russia.

The most important norms of classicism - the unity of action, place and time - follow from those substantive premises that were discussed above. In order to more accurately convey the idea to the viewer and inspire selfless feelings, the author did not have to complicate anything. The main intrigue should be simple enough so as not to confuse the viewer and not deprive the picture of integrity. The demand for unity of time was closely connected with the unity of action, and many diverse events did not occur in the tragedy. The unity of place has also been interpreted in different ways. It could be the space of one palace, one room, one city, and even the distance that the hero could cover within twenty-four hours. Particularly bold reformers decided to stretch the action for thirty hours. The tragedy must have five acts and be written in Alexandrian verse (iambic six-foot).

Excites the visible more than the story,

But what can be tolerated by the ear, sometimes cannot be tolerated by the eye.

The authors.

The pinnacle of classicism in tragedy was the works of French poets P. Corneille ( Sid,Horace, nycomedes), who was called the father of French classical tragedy and J. Racine ( Andromache,Iphigenia,Phaedra,Athalia). With their work, these authors during their lifetime caused heated debate about the incomplete observance of the rules regulated by classicism, but perhaps it was the digressions that made the works of Corneille and Racine immortal. About French classicism in its best examples, A.I. Herzen wrote: “... a world that has its limits, its limitations, but also has its strength, its energy and high grace ...”.

Tragedy, as a demonstration of the norm of a person's moral struggle in the process of self-affirmation of the individual, and comedy, as an image of deviation from the norm, showing the absurd and therefore ridiculous aspects of life - these are the two poles of the artistic understanding of the world in the theater of classicism.

About the other pole of classicism, comedy, N. Boileau wrote:

If you want to become famous in comedy,

Choose nature as your teacher...

Know the townspeople, study the courtiers;

Between them consciously look for characters.

In comedies, observance of the same canons was required. In the hierarchically ordered system of dramatic genres of classicism, comedy occupied the place of a low genre, being the antipode of tragedy. It was addressed to that sphere of human manifestations, where reduced situations operated, the world of everyday life, self-interest, human and social vices reigned. The comedies of J-B. Molière are the pinnacle of comedies of classicism.

If the pre-Moliere comedy sought mainly to amuse the viewer, introducing him to the elegant salon style, then the Moliere comedy, absorbing carnival and laughter beginnings, at the same time contained the truth of life and the typical authenticity of the characters. However, the theoretician of classicism N. Boileau, while paying tribute to the great French comedian as the creator of "high comedy", at the same time blamed him for turning to farcical and carnival traditions. The practice of the immortal classicists again turned out to be broader and richer than theory. Otherwise, Moliere is faithful to the laws of classicism - the character of the hero, as a rule, is focused on one passion. Encyclopedist Denis Diderot credited Molière with stingy and Tartuffe the playwright “recreated all the mean and tartuffes of the world. The most common, most characteristic features are expressed here, but this is not a portrait of any of them, so none of them recognize themselves. From the point of view of realists, such a character is one-sided, devoid of volume. Comparing the works of Molière and Shakespeare, A.S. Pushkin wrote: “Moliere's miser is mean and nothing more; in Shakespeare, Shylock is stingy, quick-witted, vindictive, child-loving, witty.

For Molière, the essence of comedy consisted mainly in the criticism of socially harmful vices and in the optimistic belief in the triumph of human reason ( Tartuffe,Stingy,Misanthrope,Georges Danden).

Classicism in Russia.

During its existence, classicism has evolved from the court-aristocratic stage, represented by the work of Corneille and Racine, to the enlightenment period, already enriched by the practice of sentimentalism (Voltaire). A new take-off of classicism, revolutionary classicism, occurred during the period of the French Revolution. This direction was most clearly expressed in the work of F.M. Talma, as well as the great French actress E. Rachel.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered to be the creator of the canon of Russian classical tragedy and comedy. Frequent visits to the performances of European troupes, which toured in the capital in the 1730s, contributed to the formation of Sumarokov's aesthetic taste, his interest in the theater. Sumarokov's dramatic experience was not a direct imitation of French models. Sumarokov's perception of the experience of European drama occurred at the moment when in France classicism entered the last, enlightening stage of its development. Sumarokov followed, basically, Voltaire. Infinitely devoted to the theatre, Sumarokov laid the foundations for the repertoire of the Russian stage of the 18th century, creating the first samples of the leading genres of Russian classic dramaturgy. He wrote nine tragedies and twelve comedies. The laws of classicism are also observed by Sumarokov's comedy. “To laugh without reason is the gift of a vile soul,” said Sumarokov. He became the founder of the social comedy of manners with its inherent moralizing didacticism.

The pinnacle of Russian classicism is the work of D.I. Fonvizin ( Brigadier,undergrowth), the creator of a truly original national comedy, who laid the foundations of critical realism within this system.

Theatrical school of classicism.

One of the reasons for the popularity of the comedy genre is a closer connection with life than in tragedy. “Choose nature as your mentor,” N. Boileau instructs the author of the comedy. Therefore, the canon of the stage embodiment of tragedy and comedy within the framework of the artistic system of classicism is as different as these genres themselves.

In the tragedy, depicting lofty feelings and passions and affirming the ideal hero, appropriate expressive means were assumed. It is a beautiful solemn pose, as in a painting or sculpture; enlarged, ideally completed gestures depicting generalized high feelings: love Passion, Hatred, Suffering, Triumph, etc. The sublime plasticity corresponded to the melodious recitation, percussive accents. But the outer sides should not obscure, according to the theoreticians and practitioners of classicism, the content side, showing the clash of thoughts and passions of the heroes of the tragedy. During the heyday of classicism, a coincidence of external form and content took place on the stage. When the crisis of this system came, it turned out that within the framework of classicism it was impossible to show a person's life in all its complexity. And a certain stamp was established on the stage, prompting the actor to frozen gestures, postures, cold recitations.

In Russia, where classicism appeared much later than in Europe, outwardly formal clichés became obsolete much faster. Along with the flourishing of the theater of "gestures", recitation and "singing", the direction is actively asserting itself, calling for the words of the realist actor Shchepkin - "to take samples from life."

The last surge of interest in the tragedy of classicism on the Russian stage occurred during the Patriotic War of 1812. The playwright V. Ozerov created a number of tragedies on this topic, using mythological plots. They were successful due to their consonance with modernity, reflecting the colossal patriotic upsurge of society, and also thanks to the brilliant play of the tragic actors of St. Petersburg E.A. Semenova and A.S. Yakovlev.

In the future, the Russian theater focused mainly on comedy, enriching it with elements of realism, deepening the characters, expanding the scope of the normative aesthetics of classicism. A great realistic comedy by A.S. Griboyedov was born from the bowels of classicism Woe from Wit (1824).

Ekaterina Yudina