“The Chukchi have their own legends, ancient traditions and folk poetry, expressed in games and songs,” he wrote. A.A. Argentov, - At the games, songs are sung with text; Their motives are quite diverse... When singing, the Chukchi make expressive gestures, men beat tambourines, purr monotonously and observe an indispensable tact.
At times they imitate the roar and cry of various animals and birds, which they do with great skill" ( Argentov, 1857. S. 69). "The Chukchi love singing," notes V.G. Bogoraz- especially during the holidays. Every family and even every person has a few tunes of their own. Some of them are hereditary, others of their own composition "( Bogoraz, 1934. S. 23).
The highest organizational form of the existence of folk music as an art has become the song and dance competitions that arose in the distant past and have survived to this day. They were held both between artistically gifted people of the same village, and between residents of different villages.
The winners were awarded with gifts. Sometimes these were specially created songs in honor of the winners. In 1938, for example, in honor of the Chukchi Atyka- the winner of the song and dance competition in the city Nome in Alaska a gift song was created from the Eskimos of Alaska.
In the distant past, reindeer herders developed a peculiar technique of guttural (throat) singing pilyeyn "en. The singer draws in air, compresses the throat ligaments, stretches his lips widely to the sides, and, inhaling the air, makes a kind of rustling sound. Changing the compression of the throat and the stretching of the lips, it changes the pitch.Experienced singers can combine guttural singing with the usual, called tip'ein "em, forming two independent voices-timbres. Pilg'ein "en has peculiar artistic possibilities in depicting various natural phenomena, pictures of everyday life. In some cases, this is a running herd of deer pursued by wolves, riding deer or a spring tundra covered with flowers, flight of birds, in others - various labor processes, moods and human experiences. In some villages of Chukotka, competitions in the performance of guttural songs are still held. They are called ain "arachvyn - sound competition.
Ancient Chukchi melodies still sound today. Their preservation was facilitated by the tradition of transmission from generation to generation of family, community songs with characteristic rhythms and intonations. Already at birth, each Chukchi, along with his name, receives from his parents a nominal song composed in the first days of the birth of a child. It reflects certain features of the newborn, dreams about his future. Growing up, the child learns and memorizes the personal songs of parents, grandfathers, and other relatives; as an adult, he composes songs himself, including a personal name song. In it, he expresses his individuality, emotional mood.
Chukchi folk music developed mainly as a vocal music. She did not have musical instruments with a strictly fixed pitch. Only the tambourine-yarar percussion instrument received widespread recognition and widespread use. A.A. Argentov wrote that "every householder certainly has a tambourine. With a tambourine, the Chukchi complains, and rejoices, and shamanizes." V.G. Bogoraz added: “The tambourine-yarar is an integral element of the home shrine ... Each family should have its own tambourine, the exercise on which during certain holidays is obligatory for all household members, men and women ... On long winter evenings, the Chukchi take up the tambourine just for entertainment" (Bogoraz, 19016, pp. 51-52).
Usually the most experienced musician plays the tambourine, setting the rhythm and dynamics of the performance of the piece to the singers and dancers. At festive celebrations, often several musicians play tambourines at once. There are dances and pantomimes, the musical accompaniment of which is constructed in such a way that at a certain point the singing is interrupted for several measures and the pantomime continues only to the accompaniment of tambourines. In other cases, pantomime is accompanied only by the playing of tambourines. Often the soloist himself accompanies himself on the tambourine during the performance of pantomime. It should be noted that at all reviews and festivals of amateur performances held in the Soviet years, none of the Chukchi amateur ensembles has ever used any musical instrument, except for the yarar.
The Chukchi also had other musical instruments. In the works of V.G. Bogoraz, the simplest wind and noise (buzzers, howlers) musical instruments are mentioned. Describing, for example, the "loon holiday", he notes that "the Chukchi imitated the singing of these birds with whistles made of goose feathers or wood with whalebone tongues." Folk songs are performed on various occasions, in various settings. Some resurrect in the memory of performers and listeners vivid pictures of events that once took place. These "memorial songs" are most often family heirlooms and are not meant to be performed in public. New improvisation songs (personal, nominal, memorable) currently being created usually reflect joyful events in a person’s life, but they are created according to the samples of the songs of ancestors, on the basis of their intonations, characteristic rhythms. A new phenomenon in the song and musical creativity of the Chukchi is the creation by original composers of songs based on the verses of professional Chukchi poets - A. Kymytval, V. Keulkut, M. Valgyrgin.
It is quite difficult to recreate the history of Chukchi folk choreography. Pre-revolutionary sources do not contain any significant descriptions of this side of the life of the people. We have only fragmentary, scattered material. Judging by the descriptions of ethnographers and travelers, the traditional dance art of the Chukchi was part of the rituals and holidays that played an important role in their social life.
It should be noted that the term "dance" can be called the plasticity of rituals and holidays only conditionally. These are rather pantomime dances, in which imitative elements occupy a leading place. Almost all the holidays of the annual cycle of the deer Chukchi contain ancient ideas about the role of the wild deer in the life of the people, accompanied by theatrical performances depicting the habits of the deer, various moments of hunting. Some dances are performed to a peculiar accompaniment - throat singing. This kind of dance is called pichgainen (throat shouting). In the rituals and holidays of the settled Chukchi, which also had a fishing and magical character, sea animals often appeared, but general patterns were manifested here as well.
Another type of dance was performed to the accompaniment of tambourines. If pichgainen did not have a stable form, then in dances with tambourines there is already a division into two groups, places for dancers and musicians who accompany on tambourines are determined. Accompanists should stand with their backs to the entrance, opposite them - dancing women. V.G. Bogoraz noted that this way of dancing among the Chukchi was called vetchalyt (standing), as the performers danced almost without leaving their seats.
The third type of dance, characteristic of thanksgiving rites, was called tevlyargyn (shaking). In the religious and cult tradition of the Chukchi, a great place was given to mystical methods of protection from evil spirits. One of them was tevlyargyn.
The most ancient features of pantomime dances were preserved in the festival of "resurrection" of animals, where men portrayed hunters, and women imitated the habits of animals. The dancers portrayed a successful hunt, "assured" the beast that he would be treated with due respect. Judging by the fact that the first researchers of the Chukchi emphasized the obligatory nature of this section of rituals, it can be assumed that earlier these pantomimes were the center of the entire festival. Dances "with grimaces" are peculiar, to which F.P. Wrangel, who noted that the main advantage of the dance of Chukchi women is facial expressions. In some pantomimes, she dominated all elements. Unfortunately, according to the available data, it is difficult to get an idea of the semantic and purposeful orientation of these dances.
In addition to pantomime dances, which were obligatory elements in the plot outline of rituals and holidays, there were also those that were more of an entertaining character. They were performed solo or in pairs to the accompaniment of a tambourine. These improvisations, without losing their traditional form and plot, acquired new shades, which gave them an entertaining rather than a magical character. An indicator of the transition of pantomime dances from ritual to spectacular can be a humorous assessment of the depicted.
Chukchi dances are a bright and original phenomenon, the roots of which are lost in the mists of time. It can only be said with certainty that the plasticity of Chukchi dances is based on imitation, imitation of the behavior of animals that were the main object of hunting. In the depiction of animals and birds, the Chukchi achieved true perfection, being able to convey an accurate idea of the beast with one or two movements. The dances of the Chukchi do not differ in mobility. The upper body is more active. The performers almost never move, swaying from side to side, crouching, stretching, moving their shoulders and arms. There is little movement on the site. If several people are dancing at the same time, their movements are not coordinated. Dances were performed for quite a long time - 12-14 hours. The choreographic part of the rituals and holidays was usually started by their organizers, the owner and mistress of the yaranga.
The modern dance art of the Chukchi, while retaining its national characteristics, has been enriched with new forms and content. At the same time, one of the effective forms of displaying modernity is still pantomime dance. The most numerous dances of the trade theme are: " walrus hunting", "fox hunting", "duck hunting"Etc. Observation, excellent knowledge of the animal world, amazing accuracy in the plastic reproduction of the behavior of the beast mark these pantomime dances. New forms of collective dance performance have also appeared - the national amateur dance ensembles "Deer", "Sun", "White Sail" , "Chukotskie Zori", "Rakushka", etc. The creation of folk groups helps to preserve the riches of traditional musical folklore.In 1968, the first professional Chukchi-Eskimo musical and choreographic ensemble "Ergyron" ("Dawn") was created.
Vargan (Khomus, Kubyz)
The world of shamans... It is very mysterious and attractive to modern man. In the age of technological progress and breakneck speeds, the connection between people and Nature is almost completely lost. With our subconscious, we understand that interaction with it is very important, as it gives strength, and life fills with meaning. That is why we are attracted to shamans - mysterious people who cherish this connection, deify and revere Nature, and are able to communicate with it, because they have the gift of immersion in a special state for communicating with spirits. Shamans' arrangement of the world is very figurative and poetic. In their rituals, which are called rituals, vestments and attributes play an important role. Thus, tambourine and jew's harp are indispensable participants in shamanic rituals. The tambourine opens the passage to other worlds for the sorcerer, and the jew's harp serves as a talisman against evil spirits. Vargan is a truly magical instrument not only in the hands of a shaman, but also of an ordinary person. If you are tired of any work, then after playing the jew's harp, you will feel that such music-making helps to relax and even enter into a state of easy controlled trance. This is a great tool for improvising and expressing various feelings.
Sound
Vargan refers to a variety of self-sounding reed musical instruments. It has an unusually velvety, but at the same time “metallic” sound that is pleasant to the ear, which calms and sets you up for reflection. Incredibly beautiful sounds and overtones, and sometimes even in combination with throat singing - this is simply unimaginable magic that acts bewitchingly and leads away from the realities of life.
It is not difficult to extract sounds on the jew's harp, for this you need to press the base of the instrument tightly against your teeth or lips, leaving a small gap between them so that the tongue of the jew's harp can freely enter there, which must be pulled when playing. The function of the resonator is performed by the oral cavity, by changing the contour of which the performer achieves a varied timbre of the instrument's sound. It is impossible to teach the real technique of performing on the jew's harp, it comes by itself during regular training. True professionals in their performance use labial, lingual, pharyngeal and laryngeal methods to extract sound, while using the airways, lungs and even the diaphragm.
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Interesting Facts
- Vargan is an instrument that has become widespread throughout the world, each region has its own name. There are hundreds of names of the instrument, here are some of them: Abafiv, Agach-kubyz, Akiz tamburashi, Anconch, Bambaro, Berimbau, Binayo, Bivba, Birimbao, Brumle, Vanni Yayai, Vargas, Varkhan, Vurgan, Kubyz, Kunkon, Myny, Panga, Rbiba, Khamys, Khomus, Khuur, Chang-kobus, Pangar and many others.
- Vargan is the Russian name for the instrument, which comes from the Old Slavonic word varga, which means mouth, mouth.
- Women of Altai love to play music on the jew's harp, using a special technique of playing, in which the sound is extracted only with the tongue - without the help of hands. They use this specific method when milking cows, which, listening to the sounds of the harp, give more milk.
- At one time, the jew's harp was actively used by members of the Sicilian mafia to transmit encrypted signals.
- Masters of jew's harp say that before you start playing a new instrument, you need to "merge" with it - to give up your energy. To do this, you need to wear it for some time as a pendant around your neck or put it in your pocket and in no case pass the jew's harp to another person. Only by observing these conditions, the instrument will sound effortlessly, bringing pleasure to the performer.
- The international center, as well as the largest museum of khomus (harp), which is recognized as unique, is located in the capital of the Republic of Sokha, Yakutsk. The main funds of the museum contain about 9 thousand exhibits collected in different countries of the world.
- Previously, in Altai and Siberia, jew's harps were made only by those blacksmiths who were relatives of shamans.
- Yakut khomus in December 2011 was sent into space orbit, where, together with the crew of the Soyuz spacecraft, he stayed for more than 190 days.
- The first International Harp Music Festival was organized in the American city of Iowa City in 1984.
- The Seventh International Festival of the Vargan (Khomus), held in Yakutsk in 2011, was noted in the Guinness Book of Records, as it was attended by a record number of participants - 1344 performers on the Vargan.
- In the USSR, during the reign of I. Stalin, the jew's harp (khomus) was banned as an instrument of shamans - sorcerers, who during this period were subjected to severe repressions.
- In the USA, the jew's harp was called the "Jewish harp", but why the instrument has such a strange name, the Americans cannot really explain.
- The electronic jew's harp was created by the world famous jew's harp performer R. Zagretdinov in 1991.
History
When and where the history of the jew's harp, the most ancient instrument, which in many countries is considered to be folk, begins, is not known for certain. According to the assumptions of some historians - art historians, the time of its appearance can date back to approximately the third millennium BC. However, there is an opinion that the birth of the instrument falls on a much earlier period, at the time when man invented the bow - a throwing weapon that served him not only for food, but also for entertainment. Inserting one end of the bow into the ground, or clamping it between the toes, and the other, resting on his teeth or on the palate, he made sounds with the help of sticks and fingers (this method of playing music is still common among the tribes of Central America). However, there is a version that a simple chip could be the progenitor of the jew's harp. Similar instruments made from this material are still found in our Siberia (Republic of Tyva).
The exact place of origin of the jew's harp is now impossible to establish with certainty. The geography of its distribution, as well as archaeological finds of the ancient instrument, is very extensive. There is a hypothesis that the harp appeared in different regions independently of each other, since the instrument of each nation has a set of unique characteristics inherent only to it, and also differs in material, shape and manufacturing technology. Initially, wood, bones, and in eastern countries also bamboo served as a material for making a jew's harp, but such tools were very brittle and therefore, a person began to make jew's harps from metal as soon as he learned and learned how to process it. Initially, the first metal jew's harps looked a bit like modern lamellar instruments and were a narrow, thin plate 10 to 15 cm long and 1-2 cm wide. Over time, its shape was changed for greater expressiveness and loudness of sound. The tool acquired a metal frame in the shape of an arc.
Already in ancient times, the jew's harp was considered a sacred instrument and was used in religious rituals, as well as for healing purposes. In Europe, the jew's harp became especially popular in the Middle Ages, for example, young people attracted the attention of pretty girls with the voice of the instrument. Somewhat later, the jew's harp conquered secular salons with its exotic sound. Playing music on it was considered a fashionable occupation among representatives of the upper classes.
The European state, where the production of jew's harps was most actively engaged, was Austria. In the 19th century, in the small town of Molne, about forty families were engaged in the manufacture of tools, which made two and a half million tools a year. In the same 19th century, musical instrument makers and performers were constantly experimenting with the jew's harp. So the German musical inventor Johann Scheibler installed ten jew's harps tuned according to chromatism on a supporting disk, the new instrument was called "aura". And a little later, the organ master Friedrich Buschmann, based on the reed design of the jew's harp, invented everyone's favorite harmonica.
Harp (from Latin organum musical instrument) is a magical and mysterious musical instrument that the northern peoples endowed with the ability to move the player through the three worlds. Vargan exists all over the world in various varieties, under different names, and invariably enchants the listener with its unique sound.
To play this little thing, it is pressed against the lips or teeth. They play the harp, using the tongue, larynx, hands and even breathing.
In ancient times, Vargan was revered as a sacred instrument and was used in many ceremonies and rituals of the northern peoples. In the shamanic practices of the northern peoples, the jew's harp is the female analogue of a tambourine.
About the peoples of the north and not so
Since ancient times, the harp and its various variations have been favorite instruments among different peoples.
In Central Asia (Tajikistan and Uzbekistan), instruments called chang-kobuz, temir-chang-kobuz (a variety with an iron tongue) were common. In Kyrgyzstan, a metal harp was distributed under the name temir-komuz. Suyak-chang-kobuz (made from bone), kopuz (from wood) and others are two Central Asian varieties with a stretched rope instead of a tongue, which made a sound.
In Vietnam, there was a lamellar harp - dan mine. It was made of wood, bamboo, bone or metal. In China, the jew's harp is known as kousyan, in Japan - as mukkuri.
Western countries also did not lag behind the northern peoples. Varieties of this instrument are known, common in Hungary (doromb), Norway (munharpa), Austria and Germany (maultrommel), and even in England and the USA - under the name "Jewish harp".
On the territory of the modern CIS, Ukraine (drimba), Belarus (drymba or vurgan), and of course Russia, where it was distributed mainly in the eastern part and among the peoples of the north, can boast of their jew's harps. In Altai - komus, in Bashkiria - kubyz. In Yakutia, Tuva and Khakassia, the names of these instruments were similar - khomus. The metal nature of the instrument was indicated by the corresponding prefixes among different peoples - demir (Tuva) or timir (Khakassia). There is also a Chukchi harp, and it is called baths yayar. In the European part of Russia, such instruments were also found, and they were called zubanka - of course, according to the method of extracting sound.
Vargan in Ugra
Among the northern peoples of the Khanty and Mansi, jew's harps are called tumrans and known in wood or bone. Khanty and Mansi believe that tumran heals the sick and drives away evil spirits.
Many modern musical groups, in search of a unique and specific sound, used the jew's harp in their work. Many examples can be found. In particular, among the songs of the groups Kalinov Most, Pilot, Vopli Vidoplyasova - you can hear this wonderful instrument. Even such masters as DDT and Nautilus Pompilius dared to record a song with a jew's harp.
Harp can be safely called not only an instrument of the northern peoples, but a truly global musical instrument. Almost any person, regardless of nationality and musical training, can express their emotions in its sounds.
The oral folk art of the Chukchi is a variety of legends, myths, tales on both everyday and mythical topics, historical legends. The main character of most stories and fairy tales is mainly the raven Kurkyl, who is credited with many skills and magical talents. He helps people, instructs them how to live and act correctly, teaches them various crafts, introduces norms and rules into life and everyday life. Raven Kurkyl is a kind of creator of the world, along with a deity. In some fairy tales, there is a story about the marriage of a person with animals, such as a polar bear, walrus, whale, seal.
Chukchi folk tales have the following directions: mythological, household and animal tales. Along with fairy tales, there were legends and narratives on everyday and historical topics that mention wars and clashes between the Chukchi and the Eskimos, Koryaks and Russians.
The musical direction is very close in character to the music of the Koryaks, Eskimos and Yukaghirs. Each Chukchi had to compose at least three melodies throughout his life, at different periods of his life: in childhood, in adulthood and in old age. Children's melodies were often given to their children by their parents. Also, a person could compose melodies for one or another important event in his life, for example, marriage, the birth of a child, parting, etc. Each melody or song had a characteristic manner of performance, for example, lullabies were performed in a special “curling” manner, which made the song similar to the singing of a crane.
Shamans had special songs. They were always performed extremely emotionally, as if conveying the messages of patron spirits. They sang their chants, accompanied by blows to the tambourine, which was beaten with a special shaman's stick, thick and soft.
Of the musical instruments among the Chukchi, tambourines were especially common. Their design was different for different Chukchi peoples. Among the coastal Chukchi, the handle of the tambourine was attached to the rim, while among the tundra, the cruciform handle was located on the bottom of the tambourine. Tambourines were divided into men's, women's and children's. He was very cherished in the family, and was considered a shrine. On holidays, while singing songs, the tambourine was struck with a special whalebone stick.
In addition to the tambourine, the traditional folk musical instruments of the Chukchi include a lamellar jew's harp, which was made from a birch, bone or metal plate. In other words, a jew's harp is a mouth tambourine.
The stringed musical instruments of the Chukchi are lutes. They were made tubular, box-shaped or hollowed out from a solid piece of wood. The material of the bow was whalebone, willow splinters, and for the manufacture of strings, veins or intestines were used, and only in later times - metal.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR CULTURE AND CINEMATOGRAPHY
FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"KHABAROVSK STATE INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND CULTURE"
Musical culture of the natives of Chukotka
In the discipline "History of Music of the Far East"
Executor:
Student 514 gr.
Vasilyeva M.Yu.
Khabarovsk
Introduction
Eskimos
cultureand Eskimo art
Eskimo life
Holidays, folklore
Music (aingananga)
Eskimo miniature
Musical instruments
Chukchi
Life and activities
Beliefs and rituals
Throat singing
Conclusion
Introduction
The musical culture of the natives of Chukotka is based on life, occupation, beliefs and rituals, depends on the ancestral home and settlement, and the territorial affiliation of the peoples. The Chukchi have developed musical creativity based on melodies, which in turn are based on the sounds of nature. The basis of the Eskimo musical folklore is miniatures, which have no analogues in world culture.
Eskimos
From the encyclopedia:
Eskimos, a people settled from the east. tip of Chukotka to Greenland. The total number is about 90 thousand people. (1975, est.). They speak Eskimo. Anthropologically, they belong to the Arctic type of the Mongoloids. E. formed about 5-4 thousand years ago in the region of the Bering Sea and settled in the East - to Greenland, reaching it long before our time. e. E. remarkably adapted to life in the Arctic, creating a rotary harpoon for hunting the sea. animal, a kayak boat, a snow dwelling igloo, deaf fur clothing, etc. For the original culture of E. in the 18-19 centuries. were characterized by a combination of hunting at sea. beast and caribou deer, significant remnants of primitive collectivistic norms in the distribution of prey, the life of the territory. communities. Religion - cults of spirits, some animals. In the 19th century E. did not have (except, perhaps, the Bering Sea) tribal and developed tribal organization. As a result of contacts with the alien population, great changes took place in the life of foreign emigrants.
A significant part of them passed from the sea. fishing for fox hunting, and in Greenland - for commercial fishing. Part of E., especially in Greenland, became hired workers. The local petty bourgeoisie also appeared here. E. Zap. Greenland formed in the div. people - Greenlanders who do not consider themselves E. On Labrador, E. to a large extent mixed with the old-timers us. European origin. Everywhere, the remnants of traditional E. culture are rapidly disappearing.
In the USSR, the Eskimos are few in number. ethnic group (1308 people, 1970 census), living mixed or in close proximity to the Chukchi in a number of settlements, points of the east. coast of Chukotka and on about. Wrangel. Their traditions. occupation - sea. animal hunting. Over the years of the Soviet authorities in x-ve and everyday life of E. there were radical changes. From the yaranga, E. move to well-appointed houses. In the collective farms, in which E. and Chukchi usually unite, a mechanizer develops. diversified economy (marine hunting, reindeer herding, hunting, etc.). Illiteracy was eliminated among the E., and an intelligentsia formed.
Eskimo culture and art
The Eskimos created original musical, dance, as well as arts and crafts and depict art. Excavations discovered related to con. 1st millennium BC e. - 1st mill. e. bone harpoon and arrowheads, so-called. winged objects (presumably boat prow decorations), stylized figurines of people and animals, models of kayak boats decorated with images of people and animals, as well as intricate carvings. Among the characteristic types of Eskimo art of the 18-20th centuries are the manufacture of figurines from a walrus tusk (less often - soapstone), wood carving, art, appliqué and embroidery (patterns from deer fur and leather that decorate clothes and household items).
Eskimo life
The main type of economic activity was marine hunting. Until the middle of the XIX century. The main hunting tools were a spear with an arrow-shaped double-edged tip (pan), a rotary harpoon (ung'ak') with a detachable tip made of bone. They used canoes and kayaks to navigate the water. Baidara (anyapik) - light, fast and stable on the water. Its wooden frame was covered with walrus skin. The canoes were of different types - from single to huge 25-seater sailboats.
On land they moved on arc-dusty sleds. Dogs harnessed "fan". From the middle of the XIX century. the sledges were pulled by dogs harnessed by a train (a team of the East Siberian type). Short dustless sleds with runners made of walrus tusks (kanrak) were also used. On the snow they went skiing - "racquets" (in the form of a frame of two planks with fastened ends and transverse struts, intertwined with sealskin straps and lined with bone plates from below), on ice - with the help of special bone spikes mounted on shoes.
The way sea animals were hunted depended on their seasonal migrations. Two seasons of whale hunting corresponded to the time of their passage through the Bering Strait: in spring to the north, in autumn - to the south. Whales were shot with harpoons from several canoes, and later with harpoon guns.
The most important object of the fishery was the walrus. From the end of the 19th century new fishing weapons and equipment appeared. Hunting for fur-bearing animals spread. The extraction of walruses and seals replaced the whaling industry, which had fallen into decay. When there was not enough meat from sea animals, they shot wild deer and mountain sheep, birds, and fished with a bow.
The clothes of the Asian Eskimos are deaf, made of deer and seal skins. Back in the 19th century They also made clothes from bird skins. They wore fur stockings and seal torbasas (kamgyk) on their feet. Waterproof shoes were made from dressed seal skins without wool. Fur hats and mittens were worn only when moving (roaming). Clothing was decorated with embroidery or fur mosaics. Until the 18th century the Eskimos, piercing the nasal septum or lower lip, hung walrus teeth, bone rings and glass beads.
Male tattoo - circles in the corners of the mouth, female - straight or concave parallel lines on the forehead, nose and chin. A more complex geometric ornament was applied to the cheeks. They covered with a tattoo their arms, hands, forearms.
Traditional food is the meat and fat of seals, walruses and whales. The meat was eaten raw, dried, dried, frozen, boiled, harvested for the winter: fermented in pits and eaten with fat, sometimes in a semi-cooked form. Raw whale fat with a layer of cartilaginous skin (mantak) was considered a delicacy. The fish was dried and dried, and freshly frozen in winter. Reindeer meat was highly valued, which was exchanged among the Chukchi for the skins of marine animals.
Holidays, folklore
The Eskimos were practically not Christianized. They believed in spirits, the masters of all animate and inanimate objects, natural phenomena, localities, wind directions, various human states, in the family relationship of a person with any animal or object. There were ideas about the creator of the world, they called him Sila. He was the creator and master of the universe, followed the observance of the customs of the ancestors. The main sea deity, the mistress of sea animals was Sedna, who sent prey to people. Evil spirits were presented in the form of giants or dwarfs, or other fantastic creatures that sent diseases and misfortunes to people.
In each village there lived a shaman (usually it was a man, but female shamans are also known), who was an intermediary between evil spirits and people. Only the one who heard the voice of the helper spirit could become a shaman. 
After that, the future shaman had to meet alone with the spirits and conclude an alliance with them about mediation.
Fishing holidays were dedicated to the extraction of a large animal. Especially famous are the holidays on the occasion of whale hunting, which were held either in the fall, at the end of the hunting season - "seeing off the whale", or in the spring - "meeting the whale". There were also holidays for the beginning of sea hunting, or "launching canoes into the water" and a holiday for "walrus heads" dedicated to the results of the spring-summer fishery. 
Eskimo folklore is rich and varied.
All types of oral creativity are divided into unipak - "message", "news" and unipamsyuk - stories about events in the past, heroic legends, fairy tales or myths. Among the fairy tales, a special place is occupied by the cycle about the crow Kutkh, the demiurge and the trickster, who creates and develops the universe.
The earliest stages in the development of the Eskimo Arctic culture include bone carving: 
sculptural miniature, and artistic bone engraving. The ornament covered hunting equipment, household items; images of animals and fantastic creatures served as amulets and decorations.
Music (aingananga)- mostly vocal. Songs are subdivided into "large" public - songs-hymns, which are sung by ensembles and "small" intimate - "songs of the soul". They are performed solo, sometimes accompanied by a tambourine. It is almost impossible to apply any well-established well-known patterns to Eskimo music. Rhythms do not fit into time signatures and are based on pure memorization. The main musical "invention" of the Eskimos is considered miniature.
Eskimo miniature
The Eskimo miniature itself is a song and dance composition of 2 partial forms, where the second one repeats the first one at an accelerated pace with enhanced dynamics. The miniatures reveal life, trade, nature, the habits of animals, in general, everything that surrounded them in everyday life. Each movement carries a certain semantic load.
Musical instruments
Tambourine- personal and family shrine (sometimes used by shamans). It is central to music. A tambourine was made from a walrus bladder stretched over a wooden ring (shell).
Also often in the Eskimo musical culture there is an instrument "khomus", or "vannyarar". There are not many performers in history. And, since the instrument itself among the Chukchi was made mainly of whalebone, the sound was quiet, which was applicable mainly only in rooms and was not widely used.
Chukchi
Chukchi, (self-name, "real people").
The number in the Russian Federation is 15.1 thousand people, the indigenous population of the Chukotka Aut. districts (11.9 thousand people). They also live in the north of the Koryak Aut. districts (1.5 thousand people) and in the Nizhne-Kolymsky district of Yakutia (1.3 thousand people), they speak the Chukchi language.
The first mention of the Chukchi,
In Russian documents - from the 40s of the 17th century, they are divided into "deer" and "foot". Reindeer herders wandered in the tundra and on the coast of the Arctic Ocean between Alazeya and Kolyma, at Cape Shelagsky and further east to the Bering Strait. Settlements of "pedestrian" Chukchi, sedentary sea hunters, were located together with the Eskimos between Cape Dezhnev and the Gulf of the Cross and further south in the lower reaches of the Anadyr and the Kanchalan River. The number of Chukchi in the late 17th century. was about 8-9 thousand people.
Contacts with the Russians were originally preserved mainly in the lower Kolyma. Attempts to impose yasak on the Lower Kolyma Chukchi, military campaigns against them in the middle of the 17th century did not bring results. Due to military conflicts and a smallpox epidemic, the number of the Lower Kolyma Chukchi decreased sharply, the rest migrated to the east.
From the end of the 18th century, trade contacts between the Chukchi and the Russians intensified. According to the "Charter on the management of foreigners" of 1822, the Chukchi did not carry duties, they paid yasak voluntarily, receiving gifts for this. The established peaceful relations with the Russians, Koryaks and Yukagirs, the development of pastoral reindeer husbandry, contributed to the further expansion of the territory of the Chukchi to the west. By the 1830s, they penetrated the river. Bolshaya Baranikha, by the 1850s - to the lower Kolyma, by the mid-1860s - in the interfluve of the Kolyma and Indigirka; to the south - the territory of the Koryaks, between Penzhina and Korfa Bay, where they were partially assimilated by the Koryaks. In the east, the assimilation of the Chukchi - the Eskimos - intensified. In the 1850s American whalers joined the trade with the coastal Chukchi. The expansion of the territory inhabited by the Chukchi was accompanied by the final allocation of territorial groups: Kolyma, Anyui, or Maloanyui, Chaun, Omolon, Amguem, or Amguemo-Vonkarem, Kolyuchi-Mechigmen, Onmylen (internal Chukchi), Tuman, or Vilyunei, Olyutor, Bering Sea ( sea Chukchi) and others. In 1897, the number of Chukchi was 11,751 people. Since the end of the 19th century, due to the extermination of the sea animal, the number of coastal Chukchi has fallen sharply, by 1926 it amounted to 30% of all Chukchi. Modern descendants of the coastal Chukchi live in the village of Sirenki, Novo Chaplino, Providence, Nunligran, Enmelen, Yanrakynnot, Inchoun, Lorino, Lavrentiya, Neshkan, Uelen, Enurmino on the eastern coast of Chukotka.
In 1930, the Chukotka National Okrug was formed (since 1977 - an auth. Okrug). The ethnic development of the Chukchi in the 20th century, especially during the consolidation of collective farms and the formation of state farms from the 2nd half of the 50s, is characterized by the consolidation and overcoming of the isolation of individual groups
Ancestral home and resettlement of the Chukchi
The Chukchi were subdivided into deer - tundra nomadic reindeer herders (the self-name of chauchu is "deer man")
and seaside - sedentary hunters of sea animals (self-name ankalyn - "coastal"), living together with the Eskimos.
These groups were connected by kinship and natural exchange. Self-names are widespread according to the place of residence or wandering: uvelelit - "Uelentsy", "chaalyt" - "Chukchi roaming along the Chaun River". These self-names are preserved, even among the inhabitants of modern enlarged settlements. The names of smaller groups within the settlements: tapkaralyt - "living on the spit", gynonralyt - "living in the center", etc. Among the western Chukchi, the self-name chugchit (probably from chauchu) is common.
Initially, the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk was considered the ancestral home of the Chukchi, from where they moved north, assimilating part of the Yukagirs and Eskimos. According to modern research, the ancestors of the Chukchi and their kindred Koryaks lived in the inner regions of Chukotka.
Occupying the habitat of the Eskimos, the Chukchi partially assimilated them and borrowed many features of their culture (fat lamps, curtains, the design and shape of tambourines, fishing rites and holidays, pantomime dances, etc.). Long-term interaction with the Eskimos also affected the language and worldview of the indigenous Chukchi. As a result of contacts between the land and sea hunting culture, the Chukchi had an economic division of labor. Yukagir elements also took part in the ethnogenesis of the Chukchi. Contacts with the Yukaghirs became relatively stable at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, when the Yukaghirs, under the influence of the Evens, moved eastward, into the basin of the Anadyr River. Reindeer husbandry developed among the tundra Chukchi, apparently under the influence of the Koryaks, shortly before the appearance of the Russians.
Life and activities
The main occupations of the tundra Chukchi are nomadic reindeer herding,
which had a pronounced meat-skin character. They also used riding reindeer in harness.
The herds were comparatively large in size, the deer were poorly trained, they grazed without the help of dogs. In winter, the herds were kept in places sheltered from the wind, migrating several times during the winter; in the summer, men went with the herd to the tundra, women, old people and children
lived in camps along the banks of rivers or the sea. The deer were not milked, sometimes the shepherds sucked out the milk. Urine was used to lure deer. Deer were castrated by biting the seed canals.
The main occupations of the coastal Chukchi are hunting for sea animals: in winter and spring - for seals and seals, in summer and autumn - for walrus and whale. The seals were hunted alone, crawling up to them, disguised themselves and imitated the movements of the animal. The walrus was hunted in groups, several canoes each. Traditional hunting weapons - a harpoon with a float, a spear, a belt net, from the 2nd floor. 19th century firearms spread, hunting methods became simpler. Sometimes seals were shot at high speed from a sled.
Fishing, except for the Anadyr, Kolyma and Sauna basins, was poorly developed. Fishing was done by men. Fish were caught with a net, milk, nets. In summer - with a canoe, in winter - in the hole. Salmon was harvested for the future.
Before the advent of firearms, wild deer and mountain sheep were hunted, which were subsequently almost completely exterminated. Under the influence of trade with the Russians, the fur trade spread. Until now, hunting for birds with the help of "bol" has been preserved - throwing tools from several ropes with loads that entangled a flying bird. Previously, when hunting birds, they also used darts with a throwing board, loop-traps; eiders were beaten with sticks in the water. Women and children also collected edible plants. To dig out the roots, they used a tool with a tip made of horn, later - iron.
Traditional crafts are fur dressing, weaving bags from fireweed and wild rye fibers for women, bone processing for men. Artistic carving, and engraving on bone and walrus tusk, appliqué made of fur and sealskin, embroidery with deer hair are developed. The Chukchi ornament is characterized by a small geometric pattern. In the 19th century, artisanal associations arose on the east coast to produce walrus ivory carvings for sale. In the 20th century plot engraving on bone and walrus tusk developed (works by Vukvol, Vukvutagin, Gemauge, Khalmo, Ichel, Ettugi, etc.). The workshop in the village of Uelen (founded in 1931) became the center of bone carving art.
In the 2nd floor. 19th century many Chukchi began to be hired on whaling schooners and gold mines.
The social system of the Chukchi, by the beginning of contacts with the Russians, was characterized by the development of a patriarchal community into a neighboring one, the development of property, and differentiation. Deer, dogs, dwellings and canoes were in private ownership, pastures and hunting grounds were in communal ownership. The main social unit of the tundra Ch. was a camp of 3-4 related families; the camps of the poor could unite unrelated families, and their workers lived with their families in the camps of large reindeer herders. Groups of 15-20 camps were connected by mutual assistance. Primorsky Ch. united several families into a canoe community, headed by the owner of the canoe. Among the deer Ch., there were patrilineal related groups (varat), connected by common customs (blood feud, transmission of ritual fire, common signs on the face during sacrifices, etc.). Until the 18th century patriarchal slavery was known. The family in the past is large patriarchal, to the con. 19th century - small patrilocal. According to the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride, accompanied by relatives, came to the groom on her deer. At the yaranga, a deer was slaughtered and the bride, groom and their relatives applied the groom's birth marks on their faces with its blood. The name of the child was usually given 2-3 weeks after birth. There were elements of group marriage ("variable marriage"), work for the bride, the rich - polygamy. Many problems in deer Ch. arose with a disproportion in the sexual structure (there were fewer women than men).
The main dwelling of the Chukchi is a collapsible cylindrical-conical tent-yaranga made of deer skins for the tundra, and walrus skins for the coastal ones. The arch rested on three poles in the center. Inside, the yaranga was partitioned off with curtains in the form of large deaf fur bags stretched on poles, illuminated and heated by a stone, clay or wooden fat lamp, on which food was also cooked. They sat on skins, tree roots or deer antlers. Dogs were also kept in the yarangas. The Yaranga of the Primorye Chukchi differed from the dwellings of reindeer herders by the absence of a smoke hole. Until the end of the 19th century, the coastal Chukchi retained a semi-dugout, borrowed from the Eskimos (valkaran - "house from the jaws of a whale") - on a frame of whale bones covered with turf and earth. In summer it was entered through a hole in the roof, in winter - through a long corridor. The camps of the nomadic Chukchi consisted of 2-10 yarangas, they were stretched from east to west, the first from the west was the yaranga of the head of the community. The settlements of the coastal Chukchi numbered up to 20 or more yarangas, randomly scattered.
Tundra Chukchi traveled on sleds on reindeer, coastal Chukchi - on dogs. In the middle of the 19th century, under the influence of the Russians, the East Siberian sled and the train team spread among the coastal Chukchi, before that the dogs were harnessed with a fan. They also used stub skis, racquets, in the Kolyma - sliding skis borrowed from the Evenks. On the water they moved in canoes - boats accommodating from one to 20-30 people, made of walrus skins, with oars and a slanting sail.
Traditional clothing is deaf, from the skins of deer and seals. Men wore a knee-length double kukhlyanka shirt, belted with a belt, to which they hung a knife, a pouch, etc., tight double trousers, short shoes with fur stockings. At Among the coastal Chukchi, clothes made from walrus intestines were common. Hats were rarely worn, mostly on the road. Women's clothing - fur overalls (kerker), double in winter, single in summer, fur boots knee-length. They wore bracelets and necklaces, and a face tattoo was common: circles around the edges of the mouth for men and two stripes along the nose and forehead for women. Men cut their hair in a circle, shaving the crown, women braided it in two braids.
The main food of the "deer" Chukchi is venison, coastal - the meat of a sea animal. The meat was consumed raw, boiled and dried.
During the mass slaughter of deer, the contents of deer stomachs (rilkeil) were prepared for future use, boiling it with the addition of blood and fat. The Primorsky Chukchi harvested the meat of large animals - whale, walrus, beluga whale - for future use, fermenting it in pits (kopal-gyn), sewing it into skins. Fish was eaten raw, in Anadyr and Kolyma they made yukola from salmon.
Dwarf willow leaves, sorrel, roots were harvested for future use - frozen, fermented, mixed with fat, blood, rilkeil. Koloboks were made from crushed roots with meat and walrus fat. From imported flour, they boiled porridge, fried cakes on seal fat. Seaweed and shellfish were also consumed.
Beliefs and rituals
Christianization practically did not affect the Chukchi. At the beginning of the twentieth century, about 1.5 thousand Chukchi were registered as Orthodox. Belief in spirits was widespread. Diseases and disasters were attributed to the action of evil spirits (kelet), hunting for human souls and bodies and devouring them. Among the animals, the polar bear, whale, and walrus were especially revered. Each family had a set of sacred objects: a bunch of amulets, a tambourine, a device for making fire in the form of a rough anthropomorphic board with recesses in which a bow drill rotated; the fire obtained in this way was considered sacred, could be transmitted only among relatives in the male line. The dead were burned at the stake or left in the tundra, before that they were dressed in funeral clothes, usually made of white skins. Old people, as well as in cases of serious illness, grief, resentment, etc. voluntary death at the hands of a relative was often preferred; it was believed that it provides the best posthumous fate. Shamanism was developed. Shamans imitated the voices of animals, accompanied their actions by playing tambourines, singing or recitative, and dancing. Male shamans who imitated women were especially revered, and vice versa. The shamans did not have a special costume.
Traditional holidays were associated with households, cycles: among the "deer" Chukchi - with the autumn and winter slaughter of deer, calving, herd migration for summer and return from there. The holidays of the Primorye Chukchi are close to those of the Eskimos. In the spring, a canoe festival on the occasion of the first going to sea. In the summer - a holiday of heads on the occasion of the end of the seal hunt. In autumn - a sacrifice to the sea, in late autumn - the holiday of Keretkun, the owner of sea animals, depicted in the form of a wooden figure, burned at the end of the holiday. The holidays were accompanied by dances with a tambourine, pantomime, and sacrifices. Among the "deer" Chukchi, deer, meat, figurines made of fat, snow, wood, etc. were sacrificed, among the Primorye - dogs.
The folklore of the Chukchi includes cosmogonic myths, mythological and historical legends, fairy tales about spirits, animals, the adventures of shamans, bylichki, etc. Mythology has common features with the myths of the Koryaks, Itelmens, Eskimos and North American Indians: the story of the Crow - the trickster and the demiurge, etc.
traditional musical instruments- jew's harp (khomus), tambourine (yarar), etc. - were made of wood, bone, whalebone. In addition to ritual dances, impromptu entertaining pantomime dances were also common. The pichainen dance (literally "sing with the throat") is characteristic, accompanied by throat singing and shouting.
dancing.
Throat singing
Since ancient times, throat singing has been considered widespread among the Chukchi rituals and holidays. Real craftsmen shocked those who heard it for the first time. The sounds turned out to be truly “inhuman”, powerful and caused “frost on the skin”. Often on holidays they organized competitions in throat singing.
Conclusion
Differences in the culture of the Chukchi and the Eskimos are gradually being erased. But ancient musical creativity still remains separate and easily distinguishable.
Since the 1990s The problems of the revival of the traditional culture of the Chukchi and Eskimos are dealt with by the Association of the Peoples of Chukotka. National ensembles preserve the musical and dance culture of the natives of the North of the Far East.
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