The most important fundamental concepts of the physical description of nature include space, time, movement and matter.
In the modern physical picture of the world, ideas about relativity of space and time, their dependence on matter. Space and time cease to be independent of each other and, according to the theory of relativity, merge into a single four-dimensional space-time continuum.
The idea of movement, which becomes only a special case of physical interaction. Four types of fundamental physical interactions are known: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak. They are described on the basis of the principle of short-range action, interaction, are transmitted by the corresponding fields from point to point, the transmission rate of interaction is always finite and cannot exceed the speed of light in vacuum (300,000 km/s).
1. Corpuscular - wave dualism of matter. Quantum-field picture of the world. Matter is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them - this is a philosophical definition of matter.
In classical natural science, two types of matter are distinguished: matter and field. According to modern concepts, the existence of another type of matter is recognized - the physical vacuum.
In Newton's classical mechanics, a material particle of small size acts as material formations - a corpuscle, often called a material point, and a physical body, as a single system of corpuscles, somehow interconnected. The specific forms of these material formations, according to classical ideas, are a grain of sand, stone, water, etc.
In the nineteenth century, with the emergence of ideas about electromagnetic field a new era in natural science began.
The Danish physicist Oersted (1777 - 1851) and the French physicist Ampère (1775 - 1836) showed by experiment that a conductor with an electric current generates the effect of deflecting a magnetic needle. Oersted suggested that there is a magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor, which is vortex. Ampere noticed that magnetic phenomena occur when current flows through an electric circuit. A new science appeared - electrodynamics.
The English physicist Faraday (1791 - 1867) discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction - the occurrence of current in a conductor near a moving magnet.
Based on the discoveries of Faraday in the field of electromagnetism, the English mathematician and physicist Maxwell (1831 - 1879) introduces the concept of an electromagnetic field.
According to Maxwell's theory, each charged particle is surrounded by a field - an invisible halo that affects other charged particles nearby, i.e. the field of one charged particle acts on other charged particles with some force.
The electromagnetic field theory has introduced a new idea that the electromagnetic field is a reality, a material carrier of interaction. The world gradually began to be represented as an electrodynamic system built from electrically charged particles interacting through an electrical fields.
2. Quantum mechanics. At the end of the third decade of the twentieth century, classical physics came to difficulties in describing the phenomena of the microworld. There was a need to develop new research methods. A new mechanics arises - quantum theory, which establishes the method of description and the laws of motion of microparticles.
In 1901, the German physicist Max Planck (1858 - 1947), while studying thermal radiation, came to the conclusion that in radiation processes, energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously, but only in small portions - quanta, moreover, the energy of each quantum is proportional to the frequency of the emitted radiation: Е= hy, where y is the frequency of light, h is Planck's constant.
In 1905, Einstein applied Planck's hypothesis to light and came to the conclusion that the corpuscular structure of light should be recognized.
The quantum theory of matter and radiation was confirmed in experiments (the photoelectric effect), which revealed that when solids are irradiated with light, electrons are knocked out of them. A photon hits an atom and knocks an electron out of it.
Einstein explained this so-called photoelectric effect on the basis of quantum theory, proving that the energy required to free an electron depends on the frequency of light. (light quantum) absorbed by the substance.
It was proved that light in experiments on diffraction and interference exhibits wave properties, and in experiments on the photoelectric effect - corpuscular, i.e. can behave both as a particle and as a wave, which means it has dualism.
Einstein's ideas about light quanta led to the idea of "waves of matter", this served as the basis for the development of the theory of wave-particle duality of matter.
In 1924 the French physicist Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) came to the conclusion that the combination of wave and particle properties is a fundamental property of matter. Wave properties are inherent in all types of matter (electrons, protons, atoms, molecules, even macroscopic bodies).
In 1927, the American scientists Davis and Germer and, independently of them, P.S. Tartakovsky discovered the wave properties of electrons in experiments on electron diffraction on crystal structures. Later, wave properties were also discovered in other microparticles (neutrons, atoms, molecules). Based on the system of wave mechanics formulas, new elementary particles were predicted and discovered.
Modern physics has recognized the corpuscular-wave dualism of matter. Any material object manifests itself both as a particle and as a wave, depending on the conditions of observation.
With the development of the theory of physical vacuum, the definition of matter is supplemented. Modern definition of matter: matter is substance, field and physical vacuum.
The theory of physical vacuum is under development, the nature of vacuum has not been fully explored, but it is known that not a single material particle can exist without the presence of vacuum, this is the environment in which it exists and from which it appears. Vacuum and matter are inseparable.
3. Principles of modern physics. In 1925 the Swiss physicist W. pauli(1900-1958) substantiated principle: in any quantum system (atom), 2 or more electrons cannot be in the same quantum state (at the same energy level or in the same orbit). The Pauli principle determines the patterns of filling the electron shells of atoms, the periodicity of their chemical properties, valence, and reactivity. This is a fundamental law of nature.
In 1924, N. Bohr formulated complementarity principle: no theory can describe the object in such a comprehensive way as to exclude the possibility of alternative approaches. An example is the solution of the situation of corpuscular-wave dualism of matter. "The concepts of particle and wave complement each other and at the same time contradict each other, they are complementary pictures of what is happening."
In 1927, the German physicist W. Heisenberg formulated the famous uncertainty principle. The meaning of which is that it is impossible to simultaneously measure both the coordinates and the velocity (momentum) of the particle. You can never know at the same time where a particle is and how fast and in what direction it is moving.
The uncertainty relation expresses the impossibility of observing the microworld without violating it. Example: if in an experiment it is necessary to set the coordinate of a particle with a known speed, it must be illuminated, i.e. direct a beam of photons, however, photons colliding with particles will transfer part of the energy to them and the particle will begin to move with a new speed and in a new direction. The observer-experimenter intervening in the system, infiltrating it with his devices, violates the current order of events.
The main idea of quantum mechanics is that, in the microcosm, the idea of the probability of events is decisive. Predictions in quantum mechanics are probabilistic in nature, it is impossible to accurately predict the result of an experiment, you can only calculate the probability of different outcomes of the experiment.
From the point of view of physics, at the micro level, statistical regularities dominate, on the macro level dynamic laws. Philosophical understanding of the uncertainty principle shows that randomness and uncertainty are a fundamental property of nature and are inherent in both the microcosm and the macrocosm - the world of human activity.
4. Elementary particles and forces in nature. Today, there are 4 levels of organization of the microworld: molecular, atomic, proton (nucleon) and quark.
Elementary particles are called such particles that, at the present level of development of science, cannot be considered a combination of other, simpler ones.
Distinguish real particles– they can be fixed with instruments and virtual- possible, the existence of which can only be judged indirectly.
Aristotle considered matter to be continuous, that is, any piece of matter can be crushed to infinity. Democritus believed that matter has a granular structure, and that everything in the world is made up of various atoms that are absolutely indivisible.
The collapse of the ideas about the absolute indivisibility of the atom that existed until the end of the 19th century began with the discovery in 1897 by the English physicist J. Thomson of the simplest elementary particle of matter - electron, which flew out of the atom. In 1911, the English physicist Ernst Rutherford proved that the atoms of matter have an internal structure: they consist of a positively charged nuclei and electrons revolving around it.
At first it was assumed that the nucleus of an atom consists of positively charged particles, which they called protons. In 1932, James Chadwig discovered that there are still other particles in the nucleus - neutrons, whose mass is equal to the mass of a proton, but which are not charged.
In 1928, the theoretical physicist P. Dirac proposed a wave theory of the electron, based on its corpuscular-wave nature. According to the wave-particle theory, particles can behave like a wave. One of the premises of this theory was that there must be an elementary particle with the same properties as electron but with a positive charge. Such a particle was discovered and named positron. It also followed from Dirac's theory that the positron and electron interacting with each other ( annihilation reaction), form a pair photons, i.e. quanta of electromagnetic radiation. A positron and an electron move in the same orbital. Colliding, they turn into radiation quanta.
In the 1960s, protons and neutrons were considered elementary particles. But it turned out that protons and neutrons are composed of even smaller particles. In 1964, American scientists M. Gell-Mann and D. Zweig independently put forward a similar hypothesis of the existence of "subparticles". Gell-Mann called them quarks. The name was taken from a line of poetry (Joyce's "Finegans Wake").
Several varieties of quarks are known; it is suggested that there are six flavors that are answered: upper (u), lower (d), strange, enchanted, beautiful,t- sq.… The quark of each flavor can have one of three colors - red, yellow and blue, although this is just a designation.
Quarks differ from each other in terms of charge and quantum characteristics. For example, a neutron and a proton are each made up of three quarks: proton - fromuud, with charge +2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = 1;
neutron fromudd, with charge +2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0.
Each quark, according to the law of symmetry, has an antiquark.
The quantum characteristic is the spin: S = 0; S=1; S = 2; S = ½.. Spin is a very important quantum characteristic of an elementary particle, no less important than charge or mass.
In 2008, in Europe, with the joint efforts of physicists from many countries, a hadron collider was built, as a result of which, it is possible to obtain information about the “initial bricks” from which matter is built in nature.
5. Fundamental physical interactions. In the first half of the twentieth century, physics studied matter in its two manifestations - matter and field. Moreover, field quanta and matter particles obey different quantum statistics and behave in different ways.
The particles of matter are fermi-particles ( fermions). All fermions have a half-integer spin, ½. For particles with a half-integer spin, the Pauli principle is valid, according to which two identical particles with a half-integer spin cannot be in the same quantum state.
All field quanta are Bose particles (bosons). These are particles with an integer value of the spin. Systems of identical Bose particles obey Bose–Einstein statistics. The Pauli principle is not valid for them: any number of particles can be in one state. Bose and Fermi particles are considered as particles of different nature.
According to modern concepts, interaction of any type does not proceed without an intermediary, it must have its own physical agent. The attraction or repulsion of particles is transmitted through the medium that separates them, such a medium is vacuum. The transmission rate of interaction is limited by a fundamental limit - the speed of light.
In quantum mechanics, it is assumed that all forces or interactions between particles of matter are carried by particles with integer spins equal to 0, 1, 2 (Bose particles, bosons). This happens as follows, a particle of matter (fermion), such as an electron or a quark, emits another particle, which is the carrier of interaction, such as a photon. As a result of recoil, the velocity of a particle of matter (fermion) changes. A carrier particle (boson) collides with another particle of matter (fermion) and is absorbed by it. This collision changes the speed of the second particle.
Carrier particles (bosons) exchanged between particles of matter (fermions) are called virtual, because, unlike real ones, they cannot be directly registered with a particle detector, since they exist for a very short time.
So, a field is created around a particle of matter (fermion), which generates particles - bosons. Two real particles, being within the radius of action of the same type of charges, begin to stably exchange virtual bosons: one particle emits a boson and immediately absorbs an identical boson emitted by another partner particle and vice versa.
Carrier particles can be classified into 4 types depending on the magnitude of the transferred interaction and on which particles they interacted with. Thus, in nature there are four types of interaction.
gravitational force.
This is the weakest of all interactions. In the macrocosm, it manifests itself the stronger, the greater the mass of the interacting bodies, and in the microcosm it is lost against the background of more powerful forces.
In the quantum mechanical approach to the gravitational field, it is believed that the gravitational force acting between two particles of matter is transferred by a particle with spin 2, which is called graviton. The graviton does not have its own mass and the force it carries is long-range.
Electromagnetic forces.
They act between electrically charged particles. Thanks to electromagnetic forces, atoms, molecules and macroscopic bodies arise. All chemical reactions are electromagnetic interactions.
According to quantum electrodynamics, a charge creates a field, the quantum of which is a massless boson with spin equal 1 - photon. The carrier of electromagnetic interaction is a photon.
Electromagnetic forces are much stronger than gravitational ones. These forces can manifest themselves as both attraction and repulsion, in contrast to gravitational forces, which manifest themselves only as attraction.
Weak interaction.
This third fundamental interaction exists only in the microcosm. It is responsible for radioactivity and exists between all particles of matter with spin ½, but boson particles with spin 0, 1, 2 - photons and gravitons do not participate in it.
Radioactive decay is caused by the transformation of the flavor quark d into the flavor quark u inside the neutron (a proton turns into a neutron, a positron into a neutrino), the particle charge changes. The emitted neutrino has a tremendous penetrating power - it passes through an iron plate a billion kilometers thick. The Sun shines due to the weak force.
Strong interaction.
Strong interactions are the mutual attraction of the constituent parts of the nucleus of an atom. They keep quarks inside the proton and neutron, and protons and neutrons inside the nucleus. Without strong interactions, atomic nuclei would not exist, and stars and the Sun could not generate heat and light due to nuclear energy.
The strong interaction is manifested in nuclear forces. They were discovered by E. Rutherford in 1911 simultaneously with the discovery of the atomic nucleus. According to Yukawa's hypothesis, strong interactions consist in the emission of an intermediate particle - a pi-meson - a carrier of nuclear forces, as well as other mesons found later (the mass of mesons is 6 times less than the mass of nucleons). Nucleons (protons and neutrons) are surrounded by clouds of mesons. Nucleons can come into excited states - baryon resonances, and exchange other particles (mesons).
The dream of modern physicists is to build grand unification theory, which would unite all four interactions.
Today, physicists believe that they can create this theory based on superstring theory. This theory should unify all fundamental interactions at superhigh energies.
Questions:
How were the corpuscular and wave properties of matter proven?
What does quantum mechanics study and why is it called that?
What is a vacuum and what does "excited vacuum" mean?
What is the complementarity principle?
What is the uncertainty principle?
Describe the principle of symmetry.
How are the principles of symmetry and the laws of conservation of physical quantities related?
What is the significance of the superposition principle in quantum mechanics?
What is the specificity of the device-object relationship in quantum mechanics?
Give a definition of matter according to modern ideas.
What is the difference between matter and field?
What are protons and neutrons made of?
What fundamental interactions are currently combined?
Literature:
Dubnishcheva T.Ya. KSE. 2003. - S. 238-261. pp. 265-309.
Gorelov A.A. KSE. - 2004. - S. 79-94
Ignatova V.A. Natural science. 2002. - P.110-125 ..
Heisenberg V. Steps beyond the horizon. - M. - 1987.
Landau L.D. etc. Course of general physics. - M: Nauka, 1969. - S.195-214.
Weinberg S. Dreams of the Final Theory. M. - 1995.
Lindner G. Pictures of modern physics. - M. - 1977.
MODERN CHEMICAL PICTURE OF THE WORLD
Lecture topic: Physics of matter.
definition
Matter is a tangible and intangible content existing in space,
filling (occupying) a place in space, possessing physical properties.
Simply put, matter is everything that exists (is present) in space, regardless of its own nature, including tangible and intangible. All this is matter.
What should be understood in this regard:
It is necessary to clearly understand what is matter and what is not matter.
Not everything that people have an idea about is matter.
Matter is not space itself, but only what is located in it.
This is the first important position to understand.
The second important point to understand is that
matter is not information and abstractions.
And in relation to information, only the carrier of information, and not the information itself, can be material.
That is, matter is separate, space is separate, and information is separate, all fantasies, images, thought forms and glitches are all separate. They are not matter.
We will not be able to break grandmother's TV with dumbbells in a dream of grandfather.
Based on the definition of matter as “a content that exists in space and has properties”), we can easily distinguish the material from the non-material, for example, how does a real material (existing in reality) penguin differ from an imaginary non-material (non-existing in reality).
A real penguin has physical properties, fills a place in space and has an extension. An imaginary penguin, on the contrary, has no real properties, does not fill a place in space and is present not in space, but in the imagination of an individual, and only in a virtual form, for example, in the form of a certain image.
The location of the imaginary penguin is not the real world, not space, but an abstract "world" - imagination.
And such a penguin straightens its shoulders not in space, but in the imagination of the individual.
And we will not be able to detect in the human brain either imagination itself, or that puddle where an imaginary penguin is splashing.
If we wish, we can try to designate in space the dimensions of an imaginary penguin, but we cannot fill the chosen place with an imaginary penguin.
An imaginary penguin has no non-fictional properties.
An imaginary penguin will not bake in the oven, and we will not even be able to prepare such a penguin for the winter, let alone take it away from Obama.
We can't douse an imaginary penguin with paint or throw eggs at it. Paint will not stick to him, and he can easily dodge eggs .
That is, by the presence or absence of physical properties - a person can distinguish the imaginary from the real.
Further
Real physical matter exhibits various properties, and we can divide matter into categories in accordance with common features.
According to the properties of discontinuity-continuity (in other words, discreteness), matter is divided into discrete and non-discrete forms
Non-discrete (continuous) matter in nature is represented as a field
Discrete (discontinuous, granular) matter in nature is represented in the form of particles.
Particles, in turn, are in one of two states:
- either behave directly as particles move in space at a speed close to the speed of light
- or grouped into a substance.
That is, in more detail on the basis of grouping - you can divide the matter in more detail and distinguish three main categories.
Substance, particles, field.
The first position is the particles grouped into a substance,
Second position - free particles (not grouped into matter)
and third position field.
And matter in nature manifests itself both as substance and as particles and as a field.
------
And again, it should be well remembered that matter is only that which has properties.
The unknown “chavoit” that does not have properties is not matter.
If some matter exists but has not yet been discovered,
then, upon detection, according to its properties, it will fall into one of the categories
either matter, or free particles, or field.
let's look at the points.
What is a substance.
Matter is a type of matter that has a rest mass.
Anything that has rest mass is matter. Water (liquid) is a substance. Gas is a substance.
And all objects in our tangible world are made of matter, it doesn't matter if it's slate or grandmother's airship - all this ultimately consists of particles and all this stuff.
With the realization that such a substance usually does not arise difficulties and, as a rule, everyone is able to understand what a substance is.
Further.
position - field.
The field is something material, but immaterial. And not everyone is immediately able to comprehend (realize, understand) how the material can be insubstantial.
In fact, everything is quite simple.
Scientists initially decided what to consider material
Material is everything that is in space and has properties.
Here we have 100% of what is in space - this is matter
and part of it exhibits such and such properties.
If there were no properties, it would not be matter.
Shows properties - so this is one of the forms of matter,
At the same time, according to the actual manifestations, the field does not correspond to the definition of matter, in particular, the field has no mass.
And collectively it turns out that in terms of its properties the field is material but not real.
To understand what a field is, one must imagine physics without a field.
Two bricks fly towards each other.
How do two bricks touch?
Atoms touch along the outer contour.
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Let's look at how the atoms interact there and how it will look without a field:
Two atoms fly towards each other,
protons set up, electrons fluffed up, now a big boom will happen
But the atoms did not take the field with them, there was nothing to catch on to each other, so they slipped through.
These atoms did not notice any collision, could not notice.
What is the total volume of discrete objects that make up an atom?
How much meat is there in this atom? How much is there that you can feel and how much does it take up? Sometimes atoms are drawn very meaty. Sometimes not so much.
But if we consider in more detail, then there is a distance between the particles, and each smaller element, in turn, is again planetary, which means that discrete matter again occupies an insignificant part of the total volume. And it all tends to almost zero.
That is, it is not necessary to depict a fleshy atom, but a skinny one.
Let's simulate an atom without a field.
And to make it clear, let's take half a squadron of ordinary-sized flies and let them fly over the Moscow ring road, right above the cars in a large circle.
And in the center, in the area of the Arbat, let the main such proton fly jump, and let the rest of the flies around it, the main one, fly around the ring without approaching.
We got a quite decent fly model of an atom without fields.
And now let's place the second similar fly model of the atom somewhere in Lapland and start bringing both of these models closer to each other.
Let them, like adults, fly at each other.
What is the probability that when the models of these two atoms approach each other, they will catch on to each other?
And what are they hooked on?
There is a lot of buzzing, but there is no field at all.
Even if some two flies hit each other exactly in the forehead, then in this case they will not be able to catch on. The second atom is also a planetary system, practically emptiness.
No chance of hooking. There is nothing to cling to without a field.
Two atoms under such conditions freely fly through each other.
With such a geometry without a field, this is one continuous draft.
In principle, we would not be able to collide any two elementary particles if they did not have a field.
Bricks would fly through each other remarkably.
That's actually what role the field plays.
Without a field, in principle, we have no possibility of interaction either at the macro or at the micro level.
Move on:
What are the field properties?
The field has neither internal nor external discreteness.
That is, it has no gaps, and also has no external boundaries as such.
You can understand the geometry of the field from the graph of the distribution of the impact on the expanding sphere:
The graph tends to zero but does not reset. No matter how far we are from the source of the field
The field is weakening but will not disappear. The field itself has no borders.
In addition, the field is elastic.
(Magnet)
The field is fundamentally elastic, non-discrete and has no mass.
Field definition:
A field is a special kind of matter that does not have mass, it is a continuous object located in space, at each point of which a particle is affected by balanced or unbalanced forces of certain magnitude and direction.
And again, we do not forget that this is a long-known information
and within the framework of the physical concept, matter and field are traditionally opposed to each other as two types of matter, the first of which has a discrete structure, while the second is continuous.
Let's delve into the materiel:
The first thing to understand is that the entire universe at the macro level is uniformly filled with material matter, which means that it is uniformly filled with a field.
In terms of force, this is the most powerful of the existing physical phenomena and it has a gravitational nature. The total gravitational field.
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All physical interactions, including every bond in every atom in your body, is determined by this field.
The gravitational field is fundamental, and all other fields are particular local phenomena on this basic gravitational field.
Imagine if there were billions of rubber bands and we cut just one. And this would be an analogue of the secondary field, such as the electromagnetic field.
Partial perturbation on the base field.
And when we consider the field of any magnet, this is also a secondary field - an insignificant perturbation on the basic gravitational field that has a colossal potential.
In a certain sense, the gravitational field is the same ether or, in other words, the “physical vacuum” that everyone is looking for and cannot find. But it is a single non-discrete non-corpuscular object.
Forces arise at every point in the space filled with a field and there are no gaps there.
The next position of the particle.
A particle is a material discrete micro-object.
What are the main differences between particles and field.
The particles are discrete (each of them represents an independent object of a complex internal structure),
In this they differ from the field, which non-discretely has no internal discreteness (has no discontinuities), as well as the field, which has no external boundaries as such.
With regard to particles, it should be understood that the division of matter into categories that is common in science is not entirely strict.
In the literature, sometimes non-strict incorrect interpretations are allowed.
Free particles that have mass according to the modern scientific fashion are classified as an independent category, and particles that do not have rest mass are in some cases loosely treated as a field.
And in this place for many there comes a misunderstanding known as corpuscular wave dualism.
We have already explained the reasons for this mental phenomenon separately (in the section on corpuscular-wave dualism). We will not stop again.
At this point, it suffices to recall that in the scientific sense, both particles and field and wave are still independent concepts.
And this is the requirement of the first law of logic, which states:
“...to have more than one meaning means not to have a single meaning; if words have no meaning, then all possibility of reasoning with each other, and in fact with oneself, is lost; for it is impossible to think of anything if one does not think of one thing.
Either a field or a particle.
Brick is matter, brick consists of that part of matter which is commonly called substance
But that's not all.
There is a bunch of matter (and hence any brick) with the field. Each brick is in the total universal field.
And besides, each brick has its own field.
To put it simply, we can call this field the brick field, we can call the brick gravitational field.
There is not a single brick in nature that is not surrounded by its own field.
a field accompanies each brick.
All material matter in nature has a field.
And in this regard, it is necessary to understand that in nature there is no substance that does not have its own private field.
And any material object in the fundamental physical sense is a combination of matter and field.
And this field is distributed evenly in all directions from the substance, and as you move away from the substance, this field weakens.
That is, fundamentally, each object with mass has its own field, and in addition, all the masses of the universe together form a single gravitational field of the universe.
Now let's understand: where is the brick, and where is its private field. The private field is tied to a brick.
If we divide the brick into parts and separate these parts to the sides, then the private field of the brick will also be divided and spaced apart.
(breaking a brick)
The private brick field is divided and spaced apart.
Now let's look at what is common between particles bound within a substance and between unbound, free particles.
Example.
What will the systematic splitting of bricks lead to, the division of bricks
Systematic destruction of the so-called internal bonds of a brick.
Without exception, all internal connections of a brick are determined from the outside, from the side of the base field. The total universal field creates a colossal tension in space, which determines all internal connections in material objects.
The deeper we split the brick, the smaller the fraction, the more particles will become unbound substance, these particles will separate from the brick and begin to move at a speed close to the speed of light.
If the splitting is continued, then all the fragments will be split, released to the level of unbound particles and, under the influence of an external field, will begin to move at a speed close to the speed of light in all free directions.
That is, if a brick is completely split, to the level of particles, then the brick will rush off at the speed of light in all free directions.
And if there were no external field at all, then the brick would do the same, but at a much higher speed, at a speed exceeding the speed of light (but this is a subject of a separate discussion, as well as issues of mass and the so-called neutrino).
For a general understanding, let's consider what the situation would be for a universe not filled with matter.
Empty universe and one brick.
It would seem, but how do we know?
But in fact, we know this absolutely for sure, because there are only two options for applying forces to a body: attraction and repulsion.
And we also know that matter cannot exist on the forces of direct attraction in principle, it is technically impossible, because it inevitably leads to an avalanche-like process of collapse in matter at one point.
Those who do not know this yet can watch the evidence part at the link, or watch the film "Equilibrium in Physics".
Let's continue:
The only possible option for the existence of matter in space is mutual repulsion, which, if the universe is sufficiently saturated with matter, leads to a complex repulsion of masses to each other.
Gravity is a complex repulsion.
So what will happen to a brick in a universe not filled with matter?
(Totally empty universe and one brick).
In such a scenario, there is, in principle, nothing to ensure the internal connections of a brick. There is no external field, external forces, external repulsion. The entire substance of the brick without options will completely split and scatter in all directions, and the field of the brick will also dissipate accordingly.
No existence of any material physical body under such conditions is possible.
In a universe filled with bodies, masses, the picture is different.
The masses "created" a common field,
at the macro level, the universe was filled evenly, a carpet of galaxies.
This field provided internal bonds in each brick.
And we see that in the real universe, matter does not disintegrate into particles and does not scatter.
Actually everything.
Matter: matter, particles, field.
And if there were no field, then there would be no interactions between particles, and the particles themselves, in the usual sense, would not exist either.
Viktor Katyushchik was with you.
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In this article, on the basis of the ontological concept of matter, an analysis and definition of the concept of physical matter is given, which is of decisive importance for the withdrawal of theoretical physics from the crisis of the twentieth century.
Introduction. As you know, at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. the great crisis of classical physics broke out. Discoveries at the end of the 19th century - X-rays (1895), natural radioactivity (Becquerel, 1896), electron (J. Thomson, 1897), radium (Pierre and Marie Curie, 1898), quantum radiation (Planck, 1900) were the beginning of a revolution in science. Previously prevailing ideas about the immutability of chemical elements, about the structurelessness of the atom, about the independence of movement from material masses, and about the continuity of radiation were destroyed. Starting from that moment, new and new experimental data began to multiply rapidly, indicating the existence of a microworld. To describe it, it was impossible to apply those basic concepts, principles and laws that were developed by physics of the 19th century in the study of macrobodies.
Modern official physics believes that the crisis was resolved by the emergence of the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, the Big Bang and other similar theories that contradict logic.
Thus, it would seem that a way out of the great crisis of physics was found. And yet there is still doubt whether quantum-relativistic physics was the only possible way out of the crisis. Moreover, at present, more and more problems and contradictions are being revealed in quantum physics and in the theory of relativity, such as indeterminism in natural phenomena, divergence and infinity in the analysis of the structure of the electron and the thermal spectrum, the detection of superluminal velocities, the undisclosed and contradictory structure of nuclei and elementary particles. . Therefore, one gets the impression that quantum-relativistic physics did not eliminate the crisis, but only delayed it, through formal coordinating techniques that eliminated contradictions only superficially, outwardly, but retained them in a latent form. And the very roots of the contradictions that led to the crisis were not revealed [ 3 ].
The resolution of the crisis required the creation of a new picture of the world, for which new logical and epistemological principles were needed. The formulation of these principles had to begin with revisions of the criteria of materiality, which would not be limited to the search for some kind of first principle of the world, and would take into account new physical realities. The crisis in physics led to a new understanding of the concepts of matter, motion, space and time and the emergence of dialectical materialism, which gave a new universal definition to the concept of matter: “ Matter is a philosophical category for designating objective reality, which is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, reflected by our sensations, existing independently of them.» . From this follow the following properties of matter: objectivity, inexhaustibility, cognizability, indestructibility and indestructibility.
It follows from the above that matter as an objective reality does not exist as a kind of material from which all concrete things are built, but reflects an innumerable number of things, their properties and relationships, which implies the existence of diverse types of matter, which in modern science are interpreted as levels of its structural organizations. Thus, dialectical materialism did away with the former natural philosophy, defining material substance as something that is outside individual things, and in the same way, a certain characteristic that is extremely common for all things, the properties of which could be fixed as something concrete, tangible, but at the same time the same time belongs to all bodies without exception in the infinity of the Universe.
Definition of physical matter. Dialectical materialism claims that matter is not something immutable, but is in a state of continuous change, development - movement, understood in the general, philosophical sense of the word. “Motion is a form of being of matter. Nowhere and never has there been and cannot be matter without motion?” . Moving matter can be known only by considering particular, concrete forms of matter and its movement, and these particular forms of matter and its movement should be considered not in isolation, but in their interconnection.
According to the diversity of natural phenomena, there are many different types of motion of matter. But among this diversity, several basic forms of movement can be distinguished, each of which covers a more or less wide range of phenomena related in a certain respect. The inseparability of matter and motion is expressed not only in the fact that matter cannot be without motion, but also in the fact that between each of the forms of motion and those material objects, the mode of existence of which they are, there is a quite definite correspondence, a definite internal connection.
This means that each form of motion of matter is associated with one form of matter and vice versa.
The simplest form of motion of matter is physical, which corresponds to physical matter.
The concept of matter in physics is central, since physics studies the basic properties of matter, types of fundamental interactions, laws of motion of various systems (simple mechanical systems, feedback systems, self-organizing systems), etc. These properties and laws are manifested in a certain way in technical, biological and social systems, which is why physics is widely used to explain the processes occurring in them. All this brings together the philosophical understanding of matter and the physical doctrine of its structure and properties.
Features and the current state of the physical concept of matter are reflected in the work: “The physical concept of matter is quite significantly different from the ontological concept. It develops with the development of experimental natural science in the 17th century. under the influence of both philosophical ideas and for the sake of the needs of the experiment. For Galileo, the primary qualities of matter are its arithmetic (computability), geometric (shape, size, position, touch) and kinematic (mobility) properties. Kepler sees in matter two primordial, dialectically opposed forces: the force of motion and the force of inertia. In classical Newtonian mechanics, the main properties of matter are inertia (inertial mass), the ability to maintain a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion, and gravity - the ability of heavy masses to attract each other according to the law of gravity. Matter is opposed to energy - (-) the ability to perform mechanical work, or to show force in motion. Other signs of matter: conservation of mass in all physical and chemical processes; the identity of inert and heavy mass, the difference between matter and space and time.
Already in Leibniz and Kant, matter turns out to be completely reducible to manifestations of force. For Kant, it is dependent on space and time as the primary forms of sensibility. To the beginning 20th century the concept of matter as a carrier of mass, different from force and energy, on the one hand, from space and time, on the other, is being shaken. In particular, for example, the very process of weighing, reducing mass to weight, removes the barrier between inertia as a sign of matter and force. Newton's second law already defines mass through the ratio of force and acceleration. The discovery of non-Euclidean geometries raised the question of their physical meaning and made the physical concept of space problematic. In addition, attempts have been made to explain the mass as a purely electromagnetic-inductive effect, and the mass should be considered in this case as a quantity dependent on speed. Finally, Einstein's theory of relativity made mass ultimately dependent on velocity. Mass and energy in the formula Ε = mс 2 are equivalent to each other and are interchangeable. The conservation law is now valid only in relation to the "sum" of mass and energy, the so-called. "mass energy". At the same time, space, or the space-time continuum, loses its “ontological” difference from matter. Both are now considered as different aspects of the same reality and, ultimately, are identified. None of the classical definitions of matter has been preserved in modern physics. However, both philosophy and physics prefer to bypass this concept, which has become indefinite and obscure, replacing it with others - space-time, chaos, system, etc.”
From the standpoint of philosophy and physics at the beginning of the 21st century. with all obviousness, there is a theoretical gap in the definitions between the ontological representation of the concept of matter (see above) and its representation in specific types of sciences. “The development of dialectical materialism in breadth led to the fact that the lag in the development of the core of this philosophy - the doctrine of matter - from the total volume of scientific knowledge was clearly indicated. One of the reasons for the crisis phenomena in physics is seen in this lag.“
At present, modern science assumes the existence of three forms of physical matter: matter, field (in the classical sense), material objects of unclear physical nature.
The presence of many forms of physical matter contradicts the above statement: one form of motion of matter - one form of matter. To eliminate this contradiction, we will analyze the forms of physical matter according to the criterion of their materiality.
Matter in physics is understood, as a rule, as a kind of matter, consisting of fermions or containing fermions along with bosons; has a rest mass, unlike some types of fields, such as electromagnetic. Usually (at relatively low temperatures and densities) a substance consists of particles, among which electrons, protons and neutrons are most often encountered. The last two form atomic nuclei, and all together - atoms (atomic substance), of which - molecules, crystals, etc.
Each substance has a set of specific properties - objective characteristics that determine the individuality of a particular substance and thus make it possible to distinguish it from all other substances. The most characteristic physical and chemical properties include constants - density, melting point, boiling point, thermodynamic characteristics, parameters of the crystal structure. The main characteristics of a substance are its chemical properties.
Matter exists in three states of aggregation - solid, liquid and gaseous.
A field in physics is a physical object classically described by a mathematical scalar, vector, tensor, spinor field (or some combination of such mathematical fields) that obeys dynamic equations (equations of motion, in this case called field equations or field equations - usually these are differential equations in partial derivatives).
Historically, the concept of a field was introduced into scientific use by M. Faraday, and then applied by J. K. Maxwell as a mathematical formulation of the theory that became the basis of classical electrodynamics. At present, the concept of a field has no definition, and its physical essence has not been disclosed. Thus, it is not necessary to argue that the field is an objective reality that exists outside of consciousness. A sufficient and necessary substantiation of the non-materiality of the field is given in the work: “A more complex situation arose around the paradigm component containing the idea of matter as a single entity. The situation is due to the fact that many materialist philosophers, observing the diversity of natural processes and their irreducibility into a single theory, began to consider matter as a combination of its various types or forms. In this case, it seemed that each object of nature, radically different from other objects, can be compared with its own type of matter. Such an approach ensured the coexistence of science, idealistic in its genesis, and materialistic philosophy, and made it possible to introduce the necessary amendments into the interpretation of physical objects and phenomena. The amendments gave metaphysical science a materialistic connotation. Thus, the idea of various fields as types of matter appeared and the thesis “field - type of matter” became widespread ... ... the thesis “field - type of matter” turned out to be not only ineffective, but also producing insurmountable difficulties. The fact is that there are quite a lot of fields in physics. Consequently, to describe the fields it is necessary to involve many different types of matter. Since the type of matter is, first of all, a special matter, then our world would have to consist of many matters. In the case of a multitude of matters, we would observe a multitude of worlds and it is not necessary to speak of a single world and the unity of nature.”
Material objects of obscure physical nature (Dark matter, Dark energy). These objects were introduced into scientific use to explain a number of astrophysical and cosmological phenomena.
Dark matter in astronomy and cosmology, as well as in theoretical physics, is a hypothetical form of matter that does not emit electromagnetic radiation and does not directly interact with it. This property of this form of matter makes it impossible to directly observe it. The conclusion about the existence of dark matter was made on the basis of numerous, consistent with each other, but indirect signs of the behavior of astrophysical objects and the gravitational effects they create. It is expected that the discovery of the nature of dark matter will help solve the problem of hidden mass, which, in particular, consists in the anomalously high speed of rotation of the outer regions of galaxies.
From the foregoing, we can conclude that physical matter has a single form, which is identical to the concept of substance. However, as you know, the “real” meaning of the term (the term “matter” comes from the Latin materia - substance) was retained until the 20th century, when a revolution in physics took place, which meant a crisis of a one-sided understanding of matter, based on mandatory sensory perception, which was the essence of concepts of metaphysical materialism. In philosophical terms, the significance of this revolution is the destruction of the last stronghold of metaphysics - the idea of atoms as the building blocks of the universe and the transition to a new qualitative level of knowledge about the structure of matter. Quantum-relativistic physics, for which an electron is a structureless particle, a photon is a massless one, and a neutrino is a particle without an electric charge, etc., also could not give anything for the development of ideas about physical matter.
In modern science, ideas about the structure of the material world are based on a systematic approach, according to which any object of the material world, whether it be an atom, a planet, an organism or a galaxy, can be considered as a complex formation, including components organized in integrity. It is obvious that the solution of the problem of representation of physical matter is impossible without using the methodology of system analysis. In this work, as such a methodology, the general theory of systems of Yu. T. Urmantsev (GTS) is used, which differs from others in the completeness, sufficiency and algorithmizability of the system analysis process.
The definition of the concept of physical matter was carried out using the GTS C-method. In accordance with the C-method, we construct a system of matter.
Based on a systematic approach to nature, all matter is divided into two large classes of material systems - inanimate and living nature. In the system of inanimate nature, the structural elements are: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, fields, macroscopic bodies, planets and planetary systems, stars and star systems, galaxies, metagalaxies and the Universe as a whole. Accordingly, in wildlife, the main elements are proteins and nucleic acids, cells, unicellular and multicellular organisms, organs and tissues, populations, biocenoses, living matter of the planet.
On the basis of the criterion of materiality, we single out a set of primary elements, all the diversity of which is presented in the form of objects of living and inanimate nature. In modern physics, this variety of objects is usually divided into three groups: microcosm, macrocosm and megaworld. Microcosm, macrocosm and megaworld are closely connected with each other.
Let us impose relations of interconnection and interaction on these elements.
At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, a new scientific direction called level physics began to develop intensively. Its main idea is that the moving matter has several structural levels and that each level of the matter structure corresponds to its own material objects, characterized by energy, the size of which corresponds only to this level. From this it follows that each level of the structure of matter corresponds to its own environment. The difference between the structural levels lies in the difference in the properties of the material objects that fill the environment of each level. At the same time, objects of a specific structural level of matter consist of objects of the environment of a hierarchically higher structural level. And higher levels are nested within lower levels.
In accordance with the state of aggregation of a substance (solid, liquid, gas), as well as with its structural levels of organization, we form many compositions of the system.
Based on the above, we give the following definition.
Physical matter is a set of interconnected and interacting objects of animate and inanimate nature, structured by levels of organization and located in one of the aggregate states.
On the basis of this definition, we construct a system of classification of physical matter.
In physical matter, two large classes of material systems are distinguished: systems of inanimate nature and systems of living nature. According to another criterion - the scale of representation - there are three main structural levels of matter:
microcosm - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial dimension of which is calculated from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime - from infinity to 10 -24 seconds;
the macroworld is the world of macroobjects commensurate with a person and his experience. Spatial values of macro-objects are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers (10 6 - 10 7 cm), and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years, centuries;
megaworld is a world of huge cosmic scales and speeds, where distances are measured in astronomical units, light years and parsecs (up to 10 28 cm), and the lifetime of space objects is millions and billions of years.
According to the structural level of the organization:
elementary particles;
molecules;
macroscopic bodies;
planets and planetary systems;
stars and star systems;
galaxies;
metagalaxy (observable part of the Universe);
Universe.
According to the state of aggregation of matter:
solid,
liquid,
Conclusions. The main one for solving crisis problems in physics, in particular, the representation of physical matter, is dialectical materialism, which plays an important methodological and ideological role in the integration of modern scientific knowledge in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, in particular, giving a new universal definition to the concept of matter.
An analysis of the existing types of matter and their correspondence to the ontological concept of matter is given.
On the basis of the GTS system analysis methodology, a definition of physical matter is given, eliminating the theoretical gap between the ontological and physical understanding of matter.
On the basis of the GTS system analysis methodology, an algorithm for the classification of physical matter is proposed. The result is shown in the Table. Classification of physical matter.
The proposed classification of physical matter is a consequence of the law of composition, which imposes a number of restrictions on physical matter, one of which is the state of aggregation of gas for all structural levels of matter organization. This limitation finally substantiates the non-materiality of such types of matter as the field and material objects of unclear physical nature.
Table. Classification of physical matter.
Literature:
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- http://arxiv.su/blogs/users/pkaravdin/63526/ Karavdin P.A. ON THE CAUSE OF THE CRISIS OF PHYSICS.
- http://ritz-btr.narod.ru/index.html#O Semikov S. THE CRISIS OF CLASSICAL PHYSICS IN THE BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY: WAS NON-CLASSICAL PHYSICS A WAY OUT OF IT?
- Lenin V.I. Materialism and empirio-criticism. Full Sobr. op.. T.18. P.131.
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- Borodai T. Yu. New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M.: Thought. Edited by V. S. Stepin. 2001.
- Blinov V.F. Physics of matter. Kyiv, 2009. - 422 p.
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- http://www.sci.sha.ru Urmantsev Yu.T. GENERAL SYSTEM THEORY: STATUS, APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS.
- http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Science/guseihan/index.php Guseikhanov M., Radjabov O. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. M. - 2007.
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Lyamin V.S., Lyamin D.V.
matter
and. substance; everything weighty, everything occupying space or everything earthly (stone, wood, air, etc.); the general abstract concept of materiality, corporality, everything that is subject to feelings: the opposite of the spiritual (mental and moral).
The essence of the essay, article or speech; content, subject and basis. Discuss important matters.
Fabric, arshin goods, and actually silk fabric. I bought materials for a dress.
Pus from a wound, abscess, ulcer. The mother of the people is matter; in the meaning of silk fabric; mainland, mother. Mother, cloth; motherly, chickens made of silk fabric. Matter, about silk fabric, durable, strong. Material m. stocks and supplies, which is prepared for construction, work, for writing, for filling publications, etc. Material, relating to matter or material: in the first sense, material, material, material, sensual, earthly, weighty, occupying space ; opposite sex spiritual (mental and moral). Are heat, light, electricity material?
In the second meaning, a component that forms reserves, material objects. Man is material, natural, sensual, animal. -ness property, state adj. materiality, corporality, materiality. Materialism m. opposite sex. spiritualism: the denial of any spiritual force, the essence of the spirit in nature; unbelief, materialism, materialism. A materialist is a materialist, a materialist, a sensual, animal person who believes in only material forces, accepting not spirit, but substance and flesh as the cause and essence of all phenomena.
A mosquito man who sells pharmaceutical, raw drugs is better a material man. This word, like material, in the form of a noun, also means a keeper of stocks or warehouses.
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov
matter
matter, w. (Latin materia).
only ed. An objective reality that exists independently of human consciousness and is reflected by it (philos.) .... Matter is that which, acting on our senses, produces sensation ... Lenin.
What physical bodies are made of, matter (scientific). The structure of matter. The law of constancy of matter.
Textile. Wool material. Cloth. He promised to give me materials for a dress. A. Ostrvsky.
only ed. Pus, purulent discharge (med.). Matter flows from the ears.
Topic, subject of speech, conversation (book obsolete, now colloquial). It -
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova.
matter
An objective reality that exists outside and independently of human consciousness. Forms of the existence of matter. Living m. Non-living m.
Basis (substrate), of which physical bodies are composed. The structure of matter.
Same as material (in 4 digits) (colloquial). Silk m.
trans. The subject of speech, conversation (obsolete and ironic). Talk about lofty matters. MOTHER see mat
New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
matter
MATTER (lat. materia) substance; substrate, substance; content. In the Latin philosophical language, the term was introduced by Cicero as a translation of the Greek. hyle. The concept of matter as a substratum of the material world was developed in Greek philosophy in the teachings of Plato and Aristotle, while matter was understood as unformed non-existence (meon), pure potency (see Form and Matter). The concept of matter formulated by Descartes as a bodily substance (as opposed to a "thinking" substance), which has spatial extension and divisibility, formed the basis of materialism in the 17th and 18th centuries. Matter is the central category of dialectical materialism.
Matter
(lat. materia ≈ substance), “... a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them” (Lenin V. I., Complete Works , 5th ed., vol. 18, p. 131). M. is an infinite set of all objects and systems existing in the world, the substratum of any properties, connections, relations and forms of movement. Mechanism includes not only all directly observable objects and bodies of nature, but also all those that, in principle, can be known in the future on the basis of improved means of observation and experiment. The entire world around us is a moving world in its infinitely varied forms and manifestations, with all its properties, connections, and relationships. The Marxist-Leninist understanding of mathematics is organically connected with the dialectical-materialist solution of the fundamental question of philosophy; it proceeds from the principle of the material unity of the world, the primacy of matter in relation to human consciousness, and the principle of the cognizability of the world on the basis of a consistent study of the specific properties, connections, and forms of movement of matter (see Materialism).
In pre-Marxist philosophy and natural science, matter as a philosophical category was often identified with certain specific types of it, for example, with matter, atoms of chemical compounds, or with such a property of matter as mass, which was considered as a measure of the quantity of matter. In reality, matter does not cover the entire M., but only those objects and systems that have a non-zero rest mass. In the world, there are also types of magnetism that do not have a rest mass: the electromagnetic field and its quanta are photons, the gravitational field (gravitational field), and neutrinos.
The reduction of mathematics as an objective reality to some of its particular states and properties caused crisis situations in the history of science. This was the case in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the illegitimacy of identifying matter with indivisible atoms and matter was discovered, and in connection with this, some idealistic physicists concluded that “matter has disappeared,” “materialism has now been refuted,” and so on. These conclusions were erroneous, but overcoming the methodological crisis in physics required the further development of a dialectical materialist understanding of mathematics and its basic properties.
The term "antimatter" is often found in the literature, which refers to various antiparticles - antiprotons, antineutrons, positrons and other micro- and macrosystems composed of them. This term is not precise; in fact, all these objects are special types of matter, antiparticles of matter, or antimatter. In the world, there may also be many other types of metamorphosis, still unknown to us, with unusual specific properties, but all of them are elements of an objective reality that exists independently of our consciousness.
Within the framework of pre-Marxist materialism, materialism was often defined as the substance (basis) of all things and phenomena in the world, and this view opposed the religious-idealistic understanding of the world, which took divine will, absolute spirit, and human consciousness as a substance, which was detached from the brain and subjected to absolutization. and deification. At the same time, the material substance was often understood as the primary matter, reduced to primary and structureless elements, which were identified with indivisible atoms. It was believed that while various objects and material formations can arise and disappear, the substance is uncreated and indestructible, always stable in its essence; only the specific forms of its being, the quantitative combination and the mutual arrangement of elements, etc., change.
In modern science, the concept of substance has undergone radical changes. Dialectical materialism recognizes the substantiality of materialism, but only in a very definite sense: in terms of a materialistic solution of the fundamental question of philosophy and the disclosure of the nature of various properties and forms of motion of bodies. It is M., and not consciousness or an imaginary deity, that the spirit is the substance of all properties, connections and forms of movement that really exist in the world, the ultimate basis of all spiritual phenomena. No property and form of motion can exist by itself, they are always inherent in certain material formations that are their substrate. The concept of substance in this sense is also equivalent to the concept of the material substratum of various processes and phenomena in the world. Recognition of the substantiality and absoluteness of M. is also equivalent to the principle of the material unity of the world, which is confirmed by the entire historical development of science and practice. However, it is important to take into account that the M. itself exists only in the form of an infinite variety of specific formations and systems. In the structure of each of these specific forms of M. there is no primary, structureless and unchanging substance that would underlie all the properties of M. Each material object has an inexhaustible variety of structural connections, is capable of internal changes, transformations into qualitatively different forms of M. “The └Essence” of things or └substance≈, ≈ wrote V. I. Lenin, ≈ are also relative; they express only the deepening of human knowledge of objects, and if yesterday this deepening did not go beyond the atom, today it goes beyond the electron and ether, then dialectical materialism insists on the temporary, relative, approximate nature of all these milestones in the knowledge of nature by the progressive science of man. The electron is just as inexhaustible as the atom, nature is infinite...” (ibid., p. 277). At the same time, for the progress of scientific knowledge and the refutation of various idealistic concepts, it is always important to identify the material substrate that underlies the phenomena, properties and forms of movement of the objective world studied in a given period. Thus, historically, it was of great importance to identify the substrate of thermal, electrical, magnetic, optical processes, various chemical reactions, etc. This led to the development of the theory of the atomic structure of matter, the theory of the electromagnetic field, and quantum mechanics. Modern science is faced with the task of revealing the structure of elementary particles, in-depth study of the material foundations of heredity, the nature of consciousness, etc. The solution of these problems will advance human knowledge to new, deeper structural levels of M. “A person’s thought infinitely deepens from the phenomenon to the essence, from the essence of the first, so to speak, order, to the essence of the second order, etc. without end” (ibid., vol. 29, p. 227).
Material objects always have internal order and systemic organization. Orderliness is manifested in the regular movement and interaction of all elements of matter, due to which they are combined into systems. A system is an internally ordered set of interconnected elements. The connection between the elements in the system is more durable, essential and internally necessary than the connection of each of the elements with the environment, with the elements of other systems. Human knowledge of the structural organization of M. is relatively and changeable, depending on the ever-expanding possibilities of experiment, observation, and scientific theories. But it concretizes and complements the philosophical understanding of M. as an objective reality. Modern science knows the following types of material systems and their corresponding structural levels of matter: elementary particles and fields (electromagnetic, gravitational, and others); atoms, molecules, macroscopic bodies of various sizes, geological systems, the Earth and other planets, stars, intragalactic systems (diffuse nebulae, star clusters, and others), the Galaxy, galaxy systems, the Metagalaxy, the boundaries and structure of which have not yet been established. Modern boundaries of knowledge of the structure of M. extend from 10-14 cm to 1028 cm (approximately 13 billion light years); but even within this range there may exist many still unknown types of matter. In the 60s, objects such as quasars, pulsars and others were discovered.
Living M. and socially organized M. are known so far only on Earth. Their emergence is the result of the natural and lawful self-development of matter, which is just as inseparable from its existence as movement, structure, and other properties. Living M. is the totality of organisms capable of self-reproduction with the transfer and accumulation of genetic information in the process of evolution. Socially organized mathematics is the highest form of the development of life, an aggregate of individuals and communities of various levels who think and consciously transform reality. All these types of M. also possess the system organization. The structure of social systems also includes various technical material systems created by people to achieve their goals.
At each stage of knowledge, it would be wrong to identify the philosophical understanding of mathematics as an objective reality with specific natural-science ideas about its structure and forms. Then all other still unknown, but really existing objects and systems would be excluded from the structure of the universe, which is incorrect and contradicts the principle of the material unity of the world. This unity has many specific forms of manifestation, consistently revealed by science and practice. It manifests itself in the universal connection and mutual conditioning of objects and phenomena in the world, in the possibility of mutual transformations of some forms of moving magnetism into others, in the connection and mutual transformations of types of movement and energy, in the historical development of nature and the emergence of more complex forms of magnetism and movement on based on relatively less complex forms. The material unity of the world is also manifested in the interconnection of all structural levels of the world, in the interdependence of the phenomena of the micro- and mega-world (see Cosmos). It also finds expression in M.'s complex of universal properties and dialectical laws of structural organization, change, and development. The universal properties of matter include its increatibility and indestructibility, the eternity of existence in time and infinity in space, and the inexhaustibility of its structure. M. is always characterized by movement and change, natural self-development, manifested in various forms, the transformation of some states into others.
The universal forms of being of M. are space and time, which do not exist outside of M., just as there cannot be material objects that would not have spatio-temporal properties. The universal property of M. is the determinism of all phenomena, their dependence on structural connections in material systems and external influences, on the causes and conditions that give rise to them (see Causality). Interaction leads to mutual change of bodies (or their states) and reflection of each other. Reflection, which manifests itself in all processes, depends on the structure of interacting systems and the nature of external influences. The historical development of the property of reflection leads, with the progress of living nature and society, to the emergence of its highest form - abstract and constantly improving thinking, through which M., as it were, comes to realize the laws of his being and to his own purposeful change. The universal properties of matter are also manifested in the universal laws of its existence and development: the law of the unity and struggle of opposites, the mutual transitions of quantitative and qualitative changes, the law of causality, and other important aspects of material existence, revealed by dialectical materialism and all modern science.
Lit .: Engels F., Anti-Dühring, ed. first, K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 20; his own, Dialectic of Nature, ibid.; VI Lenin, Materialism and Empiriocriticism, Complete Works, 5th ed., vol. 18; his own, Karl Marx, ibid., vol. 26; Arkhiptsev F. T., Matter as a philosophical category, M., 1961; Dialectics in the sciences of inanimate nature, M., 1964, section 2; Philosophical problems of elementary particle physics, M., 1963; Melyuhin S. T., Matter in its unity, infinity and development, M., 1966; his, Material unity of the world in the light of modern science, M., 1967; Structure and forms of matter, M., 1967; Kedrov B. M., Lenin and the revolution in the natural sciences of the XX century, M., 1969; Researches on the general theory of systems, M., 1969; Lenin and modern natural science, M., 1969; Gott V.S., Philosophical questions of modern physics, M., 1972. objectively).
The concept of matter is one of the fundamental concepts of materialism and, in particular, such a trend in philosophy as dialectical materialism.
Examples of the use of the word matter in the literature.
At the same time, Pasteur pointed out that spontaneous generation is abiogenesis, the emergence from inert matter, -- could take place only in such a dissymmetric right-hand environment.
Both the field and matter can be considered as, conditionally speaking, aggregate states of energy.
The more matter next door, the more likely the larger accretion disk, the more matter moves in a spiral into a black hole and the more intense the generated radiation.
Academician Ambartsumyan reports, for example, that such a powerful outflow of bunches is observed from the nuclei of some galaxies. matter for which there is as yet no satisfactory explanation.
For some reason, I remembered Ammonius and what he said in Alexandria about the soul that illuminates the dead matter.
When Amrita Swarathi is absorbed by the lower vibrations Matter, then its Light acquires a blueness, thickens into blue and fades with a leaden color in rough deposits Matter.
Amrita Svarati or Soma Raj Expiration of Amrita Svarati, as a hologram of the Idea of the development of the Universe and Worlds and the Evolution of Beings, is also an Aspect of the Substance of Space - Substance of the Higher Mind - Luminous Matter having the white Radiance of the Higher Light.
The same psycho-correlative quantum fields of generations of what happens in the senses group the ingredients of the Aspects of the general Image of the hologram into separate focuses - turbias of Fire, Light and Information - which are concentrated by the Lens of curvature of the Substance of Space and, being filled with the Soma Raj of the Outflows of Amrita Svarati, turn into corpuscles of elementary particles Matter.
However, almost all the ancient thinkers - Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Anaximenes, Heraclitus and Democritus - although they differed among themselves on many other points regarding the first matter, nevertheless agreed that they all defined matter as active, as having a certain form, as giving this form to objects formed from it, and as containing the principle of motion.
After all, it was they who first presented Cupid dressed, or, in other words, attributed to the primary matter, the beginning of all things, a certain natural form: Thales - water, Anaximenes - air, Heraclitus - fire.
This is the very idea that is fighting for the right to life and embodiment in a world dominated by egotism, animalism and rude matter.
Our clothes from matter the barberi was made in the form of an anorak and trousers, both of which were very spacious.
In addition to trousers and anoraks, made of light, windproof matter, Wisting sewed the same stockings out of her.
As opposed to the use of antimatter bombs, he also did not want to miss the stunning spectacle of annihilation. matter.
By ideally quick annihilation I mean not only the complete paralysis of the organism preceding the final death, as in cases of a torn heart or apoplexy, but a complete contrition, conversion into a formless matter.
The concept of " Matter"is a general philosophical category, which is sometimes tried to be extended to everything, especially because of the flourishing of materialism in the 20th century. Such an approach to the concept of matter, often endowed with a mystical meaning, has rather a negative impact on physics. You can often meet with a discussion of such issues as the materiality of thoughts, the materiality of shadows cast by objects, materiality and time, the existence of matter in the form of pure, the birth of matter from energy, the material nature and other radiations, and so on.
Field physics is very categorical in such mystical and philosophical questions. In contrast to the prevailing ideas that everything that really exists is material, matter is understood as a very narrow circle of things. Namely, basic ones, such as a proton and an electron, and the substance consisting of them. Everything else in field physics is considered non-material, which makes it possible to avoid many of the problems and logical contradictions inherent in modern physics.
For example, one of the really existing, but not material entities is considered or, in traditional language -. They do not consist of known elementary particles, do not obey the laws of material objects, and do not have such material characteristics as or. The field medium or fields have their own characteristics, for example, and obeys its own laws and is a separate area of physics.
Another subject of physical study, which should not be confused with matter, is. For example, a weight on a spring can be material, and its vibrations are a process that has nothing to do with matter. Material characteristics, such as mass, may have the load itself, and the oscillatory process as such has no mass, but can be characterized by such quantities as period or frequency.
By analogy, in it is considered that, for example, is not material. Light is an oscillatory process of an electromagnetic field or, and not matter. Therefore, it is wrong to attribute to light such material properties as , or to apply to it the addition rule , which is valid only for material bodies.
So the speed of propagation of perturbations in the field medium (light) does not depend on the speed of the source of these perturbations, just as the speed of propagation of circles on the water does not depend on the speed of the flight of the stone that led to their formation. However, a profound philosophical error associated with attempts to apply laws to light that are valid only for material bodies and, in particular, the law of addition of velocities, led to a huge confusion in physics at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. This required instead of simple and transparent scientific logic to use warp, time distortion and many other formal techniques within the framework of intricate and often contradictory theories.
Field physics also does not consider material artificial logical concepts created by man to describe physical phenomena and. These include, for example, the concepts of space and time, which, according to them, are only an absolute guideline, but cannot influence phenomena and processes, just as they themselves cannot be influenced. The same concepts include and , which is nothing more than a number characterizing the movement of material objects. However, this number is not a material entity; it cannot give birth to anything or be born in the process of some processes. Field physics considers all such manipulations with energy, space and time, inherent in modern physics, mysticism and does not take them seriously.
All of the above can be summarized as follows. In the 20th century, physics fell under the pernicious influence of the flourishing of materialism, as a result of which everything was in a hurry to be declared matter or material. However, this only led to the dawn of mysticism within the framework of modern physical theories. Field physics argues that for an objective consideration of certain physical entities that objectively exist, one should not necessarily identify them with matter and automatically extend to them the characteristics and laws applicable to material bodies. Matter in the sense of particles and physical bodies is only one of the classes of physical problems, matter has its own physical characteristics and laws, but in our World there are also physical entities of a different nature.
