Above we spoke about the internal source of the self-movement of the language. Meanwhile, there are many supporters of the view that the main reasons for the change and development of language are outside the language; the change and development of the language is determined primarily by social processes. In this regard, in Russian linguistics, since the fifties, the division of the laws of language development into internal and external has been established.
The presence of language laws is evidenced by the fact that language, both in its synchronous functioning and in historical evolution, does not represent a collection of disparate, isolated elements. Changing, evolving linguistic phenomena are among themselves in regular, causal relationships, reflecting their internal, necessary connections. However, the term itself law traditionally used with different meanings. Some scholars understand laws as mandatory strict rules that speakers follow in their speech practice (15, p. 363). These laws of the use of language are acquired by a person from childhood, and their violation is an indicator of insufficient language proficiency. It can be said that there are no disagreements between linguists in such an understanding of linguistic laws. It is these laws that organize the language into a strictly ordered systemic unity. But the term law has another more common meaning in theoretical linguistics: law is understood as regular causal relationships between certain phenomena of a language in its functioning and evolution. Of course, speaking of linguistic laws, we must keep in mind their originality, in comparison, for example, with chemical, physical and other natural laws.
The distinction between internal and external laws is theoretically connected
ed with the distinction between the internal and external history of the language of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (15, p. 369-370), the internal and external linguistics of F. Saussure (4, p. 49 et al.), and finally, with the internal and external structure of the language E. Coseriou (11, p. 218 et .).
Under the internal understand the laws, which are such causal processes, the action of which is limited to individual languages, and within them - to individual levels. Therefore, they talk about the laws of phonetics, morphology, syntax, vocabulary (cf .: full and non-full agreement in the Slavic languages, the fall of the reduced in Russian and, as a result, a number of other phonetic patterns; the formation of member adjectives in Russian, the movement of consonants in German, etc.) . The very name - internal laws - indicates that such regular relations between linguistic phenomena and processes that arise as a result of spontaneous causes, regardless of external influences, are meant. It is the internal laws that are evidence that the language is a relatively independent, self-developing and self-regulating system.
Internal laws are very diverse, so they, in turn, are divided into general and private.
General laws cover all languages and can take place at all levels of a language. We can talk about general linguistic regularities on the basis that languages have a similar level structure, in which such constitutive units as a phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence are distinguished. For languages, as sign systems, the asymmetry of the linguistic sign is characteristic; polysemy, synonymy, hyperonymy, hyponymy, homonymy, antonymy, variance and other general linguistic phenomena are observed in all languages.
Private laws, as it is already clear from the name itself, relate to regular causal processes occurring in individual languages (cf. in Russian: the fall of reduced vowels, the regressive assimilation of consonants, the stunning of consonants at the end of a word, the nature of stress, the features of the formation of individual parts speech, etc.).
External laws are manifested as a result of the connection of language with the history of society, various aspects of human activity. Here we have in mind those conditions external to the linguistic structure that cause regular changes in the language itself. Thus, a territorial or social restriction in the use of a language leads to the formation of territorial and social dialects. Regular connections between language and the development of social formations are found in the course of the historical development of society, in particular, in the formation of national languages and national literary languages. The complexity of social life
the division of labor of members of society leads to the formation of styles, stylistic varieties, scientific and professional sublanguages, etc.
The concept of language development, which was very widespread in the recent past, depending on the development of social formations, was that each historical community of people corresponded to a strictly defined historical stage in the development of the language. Accordingly, the language of the tribe, the union of tribes, nationalities, and nations was distinguished. However, such a selection of languages associated with one or another historical community of people, with the forms of their social structure, requires clarification.
The external structure of language responds directly to changes in the historical movement of society. The evolution of the social forms of life of the people does not violate its historical identity, the continuity of its development. Like a people remaining identical to itself in the process of changing social formations, a language, reflecting with its specific elements the social conditions of life of the people, the bearer of a given language, also remains identical to itself. Under the influence of certain living conditions, the vocabulary of the language changes, local (territorial) and social dialects, professional languages, sublanguages of science, jargons, styles, genres are formed ... Of course, changes and complication of the external structure of the language also affect its internal structure. However, the historical change in the forms of social life of the people does not violate the identity of the language, its independence as a phenomenon of a special nature. The historical identity of the language can be traced over many centuries, and it is not the change in social formations that determines the stages or stages in the development of language and thinking. Those or other social events, the change of the social system are processes limited by certain time frames. The change and development of the language, and above all its internal structure, are measured at rates that are completely different in time, calculated, as a rule, over many centuries.
In modern linguistics, the concept of the laws of language development is not clearly defined, since many language changes do not form a constant ascending line associated with the development of language. In the most general terms, the laws of language development are defined as constant and regular trends in the development of languages along the path of their improvement. At the same time, there are external factors that affect the development of the language, and internal incentives for its evolution, associated with the characteristics of the language system.
External laws of language development. The external laws of language development are determined by social factors that affect both the development of the language and the nature of its functioning. There are two main social processes, two main social trends in the development of the language - differentiation (from Latin differentia - difference) and integration (from Latin integratio< integer- целый). Эти процессы противоположны друг другу. При differentiation, otherwise it is called divergence (from lat. di-vergere< diverqens - расходящийся в разные стороны), или discrepancy, there is a territorial and social distribution of native speakers, resulting in the emergence of related languages and dialects. At integration, otherwise it is called convergence(from lat. convergere - approach, converge), or convergence territorial and social rapprochement of native speakers is carried out, during which the unification of languages and dialects takes place. Differentiation increases the number of languages; integration, on the contrary, reduces their number.
Differentiation and integration are social linguistic processes, since the divergence and convergence of languages, their mixing and crossing are explained by economic, military, political and other social factors. It is these reasons that give rise to the originality of languages, acting as external laws of their historical development. As a result of the migration of peoples, their trade contacts, wars, changes in the social and economic system, there are changes in the functions and structure of a particular language.
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In the structure of language, the manifestation of external laws most directly reveals itself in vocabulary. Thus, the vocabulary of the English language reflected the processes of crossing the language of the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans: words of Germanic origin denote household phenomena, raw materials, agricultural terms; words of French origin refer to the sphere of law, military affairs, art, state government. This division of vocabulary reflects the social fragmentation of society at that time, since the conquerors constituted the elite of society, and the indigenous population formed mainly a layer of farmers and artisans. During the Renaissance, the Italian language had a great influence on the vocabulary of a number of Western European languages, since it was during this period that Italy experienced rapid economic and cultural development, and the ideas of the Renaissance spread throughout Europe.
The sound structure of a language and its grammatical system, although to a lesser extent and not so clearly, reflect the influence of external laws on the development of a particular language. For example, the sound [f] originally existed in Russian speech as a feature of borrowed words: Pharisee, February, Philosopher etc. Over time, this sound began to act as a positional version of the phoneme<в>: [f] tornik, any [f "]b etc. Indeclinable nouns in Russian at first constituted a special group of borrowed words. Over time, the number of such words increased, many of them were acquired by the language. As a result, a grammatical group of indeclinable nouns arose in Russian.
Distinguish between the spontaneous influence of social factors on the development of the language and the conscious impact of society on the language. The purposeful influence of society on the language includes, first of all, the language policy of the state, designed to promote the most effective functioning of the language (languages) in various areas of its application. The scope of society's intervention in the development of the language also includes the creation of writing and alphabets, the development of terminology, spelling and punctuation rules, and other normalizing activities.
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Thus, external conditions - spontaneous or conscious - always influence the language, while the language responds to these requirements in the way that intralinguistic possibilities allow.
Internal laws of language development. If we consider the historical development not of the language as a whole, but of its various structural aspects, for example, phonetics and grammar, its individual units and categories, then it is far from always possible to see a direct dependence of the development of a language on the development of society. It is difficult, for example, to explain the loss of nasal vowels in East Slavic languages by a direct impact on the language on the part of society. It is not possible to derive changes in the Russian verbal system from the conditions of the economic, political or cultural life of the Russian society of that era. These specific patterns of development of units and categories of language are called the internal laws of language development. Changes in the phonetics and grammatical structure of the language are primarily determined by internal laws.
Like everything in a language, its sound side undergoes changes throughout history. The sound appearance of individual words and morphemes, their phonemic composition is changing. For example, in the Russian language, the nasal vowels that once existed disappeared, as a result of two palatalizations, the back-lingual consonants changed g, k, x under certain conditions in f, h, sh and h, c, s.
A long period in development is required to change the syllabic organization of the language. Such changes take place over the centuries. The early development of the Proto-Slavic language was associated with the elimination of closed syllables inherited from the common Indo-European era. All closed syllables in one way or another were rebuilt into open syllables over a certain period. Later, the law of the open syllable began to be violated, and in modern Slavic languages the closed syllable is again presented. With the change in syllabic organization in the Slavic languages, the development of stress is also associated. Thus, the free verbal stress of the common Slavic era in modern Czech and Slovak has been replaced by a fixed stress on the initial syllable of a word. In Polish, the stress began to be fixed on the penultimate syllable.
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Sound changes observed in the history of languages, Yu.S. Maslov divided them into regular and sporadic. To sporadic he attributed phonetic changes presented only in individual words or morphemes. Such changes are explained by some special conditions for the functioning of these words or morphemes. So, the formulas of politeness, greetings at a meeting or parting are subject to strong phonetic destruction: they are often pronounced in a patter, casually, since their content is already clear. Therefore, the old English formula of farewell Good be with you! - May God be with you! evolved into Good-bye - goodbye; hallo in the American version Hey, good-bye in Bye-bye. Spanish honorific address formula Vuestra Merced - Your Grace as a result of the action of sporadic phonetic changes, it turned into Usted - you. Write in Russian hello, but they say hello or even draste.
Regular changes appear in a certain phonological unit in a certain phonetic position in all cases when such a position is present in the language, regardless of the specific words and forms in which it occurs. When there is such a regular change, one usually speaks of a sound or phonetic law. For example, the replacement of Old Russian combinations gee, gee, gee modern combinations gi, ki, hee fits the concept of the sound law, since it touched on almost all words with such combinations: instead of gybnuti, goddesses, Kiev, cunning, kypeti, predator arose perish, goddess, Kyiv, cunning, boil, predator etc.
Sound laws are purely historical and do not have the universal character that is inherent in the laws of the natural sciences. The sound law operates at a certain time, in a certain place, and is valid only for a particular language or dialect. Therefore, for example, words that entered the Russian language later were no longer subject to the sound law noted above: akyn, kyzylbashi, kyzylkum, kyyak, hynam(city and port in Korea), Gydan(Gulf), etc. As long as the sound law is in effect, it is alive. An example of a living sound law is the Russian and Belarusian "akane", that is, the replacement about stressed syllable on a in unstressed: water - water, legs- naked. Over-
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Over time, the current phonetic law can become historical, leaving its results in the language: shifts in sound, alternation of phonemes, dropouts of sounds, etc.
The grammar of the language is also subject to historical changes, which may be of a different nature. They can concern the entire grammatical system as a whole, and only certain grammatical categories and forms. For example, in the Romance languages, the former Latin system of declension and conjugation gave way to analytical forms of expressing grammatical meanings using function words and word order. In Russian during the XIV-XVII centuries. the verb system of tenses was rebuilt - from eight ancient to three new. In grammatical development, there are also changes by analogy, which are expressed in the assimilation of some grammatical forms to others. So, in the history of the Russian language, as a result of the operation of the law of analogy, instead of five ancient types of declension, three declensions remained.
End of page 284
TEXTBOOKS AND TUTORIALS
1. Budagov R. A. Introduction to the science of language. 2nd ed. M., 1965.
2. Vendina T. I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2001.
3. Golovin B.N. Introduction to linguistics. 4th ed. M., 1983.
4. Kodukhov V.I.
5. Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics. 2nd ed. M., 1987.
6. Norman B.Yu., Pavlenko N.A. Introduction to linguistics. Reader. 2nd ed. Mn., 1984.
7. Pavlenko N.A. History of writing. 2nd ed. Mn., 1987.
8. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. 5th ed. M., 1996.
9. Yakushkin B.V. Hypotheses about the origin of the language. M., 1984.
COLLECTIONS OF TASKS AND EXERCISES, METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
1. Zinder L.R. Introduction to linguistics. Collection of tasks. M., 1987.
2. Kalabina S.I. Workshop on the course "Introduction to Linguistics". 2nd ed. M, 1985.
3. Kodukhov V.I. Assignments for practical exercises and tests on "Introduction to Linguistics". M., 1976.
4. Kondratov N.A., Koposov L.F., Ruposova L.P. Collection of tasks and exercises for introduction to linguistics. 2nd ed. M., 1991.
5. Murat V.P. Introduction to linguistics. Methodical instructions. 6th ed. M., 1988.
6. Norman B.Yu. Collection of problems on introduction to linguistics. Mn., 1989.
7. Panov A.E. Introduction to linguistics. Control work, assignments and guidelines for independent work. M., 1984.
8. Peretrukhin V.N. Introduction to linguistics. Guide to the course. M., 1984.
REFERENCE LITERATURE
1. Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary of linguistic terms. M., 1966.
2. Belarusian language. Encyclopedia /Pad red. AND I. Mikhnevitch. Mn., 1994.
3. Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1990.
4. Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. 2nd ed. M., 1976.
5. Russian language. Encyclopedia. M., 1979.
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FOREWORD……………………………………………………………………………………..3
The study of the internal laws of language development is one of the most important
tasks of linguistic research.<…>General laws of development are inherent
every language as a social phenomenon of a special order, as a means of communication,
exchange of thoughts between people. Special laws of development are present in
individual languages, determining their qualitative originality, ways of deployment and
improving this quality. At the same time, private, specific patterns
development of a particular language represent a concrete manifestation of the general laws
language development.<…>The so-called sound (or phonetic)
laws and phenomena of grammatical analogy established
comparative historical linguistics as particular empirical patterns
phonetic and grammatical development of individual languages are based on common
laws inherent in language as a means of communication.<…>
Grammar analogy
is a process of assimilation,
creating a new form on the model of the old one. She is grammatical
innovation<…>retrospective nature, building new
grammatical forms, using the material of old forms. The analogy serves
means of improving the grammatical structure of the language, improving
grammatical form or system of forms of a given language in accordance with internal
the laws of its development. Being one of the general laws of the development of grammar,
improvement and improvement of the grammatical rules of the language, it acts in
each language in its own way, according to the peculiarities
grammatical structure of the language. Accordingly, the phenomena of analogy
represent the result of the interaction between the stability of the grammatical system
and the general trend towards improving the grammatical rules of the language.
The main direction of analogous neoplasms is determined by the principle
unambiguous connection between grammatical form and content, according to which
the same grammatical features express the same meanings, and the same
meanings are expressed by the same grammatical features. Actually in
any language there are numerous contradictions between grammatical
forms and their meaning. Wed in Russian declension: bridge- nominative
plural case bridges, but city- Nominative case
plural cities ; in German derTag
- plural die Tage, but der
Schlag- plural die
SWithhlä
ge; in conjugation
verbs: liegen- past tense la
g, but flyegen- past tense fl
aboutg, siegen- past tense
siegte etc. Such contradictions are explained by the fact that
language, as a historical phenomenon, is in development, in motion. "Exceptions"
which are registered by the descriptive grammar of a given language, are revealed with
point of view of its history as a deposit of patterns of the past or as
the emergence of new patterns that have not yet received general significance.
<…>We can and should speak of grammatical analogy as one
from the general internal laws of language development.
It is customary to distinguish analogy internal
and external
.
In the first case, analogous assimilations take place within the system of inflectional
changes of the given word; in the second case - between similar in their function
grammatical forms of different words belonging to different types
inflections within the same grammatical system.
To illustrate, here are some well-known examples.
Internal analogy .
a) In the Old Russian declension, the transition of back-lingual to
,
G
, X
> c
, h
,
With
before vowels h or è
caused corresponding
alternation of the final consonant root: cf. nominative singular
numbers volk- "wolf" vlts h
vltsi; Nominative case
singular friend, locative singular Druse
h, nominative plural friends; nominative
case singular spirit, locative singular
shower h, nominative plural soul etc.
This difference is gradually being eliminated by analogous unification in most
cases: prepositional singular about the wolf , friend ,
spirit; nominative plural wolves ,
others , perfume. Since the case was clearly marked
with its ending, the differentiation of the root, which was present in some cases,
has become superfluous: the restoration of the unity of the root is certain
grammatical improvement.
b) Similar type of interleaving based on transition to
,
G
> h
, and
before front vowels
are also present in the present tense of verbs: cf. baking – you bake –
bakes etc. - bake , shore – save –
saves etc. - cherish etc. Folk dialects and the so-called
"colloquial" know similar forms: you bake , bakes ,
saves, etc., however, the literary language preserves here the ancient
face difference. We occur in a German verb with similar alternations in
areas of vocalism: cf. ichnehthose– du
nimmst– ernittt
; iWithhgebe–
dugibst– ergigbt; ich
fahre– dandf
ä
hrst– erfä
hrt
and others (palatalization of the vowel root under the influence of the element i
in
endings of the 2nd and 3rd person singular in Old German). AT
dialects, and analogous unification is widespread here: dand
petst– erpett; dand
fā
rš
t– erf
ā
rt; however, the literary language retains alternation.
<…>.
External analogy .
a) Genitive plural -ov
in words
masculine gender with a solid base spread in Russian by analogy
old foundations on and
(b
). "Genitive plural
numbers in names *-about
masculine and neuter, in names on
*-a
, also in consonant stems, after the era of the fall of the deaf
turned out to coincide with the pure stem of these series of nouns, not containing such
way no positive formal features to characterize the case
forms (cf. genitive plural slave , horse ,
sat down , Paul , wives , shower , den ,
church , mater , names and under.); only in names
*-and
the corresponding ending was -ov
and in
names on *-
i
masculine and feminine - ending
-e
j
(from ancient -ii
, i.e.
*-b ji)» .
The reason for the analogous distribution of the ending -ov
,
originating from a very small group of bases on and-
type
sons(in which the element -ov
, in its origin,
is not a case inflection, but a variant of the basic vowel), was
coincidence in the masculine gender of the nominative singular and
genitive plural, equally lost case
ending (im. unit slave - genus. pl. slave)."Spread in this
ending declension -ov
, borrowed from the basics of the type
son, - writes L.A. Bulakhovsky, - corresponds to the tendency to inform the form
I will accept a sign that distinguishes it from the nominative case of the singular. In this sense, this process also serves
improving the grammar system. After a long struggle, the old form without
the ending was retained in the literary language, as L. A. Bulakhovsky shows,
where the word "relatively little needed a case characteristic", for example, in the names of paired
objects, designations of measures and weights, often used with counter words (
a pair of boots , five arshins , ten times etc.), or where
there was a formal differentiation, - stress (nominative case
singular tooth
h ý
side, nominative singular
hair- genitive plural hair etc.) or
the presence of a singular suffix (names of peoples, usually with a sign
-in
: Slav – Slavs , Tatar –
Tatars etc.). This circumstance clearly indicates the internal
(albeit unintentional, unconscious) expediency of developing such
similar processes. Neutral stems on -about
not accepted into
literary language ending -ov
because nominative
singular is differentiated here by the ending -about
(cf.
a business – affairs , place – places etc.); however, in popular
dialects, analogous forms are widespread ( place in ,
the thing is) .
fluctuations between clouds – cloud ,
apples – apples associated with the dual form of these words as names
masculine or neuter (nominative singular Apple
– apples , cloud – cloud) .
b) The endings of the dative, instrumental and local (prepositional) cases on
-am
, -ami
, -Oh
, combining in
present declension of nouns in all three genders (cf. wolves
, wives , affairs etc.) are an analogous generalization
endings of old feminine stems on -a
. This process was supported
ending -a
in nominative-accusative plural
neuter numbers, masculine personal names in -a
type
governor , servant, collective type gentlemen and others, and
also by the general loss of grammatical signs of gender in the plural
adjectives. Repressed, after a long period of hesitation, were
endings of other bases: -om
(-eat
),
-s
(-and
), — h
X
(
-ih
), attested in writing before the beginning of the 18th century.
In both cases of external analogy, analogous processes
are made on the basis of a general confusion and unification of the types of declension: loss
fundamental suffixes of their original semantic significance causes
tendency to eliminate formal differences between the same cases and themes
most to improve the grammatical structure of the language in accordance with its internal
laws.<…>
Thus, the internal analogy, establishing unity within the system
inflectional modifications of this word, more clearly and unambiguously highlights
root morpheme as the bearer of the objective (material) meaning of the word.
Therefore, in such cases, we can speak of an analogy material
,
restoring the material unity of the word. External analogy carries out
restructuring of the grammatical system as a whole or in parts in the direction of unification
or differentiation, according to the internal laws of its development; she sets up a new one
unity of the system of grammatical forms and in this sense can be called
analogy formal
, more precisely - by analogy of grammatical forms.
Zhirmunsky V.M. Internal
laws of language development and the problem of grammatical analogy. Proceedings of the Institute
linguistics. T. IV. - publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, M.: 1954, p. 74-79.
S.P. Obnorsky. Nominal
declension in modern Russian. Issue. 2, L., 1931, pp. 149 – 150.
L.A. Bulakhovsky. Historical
- LAW in Wiki Quote:
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PLACES OF COMPLETION OF THE ACT (lex loci actus) a legal principle, meaning the application of the law of the state in whose territory the c.-l. civil law act. … - LAW in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
LOCATIONS OF THE THING (lex rei sitae) is one of the first conflict bindings (attachment formulas) that have developed in the practice of private international ... - LAW in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
PLACES OF PERFORMANCE OF THE CONTRACT (lex loci solutionis) - a legal principle that means the application of the law of the state where the obligation arising from the contract is subject to ... - LAW in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
GRESHAMA - the law of money circulation, according to which "bad" money, which is less valued in the money market, is forced out of circulation ... - LAW in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
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? Z. in the legal sense differs sharply from Z. in the scientific (natural) sense. While the latter means... - LAW in the Popular Explanatory-Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
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rule, decree, provision, basis, beginning, principle; Vera. Wed . See faith, rule || impute to oneself the law, keep the law, retreat ... - LAW in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
Decree of state power Constitution - Basic h. states. Labor Code. Comply with the laws. law is a universally binding and immutable rule of the State ... - LAW in the Dahl Dictionary:
husband. (when the matter is completed) the limit set for freedom of will or action; inevitable beginning, foundation; rule, ordinance of the highest authority. God's law, revelation,... - LAW in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
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sacred personification of the Absolute in religions of the theistic type: the supreme personality, attributed by the identity of essence and existence, higher intelligence, supernatural power and absolute ... - ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary.
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(Greek metaphora - transfer) - transferring the properties of one object (phenomenon or facet of being) to another according to the principle of their similarity in ... - RUSSIA, DIV. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF SOUNDS AND FORMS OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
During the centuries-old existence of the Russian language, its sounds and forms, its syntactic structure and lexical composition have undergone significant changes. Follow… - ELECTRON AND ION OPTICS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
and ion optics, the science of the behavior of electron and ion beams in vacuum under the influence of electric and magnetic fields. Because… - SEMIOTICS (IN LINGUISTICS) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(Greek semeiotikon, from semeion - a sign, sign), semiology, a science that studies the properties of signs and sign systems (natural and artificial languages). FROM. … - NEOTHOMISM in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
philosophical school in Catholicism, proceeding from the teachings of Thomas Aquinas and being the modern stage in the development of Thomism. Since 1879 N. ... - QUANTUM MECHANICS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
mechanics wave mechanics, a theory that establishes the way of describing and the laws of motion of microparticles (elementary particles, atoms, molecules, atomic nuclei) and their systems ... - GEOMETRY in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(Greek geometria, from ge - Earth and metreo - I measure), a branch of mathematics that studies spatial relationships and forms, as well as other ... - ELECTROMAGNET in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron.
- FOUR-DIMENSIONAL SPACE
In many questions of pure and even applied mathematics, there are formulas and mathematical expressions that contain four or more variables ... - TRINITY in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
a theological term expressing the distinctive content of the Christian concept of God. The doctrine of T. represents the first dogma established by the church during the first ... - INTERPRETATION OF THE LAWS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
I. T. laws have long been understood as a clarification of the true will of the legislator. This view could only be recognized... - PERIODIC LAW in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
chemical elements. - After the discoveries of Lavoisier, the concept of chemical elements and simple bodies was so strengthened that their study was put in ... - ORGANIC THEORY OF SOCIETY in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
O. theory of society must be distinguished from O. theory of the state. The latter arose in sociology as a positive science of society, renounced from ... - OCCULTISM in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
A. Essence and method. O. (from the Latin word occultus - secret, secret) is usually called the totality of views, beliefs and knowledge according to ... - LIFE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
Zh. in the philosophical sense is such a way of existence in which the multiplicity of parts and the difference in the forms of a given whole are connected expediently by the known ...
The change and development of the language occurs according to certain laws. The presence of language laws is evidenced by the fact that language is not a collection of disparate, isolated elements. Changing, evolving linguistic phenomena are among themselves in a regular, causal relationship. Language laws are divided into internal and external.
internal called laws, which are causal processes occurring in individual languages and at individual language levels. These include the laws of phonetics, morphology, syntax, vocabulary: the fall of the reduced in Russian; movement of consonants in German. Internal laws are regular relationships between linguistic phenomena and processes that arise as a result of spontaneous causes independent of external influences. It is the internal laws that are evidence that the language is a relatively independent, self-developing and self-regulating system. Internal laws are divided into general and private.
Outer laws called laws, due to the connection of language with the history of society, various aspects of human activity. Thus, a territorial or social restriction in the use of a language leads to the formation of territorial and social dialects. Regular connections between language and the development of social formations are revealed in the course of the historical development of society. For example, the formation of nations and nation-states led to the formation of national languages. The complication of social life, the division of labor caused the formation of styles, scientific and professional sublanguages.
The external structure of language responds directly to changes in the historical movement of society. Under the influence of living conditions, the vocabulary of the language changes, local and social dialects, jargons, styles, genres are formed.
The change and complication of the external structure of the language also affects its internal structure. However, the historical change in the forms of social life of the people does not violate the identity of the language, its independence. The change and development of the internal structure of the language is calculated over many centuries.
General laws cover all languages and all language levels. These include the law of consistency, the law of tradition, the law of analogy, the law of economy, the laws of contradictions (antinomies).
The law of consistency found in different languages and at different linguistic levels.
For example, all languages have a similar level structure in which constitutive units are distinguished. The reduction in the number of cases in Russian (six out of nine) has led to an increase in analytical features in the syntactic structure of the language. The change in the semantics of a word is reflected in its syntactic links and in its form.Law of language tradition due to the desire for stability. When this stability is shattered, prohibitive measures coming from linguists come into effect. In dictionaries, reference books, official instructions, there are indications of the eligibility or incompetence of the use of language signs. Tradition is artificially preserved. For example, the rules preserve the tradition of using verbs call - call, call; turn on - turn on, turn on; hand - hand, hand. Although in many verbs the tradition was broken. For example, there used to be a rule boil - boil: Raven is not fried, not boiled (I. Krylov); The oven pot is dearer to you: you cook your own food in it (A. Pushkin).
Law of linguistic analogy manifests itself in the internal overcoming of linguistic anomalies, which is carried out as a result of assimilation of one form of linguistic expression to another. The result is some unification of forms. The essence of analogy lies in the alignment of forms in pronunciation, in stress, in grammar. For example, the transition of verbs from one class to another is caused by analogy: by analogy with the forms of verbs read - reads, throw - throws forms appeared drips (caplet), listens (listens).
Laws of contradictions (antinomies) explained by the inconsistency of the language. These include:
a) The antinomy of the speaker and the listener is created as a result of differences in the interests of the communicants. The speaker is interested in simplifying and shortening the statement (the law of economy of effort is manifested here), and the listener is interested in simplifying and facilitating the perception and understanding of the statement.
For example, in the Russian language of the XX century. many abbreviations appeared, which was convenient for compilers of texts. However, at present, more and more dissected names appear: Society for the Protection of Animals, Organized Crime Department, which have great impact because they carry open content;b) The antinomy of the usage and the possibilities of the language system (system and norms) lies in the fact that the possibilities of the language (system) are much wider than the use of linguistic signs accepted in the literary language. The traditional norm acts in the direction of limitation, while the system is able to satisfy large communication demands. For example, the norm fixes the absence of opposition by species in two-species verbs. Use compensates for such absences. For example, contrary to the norm, pairs are created attack - attack, organize - organize;
c) Antinomy, due to the asymmetry of the linguistic sign, is manifested in the fact that the signified and the signifier are always in a state of conflict. The signified (meaning) tends to acquire new, more accurate means of expression, and the signifier (sign) seeks to acquire new meanings. For example, the asymmetry of a linguistic sign leads to a narrowing or expansion of the meanings of words: dawn"illumination of the horizon before sunrise or sunset" and "the beginning, the birth of something";
d) Antinomy of two language functions - informational and expressive. The informational function leads to uniformity, standardization of language units, the expressive function encourages novelty, originality of expression. The speech standard is fixed in official areas of communication - in business correspondence, legal literature, state acts. Expression, novelty of expression is more characteristic of oratorical, journalistic, artistic speech;
e) Antinomy of two forms of language - written and oral. At present, rather isolated forms of language implementation are beginning to converge. Oral speech perceives elements of bookishness, written speech makes extensive use of the principles of colloquialism.
private laws occur in separate languages. In Russian, for example, these include the reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables, the regressive assimilation of consonants, and the stunning of consonants at the end of a word.
Linguists note different rates of change and development of languages. There are some general patterns in the rate of change. So, in the pre-literate period, the language structure changes faster than in the written one. Writing slows change, but does not stop it.
The rate of language change, according to some linguists, is affected by the number of people speaking it. Max Muller noted that the smaller the language, the more unstable it is and the faster it is reborn. There is an inverse relationship between the size of the language and the rate of evolution of its structure. However, this pattern is not observed in all languages. Yuri Vladimirovich Rozhdestvensky notes that some pre-literate languages change their structure faster than others, even when these languages had a common base language. Thus, the structure of the Icelandic language changed much more slowly than the structure of the English language, although the number of Icelanders is significantly inferior to the British. Apparently, the special geographical position, the isolation of the Icelandic language, had an effect here. It is also known that the Lithuanian language to a greater extent retained elements of the ancient system of the Indo-European languages than the Slavic languages, despite the Balto-Slavic linguistic unity in antiquity.
There are known cases of rare stability of the language structure over a historically long time. N.G. Chernyshevsky pointed to the amazing stability of the language in the colonies of Greeks, Germans, English and other peoples. The Arabic language of the nomadic Bedouins of Arabia remained practically unchanged for many centuries.
Different rates of change are also observed in the history of the same language. Thus, the decline of reduced vowels in the Old Russian language occurred, in terms of the rate of language changes, relatively quickly in the 10th-12th centuries, especially considering that these vowels were still in the Indo-European language-base. The consequences of this phonetic law were very significant for the phonetic, morphological and lexical system of the Russian language: the restructuring of the system of vowels and consonants, the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word, the assimilation and dissimilation of consonants; the appearance of fluent vowels, unpronounceable consonants, various consonant clusters; change in the sound image of morphemes, words. At the same time, the relative stability of the structure of the national Russian literary language in the period from Pushkin to the present day is also noted. Pushkin's language, according to its phonetic, grammatical, word-formation structure, semantic and stylistic system, cannot be separated from the modern language. However, the Russian language of the middle of the 17th century, distant from the language of Pushkin for the same period of time, cannot be called a modern language for him.
Thus, in the history of the same language, there are periods of relative stability and intense change.
Some linguists believe that language is an objective phenomenon that develops according to its own laws, and therefore it is not subject to subjective influences. It is unacceptable to arbitrarily introduce certain units of the language into the common language, change its norms. In the Russian language, one can only point to individual cases of the introduction of new words by the author into the vocabulary of the Russian language, although author's neologisms are characteristic of the style of many writers.
However, some linguists, for example, E.D. Polivanov, representatives of the PLC believe that there is a need for subjective "intervention" in the organization of language tools. It can be expressed in the codification of language means; in establishing the norms of the literary language for all speakers.
The subjective impact on the language occurs in scientific sublanguages during the organization of term systems. This is due to the conventional nature of the term: it is, as a rule, introduced by condition.
In a certain epoch of development, the personal, subjective influence on the literary language is decisive for the literary language. The creation of national literary languages takes place under the influence of outstanding national writers and poets.
