Foreign Literature The Age of Enlightenment. Medieval European Literature Foreign Literature of the Age of Enlightenment presentation

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D. Defoe's contemporary and compatriot was Jonathan Swift, compatriots and contemporaries of their heroes Robinson and Gulliver. They lived in the same country - England, under the same rulers, read each other's works, although they were not personally acquainted. Undoubtedly, there was much in common in their work, but the talent of each of them was brightly original, unique, as their personalities and destinies are unique.

Jonathan Swift has described himself as a "joker, an extreme joker" who is sad and bitter about his jokes. Many satirists of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries called him their predecessor.

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An Englishman by birth, Swift was born in 1667 in Ireland, in Dublin, where the father of the future writer moved in search of work. After graduating from the University of Dublin in 1789, Swift received a secretary position from the influential nobleman William Temple.

This service weighed heavily on Swift, but he was kept at Moore Park by the vast library of the Temple and its young pupil, Esther Johnson, for whom Swift carried a tender attachment throughout his life.

After Temple's death, Swift went to the Irish village of Laracore to become a priest there. Stella, as Esther Johnson called Swift, followed him.

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Swift could not limit himself to only the humble work of a pastor. Even during Temple's lifetime, he published his first poems and pamphlets, but Swift's book "The Tale of the Barrel" can be considered the real beginning of Swift's literary activity. ("Tale of the barrel" is an English folk expression that means "talk nonsense", "talk nonsense"). It is based on the story of three brothers, which contains a sharp satire on the three main branches of the Christian religion: Catholic, Protestant and Anglican. "Tale of the barrel" brought great fame in the literary and political circles of London. His sharp pen was appreciated by both political parties: Tories and Whigs.

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The main work of Swift's life was his novel "Journey to some distant countries of the world by Lemuel Gulliver, first a surgeon, and then the captain of several ships" - this is how its full title sounds. Swift surrounded his work with extreme mystery, even the publisher who received the manuscript of the novel from an unknown person in 1726 did not know who its author was.

The book about Gulliver was waiting for a fate similar to the book about Robinson: it soon became a world-famous, favorite book for both adults and children.

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"Gulliver's Travels" - the program manifesto of Swift the satirist. In the first part, the reader laughs at the ridiculous conceit of the Lilliputians. In the second, in the country of the giants, the point of view changes, and it turns out that our civilization deserves the same ridicule. In the third, science and the human mind in general are ridiculed. Finally, in the fourth, vile yehus (disgusting humanoid creatures) appear as a concentrate of primordial human nature, not ennobled by spirituality. Swift, as usual, does not resort to moralizing instructions, leaving the reader to draw their own conclusions - to choose between Yahoo and their moral antipode, fancifully dressed in a horse form.

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VOLTAIRE (1694-1778)

Hoo me without hesitation, I will answer you the same, my brethren.

• Voltaire

He was more than a man, he was an era.

• V. Hugo

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In each country, the educational movement had its own characteristics. The French Enlightenment was moving towards revolution, preparing it. Enlighteners, denying the existing order, were looking for ways to rationally organize society. Their ideas, their demands were embodied in the slogan - Freedom, Equality and Brotherhood of all people. During the second half of the XVIII century. French enlighteners were the rulers of the thoughts of all progressive Europe. And the first among the first in their line was Voltaire.

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The great poet and playwright, philosopher and scientist, politician, Voltaire was a symbol and the first figure not only in the history of the French Enlightenment, but also the enlightenment movement throughout Europe. He was at the head of those who prepared France for the reception of the coming revolution. Voltaire's voice has been heard throughout the century. He spoke the decisive word on the most important problems of his time.

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An important part of the artistic heritage of Voltaire are philosophical stories. The philosophical story is a literary genre created in the 18th century. Outlining philosophical ideas, problems, arguing on political and social topics, the author clothes the story in an artistic form. Voltaire often resorts to fantasy, allegory, introduces an exotic flavor, referring to the little-studied East.

In his most famous philosophical novel, Candide, or Optimism (1759), Voltaire reflects on religion, wars, the fate of the world and the place of man in it.

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The center of the story is Germany. Its action begins in Westphalia, on the estate of Baron Tunder der Tronck. The Prussians appear in the novel disguised as Bulgarians. Forcibly recruited into the Bulgarian (Prussian) army, the protagonist of the story, Candide, becomes a witness and participant in a bloody war of conquest - a massacre in which Voltaire is especially shocked by the atrocities against civilians. He paints a terrible picture of the death of the entire population of the Avar village, burned "by virtue of international law."

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But the narrative goes beyond one state. In Candida, a panorama of the world order is given, which must be rebuilt on the basis of reason and justice. The writer-philosopher takes the reader to Spain and makes him a witness to the trial of the Inquisition and the burning of heretics; in Buenos Aires he shows him the abuses of the colonial authorities; in Paraguay - denounces the state created by the Jesuits. Everywhere lawlessness and deceit go side by side with murder, debauchery, theft, and humiliation of a person. In all corners of the globe people are suffering, they are not protected under the domination of feudal orders.

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Voltaire contrasts this terrible world with his utopian dream of the ideal country of El Dorado, where the hero finds himself. Eldorado means "golden" or "happy" in Spanish. The state is ruled by a smart, educated, enlightened king-philosopher. All residents are working, they are happy. Money has no value for them. Gold is considered only as a convenient and beautiful material. Even rural roads are paved with gold and precious stones. The people of Eldorado do not know oppression, there are no prisons in the country. Art plays a huge role. It permeates and organizes the whole life of society. The largest and most beautiful building in the city is the Palace of Sciences.

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However, the writer himself understands that the dream of El Dorado is just a dream. Voltaire separates El Dorado from the whole world by huge seas and impassable mountain ranges, and everything that Candide and his companion managed to take out of this fabulously rich country could not serve to enrich and happiness the heroes. Voltaire led the reader to the conclusion: the happiness and prosperity of people can only be won by their own labor. The end of the story is symbolic. The heroes, having gone through many trials, meet in the vicinity of Constantinople, where Candide buys a small farm. They grow fruits and live a peaceful, calm life. “We will work without reasoning,” says one of them, “this is the only way to make life bearable.” “You have to cultivate your garden,” Candide clarifies this idea. Labor as the fundamental principle of life, which is able to "save us from three great evils: boredom, vice and need", labor as the basis of creation, practical action - this is the true vocation of man. This is the final call of Candide.

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Who is able, however, to express all the fullness of gratitude to the great poet, the most precious pearl of the nation!

• L. Beethoven about Goethe

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The work of the German Enlightenment had its own national features.

The main task of the advanced people of Germany at that time was the task of uniting Germany, which means awakening a sense of national unity, national self-consciousness of the people, cultivating intolerance for despotism and hopes for possible changes.

The heyday of the German Enlightenment falls on the second half of the 18th century. But already in the first half of the century, a giant figure of I.S. Bach, whose work laid the most important foundations for the self-consciousness of the German people.

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All the best that the German Enlightenment achieved was embodied in the work of Johann Wolfgang Goethe. He was in his 21st year when he came to Strasbourg to continue his education. Behind the childhood spent in the old free city of Frankfurt am Main in the house of a highly educated burgher, three years of study at the University of Leipzig, where Goethe studied law. Strasbourg is an ordinary German city. It lay on the main route from central Europe to Paris. Here, as it were, the influences of French and German culture clashed, and the provincial way of life was less felt.

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Goethe's life's work and the philosophical result of the European Enlightenment was "Faust" - a work about the greatness of the human mind, faith in the unlimited possibilities of man. Faust is a monumental philosophical tragedy. Goethe wrote it all his life, for about sixty years, and completed it in 1831, already in another era, the aspirations and hopes of which were reflected in his immortal creation.

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Writing in a notebook

The Enlightenment movement originated in England, after the events of the bourgeois revolution at the end of the 17th century. (1688).

They sought to re-educate a person in the spirit of bourgeois virtues.

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Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)

English writer, founder of the European novel. He was born in London in a petty bourgeois family, having received an excellent education, he began to engage in commerce.

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"Robinson Crusoe"

The most famous novel is "Robinson Crusoe", whose hero lived on a desert island for twenty-nine years alone and remained to live contrary to all assumptions, retaining not only his mind, but also his self-esteem.

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Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832)

All the best that the German Enlightenment achieved was embodied in the work of Johann Wolfgang Goethe.

Goethe's life's work and the philosophical result of the European Enlightenment was "Faust" - a work about the greatness of the human mind, faith in the unlimited possibilities of man. Faust is a monumental philosophical tragedy that took 60 years to write.

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The French poet and critic Charles Perrault (1628-1703) gained worldwide fame with his collection Tales of My Mother the Goose, or Stories and Tales of Old Times with Instructions (1697). The book included fairy tales now known to children all over the world: "Little Red Riding Hood", "Cinderella" and "Puss in Boots". The collection was released simultaneously in two editions - in Paris and The Hague (Holland).

In contrast to the supporters of classicism, Charles Perrault resolutely came out in favor of enriching literature with plots and motifs of national folklore.

Each fairy tale by Charles Perrault shines with fiction, and the real world is reflected in the fairy tale by one side or the other. In "Little Red Riding Hood" the idyll of rural life is recreated. The heroine of the fairy tale lives in a naive belief that everything in the world was created for a serene existence. The girl does not expect trouble from anywhere - she plays, collects nuts, catches butterflies, picks flowers, trustingly explains to the wolf where and why she is going, where her grandmother lives - "here in that village behind the mill, in the first house on the edge." Of course, any serious interpretation of this tale would be an extreme coarsening of its subtle meaning, but under the playful narration one can guess the truth about the predatory encroachments of evil creatures on the life and well-being of naive people. Contrary to his custom, Charles Perrault ended the story with a happy ending: "... the evil wolf rushed at Little Red Riding Hood and ate her." The correction when translating this ending to a happy one: the woodcutters killed the wolf, cut open his stomach, and Little Red Riding Hood and her grandmother emerged from there, alive and unharmed, must be considered an unreasonable violation of the author's intention.

The tale "Puss in Boots" - about the miraculous and quick enrichment of the miller's youngest son - attracts with the intricacy with which it is said about how intelligence and resourcefulness prevailed over sad life circumstances.

With the fairy tales of Charles Perrault about the Sleeping Beauty, about the Bluebeard, about the Boy with a Thumb and others, more complex in figurative system, children usually meet in the first school years.

The first volume of fairy tales by the brothers Grimm, Jacob (1785-1863) and Wilhelm (1786-1859) appeared in 1812, the second - in 1815 and the third - in 1822. All over the world, this collection is recognized as a remarkable artistic creation, equally indebted to the genius of the German people and the genius of two fiery figures of the era of European romanticism. The study of the German Middle Ages: history, culture, mythology, law, language, literature and folklore - led the Grimm brothers to collect and publish the tales of their people. Preparing the publication of fairy tales, the Grimm brothers realized that they were dealing not only with excellent material, the knowledge of which is obligatory for people of science, but with an invaluable artistic heritage of the people.

Along with original, unique fairy tales, the collection of the Brothers Grimm included fairy tales known to international folklore. Not "Little Red Riding Hood" mail repeated the French in everything, only the end of the tale is different: having caught the sleeping wolf, the hunter wanted to shoot him, but thought it better to take scissors and cut his belly.

In the fairy tale "The Wonder Bird" it is easy to notice the similarity with the fairy tale of Charles Perrault about the Bluebeard, and in the fairy tale "Rosehip" - the similarity with the fairy tale about the Sleeping Beauty. The Russian reader can easily see the closeness of the fairy tale about Snow White to the plot, which became widely known in the processing of A.S. Pushkin, - "The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Bogatyrs", and in the fairy tale "The Found Bird" will meet the familiar plot motifs of the Russian fairy tale about Vasilisa the Wise and the Sea King.

Fairy tales available for preschoolers include: "Straw, Coal and Bean", "Sweet Porridge", "Hare and Hedgehog", "Bremen Street Musicians".

In 1835-1837, Hans Christian Andersen published three collections of fairy tales. They included: the famous "Flint and Steel", "Princess on a Pea", "The King's New Dress", "Thumbelina" and other works now known to the whole world.

After the three collections were released, Andersen wrote many other fairy tales. Gradually, the fairy tale became the main genre in the writer's work, and he himself realized his true calling - he became almost exclusively a creator of fairy tales. The writer called his collections, published since 1843, "New Fairy Tales" - from now on they were directly addressed to adults. However, even after that, he did not lose sight of the children. Indeed, The Steadfast Tin Soldier (1838), The Ugly Duckling (1843), The Nightingale (1843), The Darning Needle (1845-1846), The Snow Queen (1843-1846) and all other fairy tales are full of that entertainment that attracts the child so much, but they also have a lot of common, until the time eluding children sense, which is dear to Andersen as a writer who also created for adults.

From the numerous fairy tales of the writer, teachers selected those that are most accessible to preschool children. These are fairy tales: "Five from one pod", "The Princess and the Pea", "The Ugly Duckling", "Thumbelina".

The tale "The Ugly Duckling" contains a story that comes to mind every time when an example of a false assessment of a person by his appearance is needed. Unrecognized, persecuted and persecuted by everyone in the poultry yard, the ugly chick eventually turned into a swan - the most beautiful among the beautiful creatures of nature. The story of the ugly duckling has become proverbial. In this tale there is a lot of personal, Andersen's - after all, in the life of the writer himself there was a long streak of general non-recognition. Only years later the world bowed to his artistic genius.

The English writer A. Milne (1882 - 1956) entered the history of preschool children's literature as the author of the fairy tale about the teddy bear Winnie the Pooh and a number of poems. Milne also wrote other works for children, but the fairy tale and poems he named were the most successful.

The Tale of Winnie the Pooh was published in 1926. With us, it became known in 1960 in the retelling of B. Zakhoder. The heroes of the fairy tale Milne are just as loved by children as Pinocchio, Cheburashka, Gena the crocodile, the hare from the cartoons "Well, you wait!" are loved by them. "Winnie the Pooh" and therefore fell in love with the children, that the writer does not descend from the soil of those creative principles that were comprehended by him through observation of the spiritual growth of his own son. The hero of the fairy tale Christopher Robin lives in the imaginary world of his toys - their adventures formed the basis of the plot: Winnie the Pooh climbs a tree for honey from wild bees, Winnie the Pooh visits the Rabbit and eats so much that he cannot get out of the hole; Winnie the Pooh, together with Piglet, goes hunting and takes his own tracks for the tracks of Buka; the gray donkey Eeyore loses his tail - Winnie the Pooh finds it at the Owl and returns Eeyore; Winnie the Pooh falls into a trap that he set up to capture the Heffalump, Piglet takes him for the one for which he and Pooh dug a hole, etc.

Far from all of Milne's poems written for children have been translated into Russian. Of those translated, poems about the nimble Robin were widely known:

My Robin doesn't walk

How people

And rushes skipping,

gallop -

Subtle lyricism marked the poem "At the window - about the movement of raindrops on glass:

I gave each drop a name:

This is Johnny, this is Jimmy.

Drops run down with an uneven movement - sometimes they linger, sometimes they hurry. Which one will go down first? The poet must look at the world through the eyes of a child. Milne, poet and prose writer, remains faithful to this creative principle everywhere.

The Swedish writer, winner of many international awards for children's books, Astrid Anna Emilia Lindgren (born in 1907) earned herself the fame of "Andersen of our days". The writer owes her success to the penetrating knowledge of children, their aspirations, and the peculiarities of their spiritual development. Lindgren realized the high expediency of the play of the imagination in the spiritual life of the child. Children's imagination is fed not only by the traditional folk tale. Food for fiction is provided by the real world in which the modern child lives. So it was in the past - traditional fairy tale fiction was also generated by reality. The writer-storyteller, accordingly, must always proceed from the reality of today's world. In Lindgren, this, in particular, was expressed in the fact that her works, as one Swedish critic accurately noted, belong to the category of "semi-fairy tales" (hereinafter, it is quoted from the book by L.Yu. Braude Storytellers of Scandinavia - L., 1974). These are living realistic stories about a modern child, combined with fiction.

The most famous of the writer's books is the trilogy about Baby Carlson. Fairy tales about Malysh and Carlson were compiled from the books The Kid and Carlson Who Lives on the Roof (1955), Carlson Has Arrived Again (1962) and Carlson Secretly Appears Again (1968).

The idea of ​​fairy tales came out of the thought expressed by the writer in the following words: "Nothing great and remarkable would have happened in our world if it had not happened first in the imagination of some person." The fantasies of the hero of her stories of fairy tales - the Kid - Lindgren surrounded with poetry, seeing in the game of imagination the most valuable property, necessary for the formation of a full-fledged personality.

Carlson flew to the Kid on one of the clear spring evenings, when for the first time the stars lit up in the sky. He came to share the loneliness of the Kid. As a fairy-tale character, Carlson fulfilled the Kid's dream of a friend in undertakings, pranks, and unusual adventures. Father, mother, sister and brother did not immediately understand what was happening in the soul of the Kid, but, having understood, they decided to keep a secret - "they promised each other that they would not tell a single living soul about the amazing comrade that the Kid had found for himself." Carlson is a living embodiment of what a child lacks, deprived of the attention of adults, and what accompanies the game of his imagination, not subject to the boredom of everyday everyday activities. In Carlson, childhood dreams are personified about the possibility of flying through the air over the city, walking on rooftops, playing without fear of breaking a toy, hiding everywhere - in bed, in a closet, turning into a ghost, scaring crooks, joking without fear of being misunderstood, etc. The cheerful companion of the Kid's undertakings lives a constant desire to surprise with unusual behavior, but it is not aimless, as it resists the boredom of ordinary human deeds and actions. "The best specialist in steam engines" contrary to the ban, the father and elder brother of the Kid starts the car - and the game becomes really interesting. Even the breakdown of the car delights Carlson: "What a roar! How great!" Crying out of chagrin, Baby Carlson calms down with his usual remark: "This is nothing, it's a matter of life!".

The childish imagination of the Kid endows Carlson with eccentric features: he drinks water from an aquarium, builds a tower of cubes with a meatball on top instead of a dome; he boasts on any occasion - it turns out to be "the best rooster draftsman in the world", then "the best magician in the world", then "the best nanny in the world", etc.

The features of Carlson, a fat little man who said about himself that he is "a man in the prime of life", who is not averse to cheating, feasting on, playing pranks, taking advantage of the innocence of a comrade - these are the human shortcomings that set off the main dignity of Carlson - he comes to the aid of the Kid, removes boredom from his life, makes his life interesting, as a result of which the boy becomes cheerful and active. Together with Carlson, the Kid scares the thieves Rulle and Fille, punishes the careless parents who left the little girl Susanna alone at home, laughs at Betan, the sister of the Kid, and her next hobby.

Lindgren's fairy tales are fundamentally deeply pedagogical. This property of her artistic skill does not prevent the writer from remaining a cheerful storyteller, sometimes lyrical, even sentimental.

In addition to the trilogy about Carlson and Baby Lindgren, a large number of other fairy tales have been created. Among them are The Adventures of Pippi Longstocking (1945 - 1948), Mio, My Mio! (1954), but the trilogy about Carlson and the Kid remains the best in the work of the Swedish writer.

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Many things change in life. By the end of the 17th century, feudalism had become obsolete. The crisis of the existing system manifested itself in all areas: in the economy, public life, ideology, culture. It was a period of fermentation of minds. Scientists, writers, artists, composers - all the progressive people of different countries felt hatred for the feudal order. And at the same time, the representatives of the ruling class used every opportunity to strengthen all their power.

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In the eighteenth century, a new stage in the development of social consciousness begins - the Age of Enlightenment. The old social order is being destroyed; ideas of respect for human dignity, freedom and happiness are of paramount importance; the person gains independence and maturity, uses his mind and critical thinking. The ideals of the Baroque era with its pomp, grandiloquence and solemnity are being replaced by a new lifestyle based on naturalness and simplicity. The time is coming for the idealistic views of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, calling for a return to nature, to natural virtue and freedom. Along with nature, Antiquity is idealized, since it was believed that it was during Antiquity that people managed to embody all human aspirations. Ancient art is called classical, it is recognized as exemplary, the most truthful, perfect, harmonious and, unlike the art of the Baroque era, it is considered simple and understandable. In the center of attention, along with other important aspects, are education, the position of the common people in the social structure, genius as a property of a person. Jean Jacques Rousseau

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Denis Diderot Reason also reigns in art. Wishing to emphasize the high purpose of art, its social and civic role, the French philosopher-educator Denis Diderot wrote: "Each work of sculpture or painting should express some great rule of life, should teach."

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It is life, its events and ideas, dreams and ideals of people, that is the beginning that will unite various works of art from different countries into a single whole, called the artistic culture of the Enlightenment, will determine its originality. What made cultural figures give such a high assessment of the eighteenth century - as the greatest era in the development of mankind? The answer to this question will be an appeal to history, to the names of the great people of the Enlightenment, many of whom you already know (artists), whose people were worried about the events and problems of this time. And therefore, contemporaries called the progressive figures of the 18th century the Enlighteners.

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Let's leave the Italians Empty tinsel with its false gloss, The most important thing is the meaning, but in order to come to it, We'll have to overcome obstacles and paths. Adhere to the planned path strictly Sometimes the Mind has only one road ... You need to think over the meaning and only then write. This is how one of the main ideologists of the Enlightenment, the poet Boileau, taught his contemporaries.

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Enlightenment is an ideology (a system of political views, ideas). Enlighteners carried out their ideas through art, they were most clearly manifested in literature. Writers or philosophers who boldly criticized feudalism in their works were called enlighteners or ideologists. Literature was a weapon in the fight against the feudal system. It carried an educational mission and was based on the principles of Freedom, Equality and Fraternity. The Enlightenment contributed to the following genres: Realistic novel; Philosophical story; Philosophical treatise; Pamphlet.

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Within the framework of the Enlightenment, other literary trends also developed: sentimentalism; enlightenment classicism; Enlightenment realism, i.e. the authors used various artistic methods.

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Enlighteners France England Germany Russia Daniel Defoe; Voltaire; J.J. Rousseau, Denis Diderot Fielding; D. Milton; J. Swift I. Goethe; Lessing; Schiller; Gerderg Fonvizin; I. Krylov; Derzhavin

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Voltaire. Philosophical story "Candide or optimism". The hero - the young man Candide, expelled from the castle of the baron, becomes a victim of the vicissitudes of fate: he is forcibly taken into the army, driven through the ranks, falls into an earthquake, becomes a victim of the Inquisition. Candide encounters different people: representatives of the aristocracy, the church, the authorities, through communication with whom Voltaire denounces class prejudices, aggressive wars. In the story, Voltaire draws a happy country of Eldorado, where an enlightened monarch rules, everyone is busy with work, well-fed and virtuous. The end of the story shows all the heroes on a farm, in the vicinity of Constantinople, where everyone is working. Features of the creative method of Voltaire: denunciation of feudal prejudices critic of internecine wars; criticism of church officials.

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Daniel Defoe. The novel "The Life and Wonderful Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, a sailor from York, written by himself" (1717) The novel is based on the true story of the sailor Alexander Selkirk, who became wild as a result of a 4-year stay on a desert island. Defoe Robinson "forced" to live on the island for 28 years. The life story of Robinson is a hymn to the creative work of man, courage, will, ingenuity. Defoe endows his hero with the features of a bourgeois person. He seeks to affirm the ideal of man