Our world is constantly changing and improving thanks to the genius of human thought. Every century gives birth to geniuses who, with their inventions and the greatest discoveries, change and move the world forward. One of them is Jean Etienne Lenoir, who was engaged in research in the field of electrical engineering, chemistry, mechanics, the inventor of the internal combustion engine. The brilliant inventor was born on 01/12/1822 in Belgium, the town of Mussy-la-Ville. The boy grew up in a wealthy family of a Belgian industrialist and dreamed of eventually studying at the famous Parisian technical university Ecole Polytechnique. However, the early death of his father prevented him from realizing his dream. As a young man, he reached Paris on foot, but did not pass the exams for admission to the Polytechnic School. For a time he worked as a waiter in a Parisian restaurant, whose frequent guests were workshop owners and mechanics. Even then, the young man was visited by the idea of improving the engine, which mechanics so often talked about and argued about, sitting at a table in a restaurant. Soon the young man moved to one of the workshops, where he worked on compiling new enamels. A year later, he left the workshop and worked for some time as a lone mechanic. A talented young man took on any job, repaired everything, whether it was carriages or various kitchen utensils. But it did not bring any money or satisfaction.
Lenoir enters the Marioni mechanical foundry, which soon, thanks to a number of his inventions, in particular, the method of electroplating jewelry, turned into an electroplating workshop. Lenoir has significantly improved his financial situation and is actively experimenting with his inventions. He invented and patented his own electric motor, water meter, dynamo regulator. The idea of a double-acting steam engine does not leave him. He studies and uses the engineering experience of other inventors, his predecessors. Finally, the first sample of the engine was made. The quiet operation of the engine was a huge plus. However, during operation, it quickly heated up, which was a minus that required a fundamentally different cooling. 
When cooled by air, the working pistons expanded and wedged in the cylinder. Then Lenoir decided to use water for cooling. He supplemented his design with an oil lubrication system. Using natural water was certainly not ideal. This led to the gradual formation of scale, precipitation, in cold weather, in a non-working engine, water froze, destroying the engine. And only in the 20s of the twentieth century, a low-freezing coolant based on glycerin, called antifreeze, was first invented. In order for your car to work properly, you must know how to check the antifreeze in the car and add coolant to the radiator. Lenoir was sponsored by the Italian workshop owner Marioni, and since the inventor did not legalize his invention, the car was soon sealed. In addition to the negative, the quarrel with the sponsor also played a positive role - this prompted Lenoir to create his own company.
Lenoir & Co. very quickly set up production of gas engines with a capacity of 4 horsepower. 01/24/1860 Etienne Lenoir patented it. In 1862, at the Paris Exhibition, he demonstrated the first horseless eight-seater wagon with a patented engine. Firms in France and Germany produced about three hundred engines that were installed on road carriages, ships, and locomotives. He became the first serial engine. 
In 1872, a gas engine was installed on an airship, the test result was positive. As a Belgian, Jean Etienne Lenoir received French citizenship for his heroism in 1870 in the defense of Paris in the war between France and Prussia. Jean Etienne Lenoir is officially recognized as the inventor of the internal combustion engine, however, his fame lasted only a few years. Soon the fame will pass to his German colleague engineer Nikolaus Otto, whom Lenoir met in 1860 and to whom he demonstrated his engine. N. Otto, interested in the invention, initially created with Langen a company for the production of Lenoir engines. At the same time, he worked on his own version of the engine, which he demonstrated in 1878. It was a 4-stroke, bulky and noisy engine, but its efficiency was 16%, while the efficiency of Lenoir's machine was 3 times less (5%). As a result, the invention of N. Otto replaced the Lenoir engine.
Activity
Young Lyotard diligently engaged in drawing, miniature and enamel painting. In 1725, Lyotard arrived in Paris to improve his art, and found himself a patron in the person of Puisier, who, being appointed envoy to Naples, took him there with him.
Oriental costume liked Lyotard so much that in 1744 he depicted himself in this outfit in two portraits - one painted for the Florentine collection of portraits of artists, and the other, located in the Dresden gallery. From Vienna, Lyotard arrived in Paris at a time when the pastel genre of painting enjoyed special honor there, and the Marquise de Pompadour was a trendsetter. She wished to have her portrait by Lyotard and delivered him the title of royal painter and member of the academy. This was enough to make Lyotard a fashionable portraitist of the beauties who shone at that time at the French court. At the Paris exhibitions of 1751-1753, Lyotard's works appeared in abundance; but this was detrimental to them, since masterful pastel portraits were exhibited here next to them
Belgian mechanic, inventor of the internal combustion engine.
Born in Musy-la-Ville (Belgium). He devoted most of his life to research in the field of mechanics, electrical engineering and chemistry. As a young man, he came to Paris on foot to enter the Polytechnic School and become an engineer. Without passing the exams, he worked as a waiter in a cafe. Then he got a job at the Marioni enterprise, which produced copper-plated copies of famous jewelry, which were then in vogue among not wealthy Parisian artisans. He made several inventions for which he did not take patents. Having found a successful method for electroplating round objects, he issued a patent for it and negotiated a percentage from the owner for its use.
Lenoir gas engine (1864 drawing)
Having received a steady income and got acquainted with the work of Denis Papin and Sadi Carnot, he was finally able to start designing an engine. After spending several years, he made a working copy that worked on lighting gas with ignition from an electric spark. January 24, 1860 patented it.
Serial Lenoir engine
In 1862 he built the first horseless wagon in Paris. In all likelihood, a previously patented engine was installed on it. During the Franco-Prussian War, he took part in the defense of Paris in 1870 and received French citizenship for his heroism. Jean Etienne Lenoir is officially recognized as the inventor of the internal combustion engine.
Swiss artist of French origin, pastel painter, graphic artist, engraver and art theorist. Jean-Étienne Lyotard (and his twin brother Jean-Michel, who later became famous as an engraver and etcher) was born in Geneva in the family of a jeweler. Parents were French Protestants, forced to leave their homeland.
Lyotard emphasizes the coloristic qualities of pastels. In addition to a number of light, painted in delicate tones, dominated by shades of white, among the works of the artist there are some “folklore” Turkish scenes, as well as portraits, the contrasting, rich coloring of which is created with the help of additional pigments added to pastel crayons. However, in them Lyotard avoids shadows, his pastel does not like darkness, evasiveness and mystery, he cannot stand anything absolute and rude.
Lyotard spent some time in Rome, where he copied the works of old masters, among them highlighting Correggio. He then accompanied Sir William Ponsonby on his travels in the East. Lyotard spent five years in Constantinople, where he largely adopted Turkish customs and even costume. The East left a deep mark on the life and work of the artist. He discovered other countries, mores, customs. Impressions from what he saw are embodied in many drawings made in pencil and sanguine. The high level of these works, with their complex ligature of strokes, lines, patterns, the beauty of the tone of a silvery pencil and red-red sanguine, the skill and freedom of possession of technique are combined with a documentary accurate reproduction of what they saw.
Portrait of the archaeologist and theologian RichardPocock. 1738-39. Charcoal pencil, sanguine. Louvre, Paris.
A young woman in Constantinople embroiders while sitting on the ground.OK. 1738. Charcoal pencil, sanguine. Louvre, Paris.
portrait of a gentlemanLevetta, an English merchant, dressed as a Tatar. 1738-40. Charcoal pencil, sanguine. Louvre, Paris.
MisterLevettand Mademoiselle Glavani in Turkish costumes. 1740. Louvre, Paris.
The painting "Turkish woman with a tambourine" is the author's copy, made in oil from a smaller pastel (Zurich, Private collection). In a work made in oils, the artist places slightly different accents and emphasizes other details. The velvety surface of the pastel and its predominantly bleached colors can be considered the means by which the elegant Parisian lady in the portrait appears in a somewhat idealized light. The rich tones of the Turkish costume require a much more intense color. Shimmering shades, the brilliance of golden brocade, the sparkling silk of wide pantaloons - everything in the picture seems to be saturated with color and light.
Only the skin tones of the face and hands are reminiscent of the pastel technique. The woman in the picture has a sleek French face. Her picturesque pose corresponds to the luxury of the costume and the environment. Growing out of curiosity for oriental exoticism, the fashion for everything Turkish in the Rococo era was very popular in Europe. She not only became the theme of Lyotard's painting, but also predetermined the manner of her performance. The marked contrast between the pastel style and the oil style in Lyotard's painting indicates that the beautiful model dressed as a Turkish woman wants to be perceived precisely as a Turkish woman.
Lyotard visited all the great European cities, painted portraits of Pope Clement XIII and Empress Maria Theresa in Vienna. The portrait of Maria Theresa, painted in 1744 and later repeated in the technique of enamel and miniature on bone, is one of his best works. The Empress is painted without the idealization characteristic of ceremonial portraits; there is no royalty and majesty in her. She looks like a mother of the family with a pleasant but rustic face and big hands.
PortraitMaria TheresaAustrian. 1744. Pastel. GalleryAlbertina, Vienna.
There he also created a portrait of Anna Baldauf, a servant at the court of the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, also known as "Chocolate Girl". Anna married Prince Dietrichstein, and the portrait may have been commissioned by Lyotard as a wedding present.
The painting is notable for the fact that it depicts the first porcelain in Europe - Meissen. The nature of the genre scene, the harmonious combination of colors, attention to detail. Lyotard believed that pastel most naturally conveys color and the subtlest transitions of chiaroscuro within light colorful tones. A difficult pictorial task is to show a figure in a white apron against a white wall. In a combination of a gray-gray skirt and a white apron with shadows and a steel shade of water, real poetry of colors sounds. Thanks to the use of thin transparent shadows, the artist achieved perfect accuracy of the drawing, as well as maximum convexity and certainty of volumes.
As a portrait painter, he worked in Venice, Lyon, Paris and London, and then returned forever to his native Geneva in 1757. Liotard's works are characterized by light coloring and love for the details of the world around him, where he almost sees no shadows. The smooth surfaces of Lyotard's works indicate that he began his career as an enamel painter and miniaturist.
Portrait of Anna-Maria deKupisurnamed MademoiselleCamargo.
OK. 1750. Charcoal pencil, sanguine. GalleryAlbertina, Vienna.
Maria Friederike van Reed Athlone. 1755-1756. Pastel. MuseumGetty,
Los Angeles.
PortraitMarie Justine Benois Favard-Duronseret. 1757. Pastel. Oscar FoundationReinhart,
Winterthur, Switzerland.
Talking about his achievements, the artist especially highlights the portraits of Francois Tronchin, a representative of one of the oldest and richest families in Geneva, and his wife.
Portrait of FrancoisTronchin. 1757. Pastel. Private collection.
Portrait of MadameTronchin. 1758. Pastel. Louvre, Paris.
Portrait of Martha MariaTronchin. 1758-61. Pastel. Art Institute, Chicago.
Portrait of Martha MariaTronchin. Fragment. 1758-61. Pastel. Art Institute, Chicago.
Portrait of a coupleTalasson. 1760. Pastel. Oscar FoundationReinhart,
Winterthur, Switzerland.
Portrait of a coupleTalasson. 1760. Pastel. Oscar FoundationReinhart,
Winterthur, Switzerland.
Lyotard began painting still lifes with tea and coffee sets in the last two decades of his life, when age, changing tastes and political persuasions led to a decline in commissions for the pastel portraits in which he specialized. From about 1740, he sometimes incorporated still life elements—fruit and porcelain—in portraits.
Still life with tea service.OK. 1781-1783. Oil. MuseumGetty, Los Angeles.
By the time of writing "Still Life with a Tea Service" at the end of the 18th century. tea drinking was popular among both the upper class and the middle class. The artist contrasts the luxurious texture of Chinese porcelain and silver with a cheaper tray made of painted tin, imitating oriental lacquers. He achieves strong visual contrast by combining transparent and reflective objects with richly painted surfaces.
Jean-Étienne Lyotard theoretically summarized his creative experience in the Treatise on the Principles and Rules of Painting, published in 1781. Lyotard's talent was manifested not only in pastel works, but also in enamel, as well as in engraving on copper and painting on glass. But pastel portraits occupy the main place in his legacy, featuring great diversity.
Prince of Wales, future GeorgeIII. 1758. Painting on enamel. Royal Collection, London.
Lyotard Jean Etienne
(Jean-Etienne Liotard)
Swiss artist
The artist's father, Antoine Lyotard, was born into a French Protestant family, was a jeweler, but after 1685, for religious reasons, he fled from the small French town of Montelimar to Switzerland. The twin brothers Jean-Étienne and Jean-Michel were born in Geneva.
Jean-Étienne Lyotard was the thirteenth child of a French merchant. Jean-Étienne and Jean-Michel proved to be artistically gifted children and showed an interest in drawing and painting from an early age.
In his youth, Jean-Étienne studied with the miniaturist Daniel Gardel, then in 1725 Lyotard, again with his brother, went to Paris. Here they continued their education in the studio of the engraver and miniaturist Jean-Baptiste Masset.
But it was during the years of wandering around Italy that the artist discovers pastel, which will become his favorite technique and glorify the name of Lyotard throughout Europe.
Lyotard painted the painting "David in the Temple", which was awarded the Paris Academy of Arts. Critics assumed that the artist would take up the historical genre, but academics and colleagues convinced him that his vocation was the portrait genre.
Portraits of Lyotard are very diverse. In some, there is a tangible connection with the Rococo style, with its inherent love for elegant and complex costumes, for the abundance of soft flowing fabrics, for the elegance of graceful poses and movements. Such are the portraits of "Madame Epinay", "Reading Girl", "Madame Boer", "Chocolate Girl". In other, more numerous portraits, the desire for an objective and accurate characterization prevails.
This can be seen in the portraits of Maria Theresa, Marshal Moritz of Saxony, the artist's wife, Madame Cognard ("Lady in Lace"). People in these portraits are given, as a rule, in close-up and close to the viewer, nothing in them distracts attention from the main thing - from the face. The artist is clearly impressed by such character traits as energy, activity, self-confidence.
The artist spent the last years of his life in Confignon, near Geneva. He paints still lifes, for which collectors and museums will subsequently fight. Lyotard dies in 1789, without waiting for the Great French Revolution, which destroyed the old order and brought new values to replace it, including in art. The artist's twin brother Jean-Michel, devastated by the revolution, will die in poverty in 1796.
For more than 60 years of his creative life, Lyotard created a huge number of portraits. At the same time, as art historians write, he always sought to show an objective and accurate description of the image. The artist did not hide the shortcomings of his characters, which was contrary to the aesthetics of the Rococo style, aimed at embellishment and even flattery. This “truthfulness” of Lyotard distinguishes him from other French portrait painters of the 18th century, for example, Watteau and Boucher. Some critics even scolded the artist for his lack of "elegant style", while calling his pastel portraits "graceful and delicate".
Ami-Jean de La Rive, 1758, Pastel on parchment,
Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen
Portrait of the countess of Coventry
Marie Antoinette of Austria, Future Queen of France
George, Prince of Wales
Marie Joseph von Sachsen
Marc Liotard de la Servette, 1775, Pastel on paper,
Museum of Art and History, Ginevra
Portrait of Isaac-Louis de Thellusson, 1760, pastel on parchment,
Oskar Reinhart Foundation, Winterthur
"La Prima Colazione", 1754
David Garrik, 1751, Pastel on parchment,
Collection Devonshire, Chatsworth. England
Portrait of a lady at the court Sun
Portrait van Graaf Francesco Algarotti.
Francesco I D "Austria, 1744. Pastel on parchment,
Herzog Anton Ulrich-Museum. Brunswick
Portrait of Julie de Thellusson-Ployard
Marthe Marie Tronchin
Marie Charlotte Boissier
Madame Liotard and her daughter
Jean-Etienne and his wife had an incomprehensible relationship. A devout Dutch woman, not particularly beautiful and not particularly rich, forced her husband to cut off the legendary Turkish beard, and yet the remarkable appearance for many years was the artist's "brand name", like his original style. In a word, if Lyotard had a producer, he would not have allowed such an outrage to happen. But although Jean-Etienne agreed to cut off his brilliant beard under the pressure of his wife, he did not allow himself to be turned into a homebody and continued his endless travels to the courts of European monarchs. Here legends and historical truth often diverge. Either during these trips, Lyotard's personal life was much more eventful than life with his wife, or he worked tirelessly to feed his large family (the Lyotards had five children).
The Chocolate Girl
In any case, the legendary story of the creation of the famous pastel "Beautiful Chocolate Girl", written in Vienna in 1745, also testifies to the discrepancy between facts and myths. Who is behind the character of a lovely young girl carefully carrying a cup of hot chocolate on a silver tray? According to one version, the painting depicts Maria Theresa's maid, who struck the artist with her beauty. Another version of the story is reminiscent of the tale of Cinderella. The girl's name was Anna Baldauf, the daughter of an impoverished knight, she served as the Empress's maid. At court, the young prince Dietrichstein saw her, and fell in love with her without memory. Despite the protests of his family and the aristocracy, the prince married Anna, and as a wedding gift he ordered a portrait of the bride to Lyotard in the very clothes in which he saw her for the first time. And the last option: perhaps the girl worked in one of the Viennese pastry shops. One winter day, a young prince went there to taste hot chocolate. A cup with a steaming drink was brought to him by a beautiful chocolate girl, whose name was Anna Balthauf. The prince fell in love with her at first sight and married her. And on the day of the wedding, he ordered a portrait of the bride in the image of a beautiful chocolate girl from the court painter Lyotard ... All three versions could become the scenario of a romantic film. However, the art historian René Loche, one of the authors of Lyotard's biography, laughs when she is asked about this story, and assures that all these are fairy tales: the girl's name was not Anna Balthauf at all, neither the prince nor the artist had ever fallen in love with her, and moreover, Lyotard he did not attach any special significance to this pastel at all and much more appreciated ... portraits of his wife. So figure out where is the truth, and where is the legend.
A lady pouring chocolate
Be that as it may, the work of art created by Lyotard amazed contemporaries and continued to amaze for centuries. The portrait of the chocolate girl turned out to have no less fans than the model herself. And the legendary story had an equally legendary continuation. In 1881, the head of the American company Walter Baker Company came to Europe to learn the secrets of making a sweet drink. In the Dresden Gallery, he was struck by the image of a beautiful young maid serving chocolate to the table in a porcelain cup. Henry Pierce liked the pastel and the romantic story of its creation so much that he decided to make the image a trademark of his company. Most notably, the “Beautiful Chocolate Girl” became one of the first logos in the history of the economy. By the way, now the famous pastel is used as a logo by the Shokoladnitsa coffee shop chain, which is popular in Moscow. Yes, yes, a neat, charming maid with a tray - pastel of the same Lyotard
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La liseuse / The beautiful reader
Portrait van een jong meisje, waarschijnlijk Caroline Russell
children blowing bubbles
Marie Adalaide
Portrait of a young woman
In oriental dress
Federica Sofia
Lady Ponsonby in costume Veneziano
Maria Frederike van Reede-Athlone
