Sentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion for the human personality. Sentimentalism originated in Europe and Russia at about the same time, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterbalance to the harsh classical theory that prevailed at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to the manifestations of the spiritual qualities of a person, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention, regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of \u200b\u200bthe universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
travels
memoirs
England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the environment, drawing in their works simple and peaceful rural landscapes, sympathy for the needs of poor people. S. Richardson was a prominent representative of English sentimentalism. In the first place, he put forward psychological analysis and drew the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. Writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest value of man.
In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P.K. de Chamblain de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
In German literature - the works of F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. W. Goethe, J. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters from a Russian Traveler” and “Poor Lisa” by N.I. Karamzin.
3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterweight to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, advocated a departure from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it the bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to the personality of a person, his feelings and experiences. The main conflict of romanticism was the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress, the increasingly complex social and political structure, the spiritual devastation of the individual was going on. Romantics sought to draw the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
Romantics were disappointed in the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly seen in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must obey them and not try to change his fate. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called "world evil", and opposed it with the strength of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions, throughout the entire work the author forced him to fight the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics portrayed feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of a person, but also in the secrets of being, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, and E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the work of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only by the beginning of the 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stahl, E. P. Senancourt, P. Merimet, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin during the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exiles, the romantic hero turns into a person rejected and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
The main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
fantasy story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of duality is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. Realism lacks this concept. The idea of duality has two modifications:
escape to the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.
Hero concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional personality;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the dissatisfaction of the hero, which manifests itself in a lyrical tone;
aesthetic purposefulness towards an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism - the identity of the internal state of the hero to the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
ultimate expression;
the principle of contrast at the level of composition;
abundance of characters.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; romantics denied the value system, which was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict system of values (home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivation of individuality and artistic worldview; the reality rejected by romanticism was subject to subjective worlds based on the creative imagination of the artist.
4) Realism
Realism is a literary trend that objectively reflects the surrounding reality with the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of the facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers put their characters in certain conditions and show how these conditions affected the personality.
While romantic writers were worried about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer is interested in how the world around influences the personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of "realism", he used the concept of "imitation", which is close to him in meaning. Realism then saw a resurgence during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the content motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that affect a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who could fight with circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world, the psychology of the characters. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, while the more grotesque, the more the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism is developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N. V. Gogol, the works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. A. Bulgakov.
5) Modernism
Modernism is a collection of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. as a new form of creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all kinds of art - painting, architecture, literature.
The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around. The author does not seek to realistically or allegorically depict reality, as it was in realism, or the inner world of the hero, as it was in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
the declared divergence from the theory and practice of realism;
orientation to an individual, not a social person;
increased attention to the spiritual, and not the social sphere of human life;
focus on form over content.
The major currents of modernism were Impressionism, Symbolism and Art Nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture the moment in the form in which the author saw or felt it. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined, the impression that some object or phenomenon has on the author is important, and not this object itself.
Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowed familiar images and words with mystical meaning. Art Nouveau promoted the rejection of regular geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially brightly in architecture and applied art.
In the 80s. 19th century a new trend of modernism was born - decadence. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of the personality).
In literature, modernism is represented by the following trends:
acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imaginism.
The most prominent representatives of modernism in literature are the French poets Ch. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, the Russian poets N. Gumilyov, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, the English writer O. Wilde, the American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.
6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of a trend in European literature and art that arose in the 70s. 19th century and especially widely deployed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential trend. The theoretical justification of the new trend was given by Emile Zola in the book "Experimental Novel".
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, which develops into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, to a high level of technology and increased exploitation, and on the other hand, to the growth of self-consciousness and the class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of petty-bourgeois writers who have joined naturalism.
The main requirements presented by naturalists to literature: scientific character, objectivity, apoliticality in the name of "universal truth". Literature must stand at the level of modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on that science which does not negate the existing social system. Naturalists make the basis of their theory the mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, G. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, which gives advantages to one over the other), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically showing the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby cause a series of reforms to be carried out in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola ranked G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers as naturalists. Zola attributed the French realists to the immediate predecessors of naturalism: O. Balzac and Stendhal. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theoretician understood this trend. Naturalism as the style of the leading class was joined for a time by writers who were very heterogeneous both in their artistic method and in belonging to various class groups. It is characteristic that the unifying moment was not the artistic method, but the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
The followers of naturalism are characterized by only a partial recognition of the set of requirements put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they are repelled from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. A number of followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, rejecting without hesitation even such a requirement typical of naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. So did the German "early naturalists" (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belshe and others).
Under the sign of decay, rapprochement with impressionism, the further development of naturalism began. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the disintegration of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of the processes of capitalization creates more and more cadres of intelligentsia, who by no means always find a use for themselves. More and more disillusionment with the power of science penetrates their midst. Gradually, hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are shattered.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, is entirely a transitional step from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht in his "History of the German people" proposed to call this style "physiological impressionism". This term is further used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German naturalist writers do not even try to hide their tendentiousness. It usually centers on some problem, social or physiological, around which facts illustrating it are grouped (alcoholism in Hauptmann's Before Sunrise, heredity in Ibsen's Ghosts).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Shlyaf. Their basic principles are outlined in Goltz's pamphlet Art, where Goltz states that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes nature according to the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application." The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is occupied by a story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transfer of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also replaced by a drama and a poem, which French naturalists treated extremely negatively as a "kind of entertainment art." Particular attention is paid to the drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptman, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Zuderman), which also denies intensively developed action, gives only a catastrophe and fixation of the characters' experiences ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). In the future, the naturalistic drama is reborn into an impressionistic, symbolic drama.
In Russia, naturalism has not received any development. The early works of F.I. Panferov and M.A. Sholokhov were called naturalistic.
7) natural school
Under the natural school, literary criticism understands the direction that originated in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an epoch of ever more acute contradictions between the feudal system and the growth of capitalist elements. The followers of the natural school tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time in their works. The very term "natural school" appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school, in the extended use of the term as it was used in the 1940s, does not denote a single direction, but is a concept to a large extent conditional. The natural school included such heterogeneous writers in terms of their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
The most common features on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school were the following: socially significant topics that captured a wider circle than even the circle of social observations (often in the "low" strata of society), a critical attitude to social reality, the realism of artistic expressions, who fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky singled out the realism of the natural school, asserting the most important feature of the "truth", and not the "falsehood" of the image. The natural school addresses itself not to ideal, invented heroes, but to the "crowd", to the "mass", to ordinary people and most often to people of "low rank". Common in the 40s. all sorts of "physiological" essays satisfied this need for a reflection of a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and basic feature of the "literature of the Gogol period" its critical, "negative" attitude towards reality - "literature of the Gogol period" is here another name for the same natural school: it is to N. V. Gogol - the author of "Dead Souls", "The Inspector General", "The Overcoat" - as the ancestor, the natural school was erected by V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics. Indeed, many writers who belong to the natural school experienced the powerful influence of various aspects of N.V. Gogol's work. In addition to Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as C. Dickens, O. Balzac, and George Sand.
One of the currents of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjoining it, was distinguished by a superficial and cautious nature of criticism of reality: this is either a harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of the nobility's reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The circle of social observations of this group was limited to the manor estate. Representatives of this current of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another current of the natural school relied mainly on the urban philistinism of the 1940s, infringed, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and, on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor people", "Double" and others).
The third trend in the natural school, represented by the so-called "raznochintsy", the ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the most clear expression of the tendencies that contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) associated with the name of the natural school and opposed noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Tangled Case”) should be attributed to the same group.
8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an art movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that the aesthetic value of any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
This thesis, which was later adopted by functionalists and functionalist-constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), highlights the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art. and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and in the post-war period were expressed in various directions, more or less "orthodox" interpreting the basic thesis of constructivism. So, in France and Holland, constructivism expressed itself in "purism", in "aesthetics of machines", in "neoplasticism" (art), Corbusier's aestheticizing formalism (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, and I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was originally a narrowly formal movement, highlighting the understanding literary work like designs. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrowly aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin departed from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement about the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the "organizational onslaught of the working class", in the construction of socialist culture. From here arises the constructivist attitude to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: "The intelligentsia in the revolution and construction." With particular attention to the image of an intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, "Commander 2") and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky "Pushtorg"), the constructivists, first of all, put forward in a painfully exaggerated form its specific gravity and significance work in progress. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is opposed by the incompetent communist Krol, who interferes with his work and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article by the main theorist of constructivism Kornely Zelinsky "Constructivism and socialism", where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era in transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being lived through. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period are replaced by Zelinsky by the struggle of man and nature, the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside social conditions, outside the class struggle. These erroneous propositions of Zelinsky, which provoked a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and with great clarity revealed the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source that nourishes constructivism is undoubtedly that stratum of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the greatest poet of constructivism) of the first period, an image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly found.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and instead of it, the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself a transitional organization to the RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), whose task is the gradual transition of writers-fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning former mistakes of constructivism, although retaining its creative method.
However, the contradictory and zigzag progress of constructivism towards the working class makes itself felt here too. Selvinsky's poem "Declaration of the Poet's Rights" testifies to this. This is also confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved its tasks.
9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism literally means "that which follows modernism" in German. This literary trend appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information richness of modernity.
Postmodernists did not like the fact that literature was divided into elite and mass. Postmodernism opposed any modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of a detective story, a thriller, a fantasy, behind which a serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that higher art was over. To move on, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. The works become oriented both to the elite reader and to the undemanding public.
Signs of postmodernism:
the use of previous texts as a potential for their own works (a large number of quotations, you cannot understand the work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking the elements of the culture of the past;
multilevel text organization;
special organization of the text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodernist works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism of mass culture. Postmodernism tries to blur the line between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is a text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented, and they only had to play with words, take ready-made (sometimes already invented, written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and collect works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translates as medley opera, and in literature it means a juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
The concept of intertextuality is associated with postmodernism. This term was introduced by Yu. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly emerging text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves into quotations. Modernism is characterized by quotation thinking.
Intertextuality- the presence in the text of two or more texts.
Paratext- the relation of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality- these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
hypertextuality- ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Architextuality- genre connection of texts.
A person in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in this case, destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work, the image of the hero appears in a blurry form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
take the hero into the shadow: the hero is not brought to the fore, he is not needed at all in the work.
The prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barthes, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, J. Cortazar, M. Pavic, J. Joyce and others.
Literary and artistic trends, trends and schools
Renaissance literature
The countdown of the new time begins with the Renaissance (renaissanse French revival) - this is the name of the socio-political and cultural movement that originated in the XIV century. in Italy, and then spread to other European countries and flourished by the 15th-16th centuries. The art of the Renaissance opposed itself to the church's dogmatic worldview, declaring man the highest value, the crown of creation. Man is free and called to realize in earthly life the talents and abilities bestowed upon him by God and nature. The most important values proclaimed nature, love, beauty, art. In this era, interest in the ancient heritage is revived, genuine masterpieces of painting, sculpture, architecture, and literature are being created. The works of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian, Velazquez make up the golden fund of European art. Renaissance literature most fully expressed the humanistic ideals of the era. Her best achievements are presented in the lyrics of Petrarch (Italy), the book of short stories "The Decameron" by Boccaccio (Italy), the novel "The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha" by Cervantes (Spain), the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by Francois Rabelais (France), the dramaturgy of Shakespeare (England). ) and Lope de Vega (Spain).The subsequent development of literature in the 17th and early 19th centuries is associated with the literary and artistic trends of classicism, sentimentalism, and romanticism.
Literature of classicism
Classicism(classicus nam. exemplary) - an artistic trend in European art of the 17th-18th centuries. The birthplace of classicism is France of the era of absolute monarchy, the artistic ideology of which was expressed by this direction.The main features of the art of classicism:
- imitation of ancient samples as the ideal of genuine art;
- the proclamation of the cult of reason and the rejection of the unbridled play of passions:
in the conflict of duty and feeling, duty always wins;
- strict observance of literary canons (rules): division of genres into high (tragedy, ode) and low (comedy, fable), observance of the rule of three unities (time, place and action), rational clarity and harmony of style, proportionality of composition;
- didactic, edifying works that preached the ideas of citizenship, patriotism, serving the monarchy.
The leading representatives of classicism in France were the tragedians Corneille and Racine, the fabulist Lafontaine, the comedian Moliere, the philosopher and writer Voltaire. In England, a prominent representative of classicism is Jonathan Swift, author of the satirical novel Gulliver's Travels.
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, in an era of important transformations for culture. The reforms of Peter I radically influenced literature. It acquires a secular character, becomes authorial, i.e. truly individual creativity. Many genres are borrowed from Europe (poem, tragedy, comedy, fable, later novel). This is the time of the formation of the system of Russian versification, theater and journalism. Such serious achievements became possible thanks to the energy and talents of Russian enlighteners, representatives of Russian classicism: M. Lomonosov, G. Derzhavin, D. Fonvizin, A. Sumarokov, I. Krylov and others.
Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism(French sentiment - feeling) - a European literary movement of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, which proclaimed feeling, and not reason (like the classicists), as the most important property of human nature. Hence the increased interest in the inner spiritual life of a simple "natural" person. The surge of sensitivity was a reaction and protest against the rationalism and severity of classicism, which outlawed emotionality. However, relying on reason as a solution to all social and moral problems did not materialize, which predetermined the crisis of classicism. Sentimentalism poeticized love, friendship, family relationships, this is a truly democratic art, since the significance of a person was no longer determined by his social status, but by his ability to empathize, appreciate the beauty of nature, to be as close as possible to the natural beginnings of life. In the works of sentimentalists, the world of an idyll was often recreated - a harmonious and happy life of loving hearts in the bosom of nature. The heroes of sentimental novels often shed tears, talk a lot and in detail about their experiences. To a modern reader, all this may seem naive and implausible, but the undoubted merit of the art of sentimentalism is the artistic discovery of important laws of a person’s inner life, the protection of his right to a private, intimate life. Sentimentalists argued that man was created not only to serve the state and society - he has an undeniable right to personal happiness.The birthplace of sentimentalism is England, the novels of the writers Lawrence Sterne "Sentimental Journey" and Samuel Richardson "Clarissa Harlow", "The Story of Sir Charles Grandison" will mark the emergence of a new literary trend in Europe and will become an object of admiration for readers, especially for readers, and for writers - role model. No less famous are the works of the French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau: the novel "New Eloise", the artistic autobiography "Confession". In Russia, the most famous sentimentalist writers were N. Karamzin - the author of "Poor Liza", A. Radishchev, who wrote "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow."
Romanticism
Romanticism(romanticisme French in this case - everything unusual, mysterious, fantastic) - one of the most influential art movements in world art, which was formed in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. Romanticism arises from the growth of the individual principle in the sentimental world of culture, when a person is increasingly aware of his uniqueness, sovereignty from the outside world. Romantics proclaim the absolute intrinsic value of the individual; they opened the complex, contradictory world of the human soul to art. Romanticism is characterized by an interest in strong vivid feelings, grandiose passions, in everything unusual: in the historical past, exoticism, the national coloring of the culture of peoples not spoiled by civilization. Favorite genres are short stories and poems, which are characterized by fantastic, exaggerated plot situations, composition complexity, unexpected ending. All attention is focused on the experiences of the protagonist, the unusual setting is important as a background that allows his restless soul to open up. The development of the genres of the historical novel, fantasy story, ballad is also the merit of the romantics.The romantic hero strives for an absolute ideal, which he seeks in nature, the heroic past, love. Everyday life, the real world is seen by him as boring, prosaic, imperfect, i.e. completely inconsistent with his romantic ideas. From here arises a conflict between dream and reality, high ideals and vulgarity of the surrounding life. The hero of romantic works is lonely, not understood by others, and therefore either goes on a journey in the truest sense of the word, or lives in a world of imagination, fantasy, and his own ideal ideas. Any intrusion into his personal space causes deep despondency or a feeling of protest.
Romanticism originates in Germany, in the work of the early Goethe (the novel in letters "The Sufferings of Young Werther"), Schiller (the dramas "Robbers", "Deceit and Love"), Hoffmann (the story "Little Tsakhes", the fairy tale "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King") , Brothers Grimm (tales "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", "The Bremen Town Musicians"). The largest representatives of English romanticism - Byron (the poem "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage") and Shelley (the drama "Prometheus Freed") - these are poets who are passionate about the ideas of political struggle, the protection of the oppressed and the disadvantaged, and the upholding of individual freedom. Byron remained true to his poetic ideals until the end of his life, his death found him in the midst of the war for the independence of Greece. Following the Byronian ideal of a disappointed person with a tragic attitude was called "Byronism" and turned into a kind of fashion among the younger generation of that time, which was followed, for example, by Eugene Onegin, the hero of A. Pushkin's novel.
The Rise of Romanticism in Russia fell on the first third of the 19th century and is associated with the names of V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, K. Ryleev, V. Kuchelbeker, A. Odoevsky, E. Baratynsky, N. Gogol, F. Tyutchev. Russian romanticism reached its peak in the work of A.S. Pushkin, when he was in southern exile. Freedom, including from despotic political regimes, is one of the main themes of the romantic Pushkin; his “southern” poems are devoted to this: “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai”, “Gypsies”.
Another brilliant achievement of Russian romanticism is the early work of M. Lermontov. The lyrical hero of his poetry is a rebel, a rebel who enters the battle with fate. A striking example is the poem "Mtsyri".
The cycle of short stories "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka", which made N. Gogol a famous writer, is distinguished by an interest in folklore, in mysterious, mystical plots. In the 1840s, romanticism gradually fades into the background and gives way to realism.
But the traditions of romanticism remind of themselves in the future, including in the literature of the 20th century, in the literary trend of neo-romanticism (new romanticism). A. Grin's story "Scarlet Sails" will become his hallmark.
Realism
Realism(from lat. real, real) - one of the most significant trends in the literature of the XIX-XX centuries, which is based on a realistic method of depicting reality. The task of this method is to depict life as it is, in forms and images that correspond to reality. Realism strives to cognize and reveal the whole variety of social, cultural, historical, moral and psychological processes and phenomena with their peculiarities and contradictions. The author has the right to cover any aspect of life without limiting themes, plots, artistic means.The realism of the 19th century creatively borrows and develops the achievements of earlier literary trends: classicism has an interest in socio-political, civil issues; in sentimentalism - the poeticization of the family, friendship, nature, the natural beginnings of life; romanticism has an in-depth psychologism, comprehension of the inner life of a person. Realism showed the close interaction of man with the environment, the impact of social conditions on the fate of people, he is interested in everyday life in all its manifestations. The hero of a realistic work is an ordinary person, a representative of his time and his environment. One of the most important principles of realism is the depiction of a typical hero in typical circumstances.
Russian realism is characterized by deep socio-philosophical problems, intense psychologism, enduring interest in the patterns of a person's inner life, the world of the family, home, and childhood. Favorite genres - novel, short story. The heyday of realism - the second half of the XIX century, which was reflected in the work of Russian and European classics.
Modernism
Modernism(moderne fr. newest) - a literary trend that developed in Europe and Russia at the beginning of the 20th century as a result of a revision of the philosophical foundations and creative principles of realistic literature of the 19th century. The emergence of modernism was a reaction to the crisis at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, when the principle of reassessment of values was proclaimed.Modernists refuse realistic ways of explaining the surrounding reality and the person in it, turning to the sphere of the ideal, the mystical as the root cause of everything. Modernists are not interested in socio-political issues, the main thing for them is the soul, emotions, intuitive insights of the individual. The vocation of a human creator is to serve beauty, which, in their opinion, exists in its purest form only in art.
Modernism was internally heterogeneous, included various currents, poetic schools and groups. In Europe, this is symbolism, impressionism, stream of consciousness literature, expressionism.
In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, modernism clearly manifested itself in various fields of art, which is the reason for its unprecedented flourishing, which later became known as the “Silver Age” of Russian culture. In literature, the poetic currents of symbolism and acmeism are associated with modernism.
Symbolism
Symbolism originates in France, in the poetry of Verlaine, Rimbaud, Mallarmé, and then penetrates into other countries, including Russia.Russian Symbolists: I. Annensky D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, V. Bryusov - poets of the older generation; A. Blok, A. Bely, S. Solovyov - the so-called "young symbolists". Undoubtedly, the most significant figure of Russian symbolism was Alexander Blok, according to many, the first poet of that era.
Symbolism is based on the idea of "two worlds", formulated by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. In accordance with it, the real, visible world is considered only a distorted, secondary reflection of the world of spiritual beings.
A symbol (Greek symbolon, a secret, conventional sign) is a special artistic image that embodies an abstract idea, it is inexhaustible in its content and allows you to intuitively comprehend the ideal world hidden from sensory perception.
Symbols have been used in culture since ancient times: star, river, sky, fire, candle, etc. - these and similar images have always evoked in a person ideas about the high and beautiful. However, in the work of the Symbolists, the symbol acquired a special status, so their poems were distinguished by complex imagery, encryption, sometimes excessive. As a result, this leads to a crisis of symbolism, which by 1910 ceases to exist as a literary movement.
Acmeists proclaim themselves the heirs of the Symbolists.
Acmeism
Acmeism(an act from Greek, the highest degree of something, an arrow) arises on the basis of the “Poets' Workshop”, which included N. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich and others Not rejecting the spiritual foundation of the world and human nature, the Acmeists at the same time sought to rediscover the beauty and significance of real earthly life. The main ideas of acmeism in the field of creativity: the consistency of the artistic conception, the harmony of the composition, the clarity and harmony of the artistic style. An important place in the value system of acmeism was occupied by culture - the memory of mankind. In their work, the best representatives of acmeism: A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, N. Gumilyov - reached significant artistic heights and received wide recognition from the public. The further existence and development of acmeism was forcibly interrupted by the events of the revolution and the civil war.avant-garde
avant-garde(avantgarde fr. advanced detachment) - a generalized name for experimental art movements, schools of the 20th century, united by the goal of creating a completely new art that has no connection with the old. The most famous of them are futurism, abstractionism, surrealism, dadaism, pop art, social art, etc.The main feature of avant-gardism is the denial of cultural and historical tradition, continuity, the experimental search for one's own paths in art. If the modernists emphasized continuity with cultural tradition, the avant-gardists treated it nihilistically. The slogan of the Russian avant-gardists is well-known: "Let's throw Pushkin off the ship of modernity!" In Russian poetry, various groups of futurists belonged to avant-gardism.
Futurism
Futurism(futurum lat. future) originated in Italy as a trend of new urban, technocratic art. In Russia, this trend declared itself in 1910 and consisted of several groups (ego-futurism, cubo-futurism, "Centrifuga"). V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, I. Severyanin, A. Kruchenykh, the Burliuk brothers, and others considered themselves Futurists. words (“slovony”), their “abstruse” language, were not afraid to be rude and anti-aesthetic. They were real anarchists and rebels, constantly shocking (irritating) the taste of the public, brought up on traditional artistic values. In essence, the program of futurism was destructive. Truly original and interesting poets were V. Mayakovsky and V. Khlebnikov, who enriched Russian poetry with their artistic discoveries, but this was more likely not due to futurism, but in spite of it.Conclusion on the issue:
Major literary movements
Summing up a brief overview of the main stages in the development of European and Russian literature, its main feature and main vector was the desire for diversity, enrichment of the possibilities of human creative self-expression. Verbal creativity in all ages has helped a person to learn about the world around him and express his ideas about it. The range of means that were used for this is amazing: from a clay tablet to a handwritten book, from the invention of mass printing to modern audio, video, and computer technologies.Today, thanks to the Internet, literature is changing and acquiring a completely new property. Anyone who has a computer and Internet access can become a writer. Before our eyes, a new kind is emerging - network literature, which has its own readers, its own celebrities.
This is used by millions of people all over the planet, posting their texts to the world and getting an instant response from readers. The most popular and demanded national servers Proza.ru and Poetry.ru are non-commercial socially oriented projects, the mission of which is "to provide authors with the opportunity to publish their works on the Internet and find readers." As of June 25, 2009, 72,963 authors have published 93,6776 works on the Proza.ru portal; 218,618 authors have published 7,036,319 works on the Potihi.ru portal. The daily audience of these sites is approximately 30,000 visits. Of course, at its core, this is not literature, but rather graphomania - a painful attraction and predilection for intensified and fruitless writing, for verbose and empty, useless writing, but if among hundreds of thousands of such texts there are a few truly interesting and powerful ones, it's all the same as in a pile of slag prospectors would find an ingot of gold.
The works of each era have similarities in figurative and thematic structure, repetition of plot moves, the unity of artistic thinking and the closeness of worldview views inherent only to them. Hence the main literary trends were formed.
Classicism
The name is given from the word "exemplary" in Latin. As an artistic style and literary movement, it appeared in Europe in the seventeenth century and dried up by the beginning of the nineteenth. Literary trends had no wider channel than this. Characteristics:
1. Appeal to antiquity - in images and forms - as an aesthetic standard.
2. Strict canons, harmony, logic: the inviolability of construction, like the universe.
3. Rationalism without individual signs and features, in the field of view only the eternal and unshakable.
4. Hierarchy: high and low genres (tragedy and comedy).
5. Unity of place, time and action, no side distracting lines.
Prominent representatives were Corneille, Lafontaine, Racine.
Romanticism
Literary trends usually grow out of each other, or a protest wave brings something new. The second is characteristic of the emergence at the end of the eighteenth century of romanticism, one of the largest movements in the history of literature. Romanticism was born in Europe and America almost simultaneously. Characteristic features: protest against the vulgarity of bourgeois life, for the poetry of everyday life and against prose, disappointment in the fruits of civilization. Cosmic pessimism and world sorrow. Confrontation between the individual and society, individualism. Separation of the real and ideal worlds, opposition. The romantic hero is highly spiritual, inspired and illuminated by the desire for the ideal. A new phenomenon appears in literature: local color, fairy tales, legends, beliefs flourish, the elements of nature are sung. The action often takes place in the most exotic places. Representatives: Byron, Keats, Schiller, Dumas père, Hugo, Lermontov, partly - Gogol.
Sentimentalism
In translation - "sensual". Literary trends consist of more or less noticeable currents. Sentimentalism is the essence of the current in line with pre-romanticism. It existed in Europe and America in the second half of the eighteenth century, ended by the middle of the nineteenth century. Not reason, but feeling extolled sentimentalism, not recognizing any rationalism, even enlightenment. Natural feeling and democracy are characteristic. For the first time there is an interest in the inner world of ordinary people. Unlike romanticism, sentimentalism rejected the irrational, it does not contain inconsistency, impulsiveness, impetuosity, inaccessible to rationalistic interpretation. He was strong in Russia and somewhat different from the Western one: the rational was nevertheless expressed quite clearly, moralizing and enlightening tendencies were present, the Russian language was improved and enriched through the use of vernacular. Favorite genres: message, epistolary novel, diaries - everything that helps confession. Representatives: Rousseau, young Goethe, Karamzin.
Naturalism
The literary currents that existed in Europe and North America during the last third of the nineteenth century include naturalism in their course. Characteristic features: objectivity, accurate depiction of the details and realities of human nature. Artistic and scientific knowledge were not separated in the methods of approach. Artistic text as a human document: the implementation of the act of cognition. Reality is a good teacher and without moralizing, there can be no bad plots and themes for a writer. Hence, in the works of naturalists there are quite a lot of purely literary shortcomings, such as plotlessness, indifference to public interests. Representatives: Zola, Maupassant, Dode, Dreiser, Norris, London, from Russians - Boborykin, in some works - Kuprin, Bunin, Veresaev.
Realism
Eternal. Born at the end of the nineteenth century, alive to this day. In priorities: the truth of life as the truth of literature. Images correspond to the essence of phenomena, literature as a means of knowing both oneself and the world around. Typification of characters through attention to detail. Life-affirming beginning, reality in the development of new phenomena, relationships, psychological types. Representatives: Balzac, Stendhal, Twain, Dickens. Russians - almost everything: Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Tolstoy, Shukshin and so on.
Literary trends and currents not considered in the article, but having great representatives: symbolism - Verlaine, Rimbaud, Mallarmé, Rilke, Bryusov, Blok, Vyach. Ivanov; acmeism - Gumilyov, Gorodetsky, Mandelstam, Akhmatova, G. Ivanov; futurism - Mayakovsky, Khlebnikov, Burliuk, Severyanin, Shershenevich, Pasternak, Aseev; imagism - Yesenin, Klyuev.
LITERARY DIRECTION (METHOD)- a set of the main features of creativity, formed and repeated in a certain historical period in the development of art.
At the same time, the features of this trend can be traced in the authors who worked in the eras that preceded the formation of the trend itself (features of romanticism in Shakespeare, features of realism in Fonvizin's "Undergrowth"), as well as in subsequent eras (features of romanticism in Gorky).
There are four main literary directions:CLASSICISM, ROMANTISM, REALISM, MODERNISM.
LITERARY TREND- finer division compared to the direction; currents either represent ramifications of one direction (German romanticism, French romanticism, Byronism in England, Karamzinism in Russia), or arise during the transition from one direction to another (sentimentalism).
MAIN LITERARY TRENDS (METHODS) AND TRENDS
1. CLASSICISM
The main literary movement in Russia in the 18th century.
Main Features
- Imitation of samples of ancient culture.
- Strict rules for the construction of works of art. Chapter II. Literary trends (methods) and currents 9
- Strict hierarchy of genres: high (ode, epic poem, tragedy); medium (satire, love letter); low (fable, comedy).
- Rigid boundaries between genera and genres.
- Creation of an ideal scheme of social life and ideal images of members of society (enlightened monarch, statesman, military man, woman).
The main genres in poetry
Ode, satire, historical poem.
The main rules for constructing dramatic works
- The rule of "three unities": place, time, action.
- Division into positive and negative characters.
- The presence of a reasoning hero (a character expressing the author's position).
- Traditional roles: reasoner (hero-reasoner), first lover (hero-lover), second lover, ingenue, soubrette, deceived father, etc.
- Traditional denouement: the triumph of virtue and the punishment of vice.
- Five actions.
- Speaking names.
- Long moralizing monologues.
Main Representatives
Europe - writer and thinker Voltaire; playwrights Corneille, Racine, Moliere; fabulist Lafontaine; poet Parny (France).
Russia - poets Lomonosov, Derzhavin, playwright Fonvizin (the comedies Brigadier, 1769 and Undergrowth, 1782).
Traditions of classicism in the literature of the nineteenth century
Krylov . Genre traditions of classicism in fables.
Griboyedov . Features of classicism in the comedy "Woe from Wit".
The main literary trend in Russia in the 1st third of the 19th century.
Main Features
- Creation of an ideal world of dreams, fundamentally incompatible with real life, opposed to it.
- In the center of the image is the human personality, its inner world, its relation to the surrounding reality.
- The portrayal of an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances.
- Rejection of all the rules of classicism.
- The use of fantasy, symbolism, the absence of everyday and historical motivations.
Main genres
Lyric poem, poem, tragedy, novel.
The main genres in Russian poetry
Elegy, message, song, ballad, poem.
Main Representatives
Europe - Goethe, Heine, Schiller (Germany), Byron (England).
Russia - Zhukovsky.
The Traditions of Romanticism in the Literature of the 19th-20th Centuries
Griboyedov . Romantic traits in the characters of Sophia and Chatsky; a parody of Zhukovsky's ballads (Sofia's dream) in the comedy Woe from Wit.
Pushkin . Romantic period of creativity (1813-1824); the image of the romantic poet Lensky and reasoning about romanticism in the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin"; unfinished novel "Dubrovsky".
Lermontov . Romantic period of creativity (1828-І836); elements of romanticism in the poems of the mature period (1837-1841); romantic motives in the poems "Song about ... the merchant Kalashnikov", "Mtsyri", "Demon", in the novel "A Hero of Our Time"; the image of the romantic poet Lensky in the poem "Death of the Poet".
The main literary trend of the 2nd half of the 19th-20th centuries.
Main Features
- Creation of typical (regular) characters.
- These characters act in a typical everyday and historical setting.
- Life-like plausibility, fidelity to details (combined with conditional forms of artistic fantasy: symbol, grotesque, fantasy, myth).
In Russia, the formation of realism begins in the 1820s:
Krylov. Fables.
Griboyedov . Comedy "Woe from Wit" (1822-1824).
Pushkin . Mikhailovsky (1824-1826) and late (1826-1836) periods of creativity: the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" (1823-1831), the tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825), "Belkin's Tales" (1830), the poem "Copper rider" (1833), the story "The Captain's Daughter" (1833-1836); late lyrics.
Lermontov . The period of mature creativity (1837-1841): the novel "A Hero of Our Time" (1839-1841), late lyrics.
Gogol . "Petersburg Tales" (1835-1842; "The Overcoat", 1842), the comedy "The Inspector General" (1835), the poem "Dead Souls" (1st volume: 1835-1842).
Tyutchev, Fet . Features of realism in lyrics.
In 1839-1847, Russian realism formed into a special literary trend, called the "natural school" or "Gogol's trend". The natural school became the first stage in the development of a new trend in realism - Russian critical realism.
Program works of writers of critical realism
Prose
Goncharov . The novel "Oblomov" (1848-1858).
Turgenev . The story "Asya" (1858), the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1861).
Dostoevsky . The novel "Crime and Punishment" (1866).
Lev Tolstoy . The epic novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869).
Saltykov-Shchedrin . "History of a city" (1869-1870), "Tales" (1869-1886).
Leskov . The story "The Enchanted Wanderer" (1879), the story "Lefty" (1881).
Dramaturgy
Ostrovsky . Drama "Thunderstorm" (1859), comedy "Forest" (1870).
Poetry
Nekrasov . Lyrics, poems "Peasant Children" (1861), "Who Lives Well in Russia" (1863-1877).
The development of critical realism ends at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century:
Chekhov . The stories "The Death of an Official" (1883), "Chameleon" (1884), "Student" (1894), "House with a Mezzanine" (1896), "Ionych", "Man in a Case", "Gooseberries", "About Love" , "Darling" (all 1898), "The Lady with the Dog" (1899), the comedy "The Cherry Orchard" (1904).
Bitter . The essay "Former People" (1897), the story "Ice Drift" (1912), the play "At the Bottom" (1902).
Bunin . The stories "Anton's Apples" (1900), "The Gentleman from San Francisco" (1915).
Kuprin . The stories "Olesya" (1898), "Garnet Bracelet" (1910).
After the October Revolution, the term "socialist realism" appears. However, the work of the best writers of the post-revolutionary period does not fit into the narrow framework of this trend and retains the traditional features of Russian realism:
Sholokhov . The novel "Quiet Flows the Don" (1925-1940), the story "The Fate of a Man" (1956).
Bulgakov . The story "Heart of a Dog" (1925), the novels "The White Guard" (1922-1924), "The Master and Margarita" (1929-1940), the play "Days of the Turbins" (1925-1926).
Zamyatin . The dystopian novel "We" (1929).
Platonov . The story "Pit" (1930).
Tvardovsky . Poems, poem "Vasily Terkin" (1941-1945).
Parsnip . Late lyrics, novel "Doctor Zhivago" (1945-1955).
Solzhenitsyn . The story "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich", the story "Matryona Dvor" (1959).
Shalamov . Cycle "Kolyma stories" (1954--1973).
Astafiev . The story "The Shepherd and the Shepherdess" (1967-1989).
Trifonov . The story "The Old Man" (1978).
Shukshin. Stories.
Rasputin . The story "Farewell to Matera" (1976).
5. MODERNISM
Modernism - a literary trend that unites various trends in the art of the late 19th-20th centuries, which were engaged in experiments with the form of works of art (symbolism, acmeism, futurism, cubism, constructivism, avant-gardism, abstractionism, etc.).
IMAGINISM (imago - image) - a literary trend in Russian poetry of І919-1925, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity was to create an image. The main expressive means of the Imagists is a metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creator of the current is Anatoly Borisovich Mariengof. Fame for the Imagist group was brought by Sergei Yesenin, who was a member of it.
POSTMODERNISM - various trends in the art of the 2nd half of the 20th - early 21st centuries (conceptualism, pop art, social art, body art, graffiti, etc.), which put the denial of the integrity of life and art at all levels at the forefront. In Russian literature, the era of postmodernism opens with the almanac "Metropol", 1979; the most famous authors of the almanac:V.P. Aksenov, B.A. Akhmadulina, A.G. Bitov, A.A. Voznesensky, V.S. Vysotsky, F.A. Iskander.
