ABORIGENES (lat. Aborigene - from the beginning) - the indigenous inhabitants of a locality (as opposed to settlers). For example, the Slavs are the natives of Eastern Europe. Since the ethnogenesis of Belarusians took place mainly on the lands of today's Belarus, they can also be considered natives of this territory. The name Aborigines corresponds to the ancient Greek term "autochthonous".
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY - a kind of monarchical form of government, characterized by the concentration of all state power (legislative, executive, religious) in the hands of the monarch.
AVANPOST - an advanced post set up by troops for their protection. The term was used in the army in the XVIII-XIX centuries.
AUTARKIA (Greek autarkeia - self-satisfaction). Creation of a closed economy within a single country, voluntary or forced isolation from the world market.
AUTONOMY (Greek autonomia - self-government) - in law in a broad sense, a certain degree of independence of any bodies, organizations, territorial or other communities. National-cultural autonomy - free, independent functioning and development of national cultures of individual ethnic communities.
AUTOCRACY (Greek autokrateia - autocracy, autocracy) - a form of government in which one person has unlimited supreme power. The autocratic powers included many states of the Ancient East, the Roman and Byzantine empires. Typical features of autocratic regimes are government based on the bureaucracy, the army, the cult (deification) of the ruler, etc.
AUTHORITARISM (lat. auctoritas - power) is one of the forms of non-democratic political regime. Its distinguishing features are strong personal power (dictatorship), the concentration of power in the hands of a narrow group of people close to the dictator. Historical forms of authoritarianism represent ancient and Asian despotisms (for example, Sparta, Persia), absolutist forms of government of the Middle Ages and Modern times. Authoritarianism is most often established in conditions of political crisis, coup d'état, civil war. An authoritarian regime was established in the Soviet Union during the reign of Stalin in the 1930s and early 1950s.
AGRARIAN OVERPOPULATION. Its main signs are the lack of land among the peasants, the discrepancy between its size and the labor resources of the village and the insecurity of the bulk of the peasants in their vital needs with land. The number of surplus workers in agriculture in the Belarusian provinces at the end of the 19th century was estimated at 2039.8 thousand people.
AGGRESSION - an armed attack by one or more states on another state to seize its territory, political or economic enslavement of its people.
ADMINISTRATIVE-TERRITORIAL REFORM In Belarus, it was carried out gradually during 1924-1938. In accordance with the decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the BSSR of August 20, 1924, the entire territory of the BSSR was divided into 10 districts with 10 districts each instead of the former provinces and counties. After the second consolidation of the BSSR (November 1926), in December of the same year, two more districts were included in the BSSR. In April 1927, as a result of the fight against bureaucracy, 4 districts were abolished and included in the remaining 8 districts. In February 1938, all districts were liquidated in connection with the introduction of the regional division of the BSSR.
ADMINISTRATION (lat. administratio - service) - in a broad sense, all the activities of the state in management. The state administration is made up of executive and administrative bodies. The administration is also called management officials, management personnel of institutions, enterprises.
JOINT STOCK COMPANY - the organizational form of the enterprise; a company whose capital is formed by combining many individual capitals through the issuance and sale of shares.
AMNESTIA (Greek amnestia - oblivion, forgiveness) - full or partial release from punishment of persons who have committed a crime; may provide for the exclusion of a criminal record.
AMMUNITION - military equipment, items - belts, bags, etc., which make it easier for military personnel to carry weapons and ammunition.
ANNEXATION (Latin annexio - accession). A type of aggression, the forcible seizure of all or part of the territory of another state or people, as well as the forcible retention of a people within the boundaries of a foreign
states.
ANTI-TRINITARISM (Arianism) - a radical trend in the reform movement in Belarus in the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries. Its ideologists demanded social transformations, condemned serfdom, preached the community of property, opposed state power. Sejm resolutions of the middle of the XVII century. Arians who refused to accept Catholicism were expelled from the borders of the Commonwealth.
ANTY - the name of the association of Slavic tribes at the beginning of the 7th century. They lived mainly between the Dniester and the Dnieper.
Apocrypha (Greek apokryphos - secret, hidden) - works of Jewish and early Christian literature not included in the biblical canon.
APSE (Greek hapsis - vault) - a ledge of a building, semicircular, faceted or rectangular in plan, covered with a semi-dome or closed semi-vault. In Christian churches - the altar ledge.
ARTEL (agricultural artel) - a collective peasant economy, a form of association of peasants for the joint management of large-scale farming by public means. In Belarus, it was first established in July 1918. In addition to agricultural artels, there were such forms of collective farms as communes and partnerships for the public cultivation of the land.
ARCHEOLOGY is a science that studies the history of society based on the material remains of people's life and activities - archaeological monuments.
"BAGRATION" is the code name for the summer (1944) strategic offensive operation of the Red Army (Belarusian operation, 06/23/08/29/1944).
BARIN-master, landowner; Appeal of a serf servant to his master in Russia.
BAROQUE is one of the leading styles in European art of the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. Its characteristic features are grandiosity, splendor and dynamism, passion for spectacular spectacles, strong contrasts of scale and rhythm, light and shadow. The Belarusian baroque is characterized by interaction with Byzantine and local traditions, which gave it a certain identity. Its development in monumental stone architecture went through 3 stages: early (end of the 16th - first half of the 17th century), mature (second half of the 17th - 1730s) and later (1730s - 80s). In addition, along with the feudal-aristocratic "high" baroque, whose works were created in Polish, Latin and other languages, there was a "medium" and "low" baroque, which met the needs of the poorest gentry, townspeople and was represented by parodic satirical and humorous poetry. , interludes and more.
Corvee - a form of feudal land rent, yard forced labor for a certain land plot received from the owner for use. It appeared in Russia during the Kievan state. In Western Europe, it came to naught in the XIV-XV centuries. In Russia, it remained after the abolition of serfdom as sharecropping. Legally abolished in 1882. In fact, it existed until 1917 in the form of working off.
REFUGEES - persons who left their country of permanent residence as a result of hostilities or other emergencies, persecution for political, racial, religious reasons and who have not received citizenship of another state. In Belarus, refugees acquired especially large proportions during the years of the 1st and 2nd World Wars. Since the early 1990s a significant number of refugees arrive in Belarus from areas of interethnic conflicts and wars in various regions of the former USSR; their status is determined by a special law of the Republic of Belarus. Under Russian law, a person who has arrived or wishes to arrive in the country as a result of violence committed against him or a real threat of being subjected to violence because of race, language, religious or political beliefs. A person who has committed a crime against peace and humanity cannot be recognized as a refugee.
BELARUSIAN PEOPLE'S GROUPS An organization under this name actually existed in 1917-1918. In 1933, investigators of the OGPU gave this name to the organization they invented to initiate criminal cases, which became a continuation of the case of the Union for the Liberation of Belarus. The leaders of this organization were named F. Kuntsevich and K. Ezovitov. As a result, more than 60 people were convicted, mostly writers, teachers, students.
BELGOSKINO (Belarusian State Administration for Cinematography and Photography). It was created in December 1924. Since 1925, it has started producing newsreel, educational and popular science films. It released a feature film "Forest Story" (1926) and others. In 1928, Belgoskino organized a feature film studio "Soviet Belorussia" in Leningrad.
WHITE GUARD - the unofficial name of the military-political formations that fought during the civil war of 1917-1920. in Russia against the Bolshevik government. The organizers of the "white movement" were the monarchists, the parties of the right SRs, the Cadets and the Mensheviks. Its leaders are Generals Denikin, Kaledin, Kolchak, Kornilov, Krasnov, Wrangel, Yudenich and others.
BELARUSIAN COMMUNIST ORGANIZATION (BKO).
It operated in January - August 1920 on the territory of Minsk and Grodno provinces. It arose on the basis of the organization "Young Belarus", which existed since May 1917 at the Minsk Teachers' Institute. It united the student youth, the intelligentsia, the peasantry, stood on the Socialist-Revolutionary positions. In 1919, a left wing took shape in it, which actively joined in the fight against the Polish intervention. On January 1, 1920, an initiative group consisting of V. Ignatovsky, I. Korenevsky and others created the BKO center, declaring recognition of the program and tactics of the RCP (b) and expressing hope for the possibility of creating a Belarusian Soviet Republic in a federation with the RSFSR. BKO created partisan detachments, maintained contact with the headquarters of the Western Front. Participated in the signing of the Declaration of Independence of the BSSR (07/31/1920). In August 1920, the BKO was admitted to the CP(b)B. In the late 1920s - 1930s. almost all of its members were accused of "bourgeois national democracy" and repressed.
"BELARUSIAN REGIONAL DEFENSE" (BKO) is a military unit created in March 1944 by Nazi invaders in the occupied territory of Belarus to fight Soviet partisans, the Red Army and the Polish Home Army. The BKO was headed by the High Command, headed by Major F. Kuschel.
BELARUSIAN REVOLUTIONARY ORGANIZATION (BRO)
Separated from the left wing of the Belarusian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries and in July 1922 took shape as an independent organization. It united about 300-400 members and had several hundred sympathizers. She advocated the confiscation of landlords' land, social and national liberation, the reunification of Western Belarus and the BSSR. On December 30, 1923, it was decided that the organization would join the Communist Party of Western Belarus (KPZB).
BELARUSIAN SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC WORKERS' PARTY (BSDP). It arose in the autumn of 1917 in Petrograd on the basis of the BSG organizations, adherents of the Bolshevik orientation. The executive committee included A.G. Chervyakov, I.V. Lagun and others. In April 1918. reorganized into the Belarusian section of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) under the Peterhof District Committee of the RCP (b).
BELARUSIAN SOCIALIST GROMADA (BSG) - the first Belarusian national political party of the left populist direction in 1902-1918. The founders and leaders of the party are the brothers A. and I. Lutskevich, A. Pashkevich (Aunt), A. Burbis, K. Kastrovitsky (K. Kaganets), V. Ivanovsky, F. Umyastovsky and others. In 1903-1904 . and later, the BSG closely cooperated with the party of socialist revolutionaries, the Lithuanian Social Democratic Party, which was ideologically close to it. At the I and II congresses of the BSG (1903, 1906), the program of the party's activities was determined. The BSG advocated the overthrow of the autocracy, the establishment of a socialist system, the formation of a Russian Federative Democratic Republic with free self-determination and cultural and national autonomy of peoples. For Belarus, the BSG demanded autonomy with the local Sejm in Vilna, advocated the free development of the Belarusian national culture and language. She participated in the All-Belarusian Congress of 1917 in Minsk, took the initiative to declare the BPR.
BELARUSIAN CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY (BCD) is the most influential party of national-democratic character of non-socialist orientation. It was founded in May 1917 and operated on the territory of Western Belarus until 1940. In January 1935 it changed its name to the Belarusian People's Association. It focused on the evolutionary path of development of society and parliamentary forms of struggle. She advocated the unification of all Belarusian ethnic lands into one independent state. The founders and main ideologists of the BCD were F. Abrantovich, V. Gadlevsky, A. Stankevich and others. many BCD members were repressed.
BELARUSIAN SECTIONS OF THE RKP(b) - organizations that existed in 1918 as part of local party organizations in large cities and industrial centers of the RSFSR. Mostly they were created from among the refugees-Belarusians - members of the RCP (b). The first section arose in April 1918 in Petrograd, and then similar organizations were created in Moscow, Saratov, Kazan and in the unoccupied part of the territory of Belarus. Disbanded in January 1919. Members of the sections participated in the creation of the BSSR.
BELARUSIAN MILITARY DISTRICT (BVO) Formed in October 1926 on the basis of the Western Military District. In July 1938 the district was renamed into the Belarusian Special Military District. The territory of the district included the entire BSSR with the western regions reunited in 1939, the administration was in Minsk. On July 11, 1940, the Belarusian Special Military District was renamed the Western Special Military District. During the Great Patriotic War it was transformed into the Western Front, from May 1946 - again BVO. May 6, 1992 was abolished in connection with the creation of the Ministry of Defense and the construction of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus.
BELARUSIAN STATE DRAMA THEATER
Opened in Minsk on September 14, 1920. Since 1926 - the Belarusian First State Theater (BGT-1), since 1944 - the Belarusian Theater named after Y. Kupala; later the National Academic Theater named after Ya. Kupala. In the 1920s the artistic director of the theater was E. Mirovich. The repertoire of the theater includes performances based on the works of Y. Kupala ("Paў-link", "Tuteishyya"), V. Dunin-Martsinkevich ("Idyliya"), K. Cherny, K. Krapiva, A. Makaenok, A. Dudarev, classics of the world literature.
BELARUSIAN INSTITUTE OF ECONOMY AND CULTURE (BIH and
K) - cultural and educational organization in Western Belarus, Operated from June 1926 to December 1936 (until the official ban by the Polish authorities). It set as a goal the organization of cultural and educational work among the Belarusian population, the dissemination of agricultural knowledge among the peasants.
BELARUSIAN PEOPLE'S COMMITTEE (BNK) is a coordinating body of Belarusian political and public organizations that operated in 1915-1918. on the territory of Belarus occupied by Germany. BNC was headed by A.I. Lutskevich.
BELARUSIAN NATIONAL COMMISSARY (Belnats-
com) - a department of the People's Commissariat of Nationalities of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR. Created at the end of January 1918. The first leader was A.G. Chervyakov. It had departments: cultural and educational, agitation and political, military, publishing, refugee affairs, etc., conducted work among the Belarusians of Russia. The printed organ is the newspaper "Dzyannitsa". Representatives of the Commissariat were part of the Provisional Government of the BSSR. Liquidated in March 1919 in connection with the creation of the BSSR and LitBel.
BELARUSIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE (BNC). Created on March 25, 1917 at the 1st Congress of Belarusian organizations. He united different directions of the Belarusian national movement on the basis of the recognition of the need for autonomy for Belarus within the framework of democratic Russia and the preparation of elections to the Belarusian Regional Rada. Chairman of the BNK - R. Skirmunt. It included P. Aleksyuk, B. Tarashkevich, A. Smolich, E. Kanchar, V. Ivanovsky and others.
BELARUSIAN REGIONAL COMMITTEE Created in Petrograd from among the delegates from the Belarusian provinces at the All-Russian Congress of Peasants' Deputies, members of the Constituent Assembly, as well as representatives of the army and navy. Acted in November 1917 - early 1918, the chairman was E. Kanchar. He advocated the autonomy of Belarus as part of the Russian Federal Republic, was the initiator of the convening of the All-Belarusian Congress in 1917 in Minsk. At the beginning of 1918, he unsuccessfully tried to ensure the convocation of the II All-Belarusian Congress.
BELARUSIAN AMBASSADOR'S CLUB (BPK) - the national embassy (deputy) faction in the Sejm of Poland in 1922-1930. After the elections on November 5, 1922, the BPC included 11 ambassadors and 3 senators, who represented almost all the main Belarusian political parties in Western Belarus: BPSD, BPSR, BCD. Among the deputies of the club were well-known figures of the national liberation movement: B.A. Tarashkevich, SM. Rak-Mikhailovsky, A.V. Stankevich, A. Ovsyanik, A.N. Vlasov, P.P. Voloshin and others.
BELARUSIAN HEADQUARTERS OF THE PARTISAN MOVEMENT - the body for the leadership of the partisan movement in the occupied territory of Belarus during the Great Patriotic War. It was created on September 9, 1942. The second secretary of the Central Committee of the CPB (b) P.Z. was the chief of staff. Kalinin. Organizationally, the Belarusian headquarters was subordinate to the Central and performed similar functions within the territory of Belarus.
BELARUSIAN NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENT - a social movement for the liberation of Belarus from colonial dependence, for national revival and the creation of an independent Belarusian state. At first, it developed within the framework of the Polish liberation process under the influence of the ideas of the uprising of 1794 under the leadership of T. Kosciuszka. Rebellion 1863-1864 gave impetus to the emergence of Belarusian national demands in the all-Polish and Russian liberation movement. K. Kalinovsky expressed the idea of the independence of Lithuania and Belarus. In 1868, an educational organization arose in St. Petersburg, whose members intended to organize the publication of literature in the Belarusian language. The further development of the national movement was associated with populist ideology ("Gaumont" and others). In the second half of the 1880s. in Minsk, a group of liberal intelligentsia emerged (M.V. Dovnar-Zapolsky, V.Z. Zavitnevich, Ya. Luchina, and others), who sought to awaken national self-consciousness by legal means. Organizations of Belarusian students operated in St. Petersburg and Moscow. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the national movement to some extent connected with the socialist ideology (BSG, etc.), with the Belarusian national-religious movement, creativity and revolutionary-democratic activity of J. Kupala, J. Kolas, brothers A. and I. Lutskevich, V. La -stovsky, Y. Lesik, F. Shantyr and others, with the work on the creation of the Belarusian statehood (BPR, BSSR), the liberation struggle of the workers of Western Belarus in 1921-1939.
BERLIN CONFERENCE 1925 (Second All-Belarusian Conference) - a meeting of Belarusian politicians in exile in October 1925. Convened by A. Tsvikevich at the request of the leadership of the CP (b) B. By a majority vote, the conference recognized Minsk as the only center of the Belarusian political and cultural movement. The decisions made were influenced by real changes in the BSSR in 1921-1925. (NEP, Belarusianization, etc.), which took place after the first All-Belarusian Conference (Prague, 1921).
THE BATTLE OF KLETSKO, 1506 In the summer of 1506, a 30,000-strong army of Crimean Tatars broke into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and plundered Belarusian lands. The main forces of the Tatars began to stay on the Lan River near Kletsk. Mensk, Novogorodsk, Grodno militia led by Prince Mikhail Glinsky came out against them. On August 6, the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeated the Tatar rati and freed about 40 thousand people from Tatar captivity.
BOBRUYSK FORTRESS is an important stronghold of the Russian army. During July - September 1812, it was blocked, but not taken by French troops.
BOBRUISK OPERATION - an integral part of the 1st stage of the Belarusian offensive operation, carried out on June 24-29, 1944 (commander General of the Army K.K. Rokossovsky).
BOBRUISKY "KOTEL" - the encirclement of the troops of the right wing of the 1st Belorussian Front of 6 divisions of the 9th German army during the Bobruisk operation of 1944
SEEKING THE GOD - a religious and philosophical movement among the liberal intelligentsia of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
BORISOV STONES - seven large boulders; monumental epigraphic monuments of Belarus in the 12th century. Before the adoption of Christianity, stones were pagan fetishes. By order of Prince Boris Vseslavich, crosses and inscriptions were carved on them.
BOYAR - in Russia in the IX-XVII centuries. the upper class of the feudal lords. In the Kievan state - the descendants of tribal nobility, old combatants - vassals and members of the princely Duma, serf landowners. They had their own vassals, enjoyed immunity and the right to leave for other princes. During the period of feudal fragmentation - the richest and most influential feudal lords, rivals of princely power. In the Novgorod Republic, they actually ruled the state. From the 14th century the rights of the boyars were limited to the princes. From the 15th century members of the boyar Duma, occupied the main administrative positions. The title was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century.
BOYAR DUMA - 1 In the Kiev state, a council under the prince of members of the squads close to him and other close people. 2. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the council of noble vassals. 3. In the Russian centralized state, a permanent class-representative body of the aristocracy under the Grand Duke (Tsar) of a legislative nature on issues of domestic and foreign policy.
BREST CHURCH UNION of 1596 - an agreement signed in October 1596 at a church council in Brest on the unification of the Orthodox and Catholic churches on the territory of the Commonwealth. Provided for the recognition of the supreme authority of the Vatican and Catholic dogmas while maintaining Orthodox rituals and worship in Church Slavonic and native languages. It led to the creation of another direction in Christianity - Uniatism, which took into account the national characteristics of Belarusians in language, holidays, rituals, etc. In the XVIII century. became the most massive religious movement in the Belarusian lands.
BUND - the national social democratic organization of Jewish workers in 1897-1939. Formed in Vilna at the congress of representatives of social democratic groups as the General Jewish Workers' Union in Russia, since 1901 - the General Jewish Union in Lithuania. The Bund acted in contact with the RSDLP (it was an integral part in 1898-1903).
BURMISTR - an elected person in the magistrate - an administrative and judicial body of self-government in the cities of Belarus, which had Magdeburg law in the XIV-XVIII centuries. After the elimination of Magdeburg law in Belarus at the end of the 18th century. the steward was called the manager of the landowner's estate or the elders who supervised the execution of peasant duties.
BUREAUOCRACY - literally the dominance of the office. Persons belonging to the highest bureaucratic administration, a layer of officials and administrators. In the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries. elected members of city magistrates and town halls, in the XIX century. members of deanery councils, police bodies of provincial cities or the capital. They existed in magistrates and town halls until the judicial reform of 1864.
GRAND DUKE - 1. The highest princely title in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. He was the head of state, had broad powers, but his power was limited by the Rada ON. 2. Head of the Grand Duchy in Russia X-XV centuries. and the Russian state of the 15th - mid-16th centuries; a member of the imperial family, a relative of the emperor or empress; part of the title of the Russian emperor (Grand Duke of Finland, etc.).
VEPROVSHCHINA - a monetary tax in the ON, which was levied on peasants for the right to use the forest land of the landowner.
CREDENTIALS - a document certifying the appointment of a person as a diplomatic representative in another country, is presented upon taking office to the head of a foreign state.
"BULLETIN OF WESTERN RUSSIA" is a monthly political, historical and literary magazine published in Russian in 1864-1871. in Vilna. He had a clearly expressed anti-Polish and anti-Catholic orientation, adhered to the positions of great-power chauvinism, and actively promoted the ideology of Western Russianism. Documents, materials and articles (often of a tendentious nature) on the issues of statistics, ethnography of local history of Belarus were placed on its pages.
VECHE - a people's meeting to decide the most important public and state affairs (war and peace, the erection and deposition of princes from the throne, the election of various officials, etc.). Veche gathered in a certain place in the city (on the square, in the courtyard of the temple); decisions were made without a vote, shouting. With the strengthening of the role of the boyars and the weakening of the princely power, its importance increased. For example, relying on the veche assembly, the Polotsk boyars expelled princes they did not like.
VILENSKAYA BELARUSIAN RADA. - the coordinating center of Belarusian political and public organizations in the territory occupied by Germany. Functioned in January 1918-June 1919. Chairman - A. Lutskevich. In March 1918, its representatives were co-opted into the BNR Rada. At the suggestion of A. Lutskevich, on March 25, 1918, the Rada adopted the Charter Ill, which proclaimed the independence of the BNR.
VILNA ART SCHOOL -. conditional name of the art departments of the Faculty of Literature and Art of Vilna University. Her teachers were Professor F. Smuglevich - the founder of the school, his students J. Rustem, K. Elsky and others. Over 35 years of her work, she trained more than 250 artists, engravers and sculptors.
"Vilna Jacobins" - a group of organizers and participants of the gentry bloc during the uprising of 1794 in Belarus and Lithuania, which advocated revolutionary socio-political transformations.
VILENSKY EDUCATIONAL DISTRICT - an educational and administrative unit in the Russian Empire. It was formed in 1803. With territorial changes and temporary transformation into the Belarusian educational district (1829-1850), it existed until 1917. It managed and controlled the activities of all types of educational institutions on its territory. The center of the district was Vilna University, and then the boards of trustees headed by the trustee.
VILENSKO-RADOM UNION of 1401 - the state and political union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland. According to the treaty, the countries were to act jointly against foreign enemies. The special privileges of Catholic landowners in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were confirmed.
VITEBSK (SURAZH) "GATE" - a 40-kilometer gap in the front line between Velizh and Usvyaty, which was formed as a result of the offensive of the 4th shock army of the Kalinin Front and the liberation of the front-line regions by Belarusian partisans. They existed from February 10 to the end of September 1942, they were actively used to transfer weapons and necessary equipment to partisans, establish operational communications between various partisan formations and the Soviet command, etc.
VITEBSK-ORSHA OPERATION - an offensive operation of the troops of the 1st Baltic and 3rd Belorussian fronts on June 23-28, 1944.
"VOLOCHNAYA POMERA" - agrarian reform in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was carried out from the 1550s. until the middle of the 17th century. mainly in the western and central regions of Belarus. It contributed to the replacement of communal land use by households, since fixed land plots in the amount of one loka (21.36 hectares) were transferred to the disposal of peasant families for certain duties.
VOEVODA - commander, ruler. Among the Slavic peoples in Russia, it has been known since the 16th century. In the Russian state - the head of a regiment, detachment (end of the 15th - beginning of the 18th century), city (mid-16th century - 1775), province (1719-1775). In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Commonwealth - an official, head of the local administration in the voivodeship.
MARTIAL LAW. Introduced in emergency situations that threaten the existence of the state. It is characterized by the transfer of general state administration (public order, security, etc.) to the military. They receive extraordinary powers, which in a normal situation are the prerogative of the highest authorities and judicial bodies (arrests, searches, the right to transfer cases of crimes against the state system to military courts).
MILITARY FIELD COURT. Operates in the regime of summary and accelerated proceedings, consists of officers appointed by the command. Usually, the verdicts of such courts were not subject to appeal.
THE MILITARY REVOLUTIONARY COMMITTEE (VRK) OF THE WESTERN FRONT is a temporary revolutionary body for carrying out an armed uprising on the territory of the Vilna, Vitebsk, Mogilev, Minsk provinces and the Western Front. Created on October 27, 1917 on the initiative of the Minsk Soviet of Workers' and Peasants' Deputies and other organizations that supported the Bolsheviks. Taking measures to suppress the resistance of opponents of the revolution, he was engaged in administrative and economic activities. It ceased to exist on November 26, 1917 after the creation of the Regional Executive Committee and Council of People's Commissars of the Western Region and the Front.
MILITARY SETTLEMENTS - a special organization of troops in the Russian Empire in 1810-1857, which combined military service with agricultural labor in order to reduce military spending. They also existed on the territory of Belarus.
MILITARY TRIBUNALS - the highest courts in military units and in
war time.
REVIVAL (Renaissance) - the era of the formation of spiritual culture in Western and Central Europe in the XIV-XVI centuries. The main ideological content of the culture of this period was humanism. A new secular culture arose, on the basis of which the Renaissance-humanistic worldview was formed. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania is one of the countries of the so-called. Northern Renaissance. Here a new culture was formed from the 16th century. A specific feature of the Renaissance in Belarus was a close connection with the Christian worldview.
WAR - organized armed struggle between states, peoples, nations and social groups. The main means of waging war is the army and other paramilitary formations.
WAR 1534-1537 between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Muscovite state. It was initiated by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The main hostilities unfolded in the Chernigov-Seversky lands and in the Smolensk region. The Litvinsky connections failed. From September 1534 clashes between the armies of neighboring principalities took place near Vitebsk, Polotsk, Braslav, Krichev, Mstis-lavl, Mogilev. In 1537, a truce was concluded, which was then extended. The Muscovite state bought for itself the conquered Sebezh and Zavolochye, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Gomel and Lyubech.
VOIT- 1. An official appointed by the landowner to inspect the execution of duties by the population dependent on him. 2. Head of the city magistrate in ON.
VOLOKA - a measure of the area, equal to 21.36 hectares, and a unit of taxation of duties in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
VOLOST - an administrative-territorial unit of Russia and ON. In Ancient Russia - the entire territory of the earth (principalities), an independent rural territory subordinate to the city. From the end of the XIV century. - part of the county. Since 1861 - a unit of class peasant administration in the Russian Empire (including Belarus). It was abolished in the USSR in connection with the administrative-territorial reform of 1923.
VOTCHINA - the oldest type of feudal land ownership in Russia and ON. Family estate passed by inheritance. It arose in the X-XI centuries.
PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT - the central authority in Russia from March to October 1917. Formed after the February Revolution. The four compositions of the Provisional Government repulsed the attempts of the ruling classes to consolidate and retain power. 1st composition: 2 Octobrists, 8 Cadets, 1 Trudovik. Chairman cadet G.E. Lvov from March 1 to May 16, 1917 2nd composition (until July 24, 1917): 1 Octobrist, 8 Cadets, 2 Mensheviks, 3 Social Revolutionaries. Chairman G.E. Lvov. 3rd composition (until September 14): 7 Cadets, 5 Socialist-Revolutionaries, 3 Mensheviks. Chairman of the Social Revolutionary A.F. Kerensky. 4th composition (until October 25, 1917): 6 Cadets, 2 Social Revolutionaries, 4 Mensheviks, 6 non-party. Chairman Kerensky. Overthrown as a result of the October Revolution.
TEMPORARY PEASANTS - former landlord peasants who, according to the reform of 1861, are freed from serfdom, but are obliged to perform feudal duties in favor of the landlords until a certain period. On the territory of Belarus, the temporary state was abolished in 1863, and in general in the Russian Empire - in 1881.
THE SECOND ALL-BELARUSIAN CONGRESS - the congress of the Belarusian Central Rada, held in Minsk on June 27, 1944 with the permission and under the supervision of the German occupation authorities. It was attended by 1039 delegates from Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Warsaw, Krakow, Vienna, Prague and others. The Congress recognized the BCR government headed by President R. Ostrovsky as the only full-fledged representative of the Belarusian people and its region.
BULAK-BALAKHOVICH'S SPEECH - an armed attempt by S.N. Bulak-Balakhovich to overthrow the Soviet power on the territory of Belarus and create an "independent Belarusian state". Bulak-Balakhovich's detachments in the fall of 1920 captured Mozyr, Pinsk, Petrikov and other settlements. At the end of 1920, his troops were defeated, and the remnants were forced to retreat to Polish territory.
GOVERNOR GENERAL - the highest position of the local administration in 1703-1917. Possessed civil and military power, from 1775 he headed the governor-general.
GOVERNOR GENERAL - an emergency administrative-territorial unit in Russia, created on the outskirts of the empire or in regions where a tense political situation arose. It was headed by the governor-general, vested with the special confidence of the emperor.
TENRIKHOV ARTICLES (ARTICLES)" - an agreement first drawn up between the contender for the throne of the Commonwealth, Heinrich of Valois, and the gentry in 1573. It contained a number of obligations that seriously limited the power of the monarch in favor of the gentry class. In the event that the monarch violated any article of the agreement, the gentry had the right to disobey, announcing the creation of a confederation, to take up arms against the king and the grand duke.
HERALDY (lat. heraldus - herald, prophet) - a system of knowledge about coats of arms, the rules for their creation and use; an auxiliary historical discipline, which, based on the study of coats of arms, helps to determine the time of their compilation, authorship, belonging of documents and objects marked with coats of arms. The creators of G. were the so-called. heralds, who, before the start of the tournament, announced the personal coat of arms of the knight as proof of his right to participate in the competition. From the 14th century in European countries, heralds arose - special institutions that dealt with theoretical and practical issues of heraldry. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, it was formed in the 13th-16th centuries. heavily influenced by the Polish. In the Republic of Belarus, the problems of genealogy are studied primarily by the Department of Genealogy and Genealogy of the Committee on Archives and Paperwork.
Coat of arms (Polish herb from German Erbe - heritage) - a special emblem, hereditary invariable insignia. G. are compiled in accordance with the regulated heraldic norms and are approved by the authorities as distinctive signs. They are divided into state, national, land (individual voivodships, provinces, etc.), city, corporate (shops, guilds, brotherhoods, etc.), class, dynastic, tribal, personal. Usually G. were placed on flags, seals, coins, weapons, on the facades of castles, town halls, later - on the buildings of state institutions, embassies, letterheads, bookplates, etc. On the territory of Belarus, the first G. appeared in the XII-XIV centuries. The state emblem of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was considered "Pursuit" - the image of a figure of a warrior on a white horse with a sword and shield raised above his head. Belarusian cities were given cities either simultaneously with the receipt of the Magdeburg right, or shortly after its assignment. In the XVI-XVII centuries. More than 100 Belarusian cities had their own towns. Replacement of G. or changes in them are made, as a rule, only in connection with events of exceptional importance. The right to personal G. was abolished with the establishment of Soviet power.
"GERING" - the code name of the punitive expedition of the invaders against the partisans of the Slutsk and Pinsk formations and the civilian population in the Gantsevichi, Zhitkovichi, Krasnoslobodskiy, Leninskiy, Luninets, Lyakhovichi, Slutskiy, Starobinskiy regions. It was held in February 1943. Over 10 thousand civilians were killed by the Nazi invaders.
"GERMAN" - the code name of the punitive expedition of the invaders in the Volozhinsky, Ivenets, Lyubchansky, Novogrudsky and Yura-Tishkovsky regions in July-August 1943. As a result of the operation, 130 partisans, 4280 civilians died, the invaders burned more than 150 villages Germany more than 20 thousand people.
HETMAN (Polish hetman from German Hauptmann - chief) - the chief commander of the armed forces in some European states. In Poland since the 15th century. until 1795, the post of commander of the troops (great crown G.). In ON position of the highest (from the middle
16th century - great) G. introduced at the end of the 15th century. in the manner of the Polish. Appointed by the Grand Duke, from the second half of the XVI century. for life. He performed the functions of the Minister of War, had the right to complete the armed forces, to administer a trial with the death penalty on the troops subordinate to him. At the beginning of the XVI century. the post of palace G. was introduced - the commander of the guards of the Grand Duke, and from the second half of the 16th century. - full G., who led the mercenary detachments. In Ukraine in the XVI-
17th century commander of registered Cossacks in the public service. During the war of 1648-1654. hetman. B. Khmelnitsky became the leader of Ukraine and the commander-in-chief of the Cossack troops (in 1704 the position was abolished). In Left-Bank Ukraine (as part of Russia), G., who had administrative and military power, were elected by the general Cossack foreman or appointed by the tsarist government (in 1764, the position of G. was abolished).
A commune is an administrative-territorial unit, similar in size to a volost.
GORODEL UNIA of 1413 - the union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, legally enshrined in 3 charters. The 1st charter was issued on behalf of 47 Polish feudal lords, who endowed 47 feudal lords of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with their coats of arms and thereby accepted them into their armorial brotherhood. In the 2nd charter, the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania assumed obligations in the event of the death of Grand Duke Vytautas not to choose a prince for themselves without the advice and consent of the Polish feudal lords. The Polish feudal lords, in the event of the death of Jogaila, also did not have to choose a new king without the consent of the feudal lords of the Grand Duchy. In the 3rd charter, Jagiello and Vitovt gave a guarantee to appoint only Catholic feudal lords to government posts.
GOD - in Russia in 1775-1862 head of the administrative and police authorities of the county town.
CITY - in Russia since 1862 the lowest rank of the city police guard.
CITY DUMA is an elected administrative body of self-government in Russian cities. City dumas had limited competence: they did not have coercive power, were under the strict control of the governors and the Minister of the Interior, and had insignificant financial resources.
CITY GOVERNMENT is the executive body of the City Duma. In Belarus, she was elected only in large cities. The city council was headed by the mayor, who was also the chairman of the city duma.
STATE POLITICAL ADMINISTRATION (GPU) -
under the NKVD of the USSR body for the protection of state security. In 1922-1923. transformed into the OGPU.
STATE COUNCIL - the highest deliberative (since 1906 legislative) body of the Russian Empire in 1810-1917. He considered bills submitted by the ministers before they were approved by the tsar.
STATE LANGUAGE - the main language of the state, in which, in accordance with the law, all spheres of political, economic and cultural life are served, communication of authorities and administration with the population is ensured. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old Belarusian was the official state language, which was enshrined in the Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1566 and 1588. In the Commonwealth in 1696, Polish was declared the official language. Since 1924 Belarusian, Russian, Polish and Jewish were recognized as state languages in the BSSR. In accordance with the law "On Languages in the Byelorussian SSR" (1990) and the Declaration of State Sovereignty (1990), the Belarusian language was proclaimed the state language; its state status was enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus in 1994. In accordance with the changes made to the Constitution following the referendum on May 14, 1995, the state languages of the Republic of Belarus are Belarusian and Russian.
STATE SYMBOLS - a set of material or conditional identification marks embodying the state sovereignty of the country. Most often, such symbols of the state are the state emblem, flag and anthem. The state emblem of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was "Pursuit". This ancient emblem was approved as the state emblem of the Republic of Belarus from the moment it acquired the status of an independent state (1991). At the same time, the ancient white-red-white flag became the state flag. At the referendum on May 14, 1995, the modern coat of arms and flag of Belarus were approved. Work is underway to prepare a new text and music for the national anthem of the Republic of Belarus, which would symbolize the aspiration of the Belarusian people for freedom and independence, their devotion to the ideals of humanism, kindness and justice.
GOTHIC - an artistic style (mid-XII-XVI centuries), which completed the development of medieval art in Europe and replaced the Romanesque style. It was characterized by sublime forms, openwork ornaments. In Belarus, it was reflected mainly in the architecture of the XV-XVI centuries.
GOVERNOR - an official in the Russian Empire, managing the city as a governor.
PROVINCE - the main administrative-territorial unit in Russia since 1708. It was divided into counties. Some provinces united into governor-generals. By 1917 there were 78 of them, 25 went to Poland, Finland, the Baltic states. In 1923-1929. on the basis of the provinces, territories and regions were created.
HUMANISM - in the broad sense of the word, a philosophical and ideological position that affirms the high destiny of man - the creator of earthly happiness. In a narrow concrete historical sense - the cultural movement of the Renaissance. Three principles formed the basis of humanism - the idea of the inherent value of human life, the doctrine of absolute spiritual freedom, and naturalism.
DANNIKI - peasants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV-XVI centuries, who were obliged to provide the feudal lord with tribute in kind for the use of a land plot.
DAN - natural and monetary extortion from conquered tribes and peoples. D. has been known in Russia since the 9th century. Subjugating individual tribes, the princes taxed them with D. (money, kind, furs, etc.). The growth of feudal ownership of land led to the feudal lords seizing the right to collect land and including it in feudal rent. In the XII-XV centuries. privileged landowners were often exempted from paying debts by princes. With the formation of the Russian centralized state D. at the turn of the X-XVI centuries. became an obligatory tax on black-haired and palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century it was combined with other fees (for governor's food, prenatal and barking work) and began to be called given money, or quarterly income, because. they came in quarters - financial orders. Palace peasants paid, depending on local conditions, from 33 to 70 rubles. from a plow, black-mowed - from 48 to 200 rubles, townspeople - 30-58 rubles. in service areas. This money was abolished in 1679 after the most important direct taxes were combined into one - archery money. The patriarch, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops collected church income from church parishes (part of the income from parishioner contributions). In the XIII-XV centuries. a special variety of D. was levied from Russian lands in favor of the Golden Horde. In Belarus, the composition of D. included products of crafts (honey, wax, wool), and later - agricultural products (rye, oats, geese, chickens, eggs, flax, hemp, hay, etc.); D. grain in the form of a quarter of the harvest was the main duty of the tributary peasants.
DUALITY - a kind of intertwining of two authorities in Russia after the February Revolution (March 1-2 - July 5, 1917): the bourgeois - the Provisional Government and the Soviets. It was created in view of the difficult socio-economic and political conditions in which the revolution took place. Taking advantage of the speed of the revolution and the insufficient organization of the masses, the leaders of the big bourgeoisie and landowners seized state power, forming on February 27 (March 12) the Provisional Executive Committee of the State Duma. Along with it, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and local Soviets were created, which were organs of the dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry. The Soviets had the opportunity to take all power into their own hands, but they did not do this, since the majority in them belonged to the Socialist-Revolutionary and Menshevik parties, who considered Russia not ripe for a proletarian revolution. The dominance of the petty-bourgeois parties in the Soviets determined their support for the Provisional Government, the complete cession of power to it in the July days of 1917, which meant the end of the Democracy.
PALACE LAND - lands in Russia of the XV-XVIII centuries, which belonged personally to the Grand Duke (Tsar) on the right of feudal property. They provided food and agricultural raw materials for the royal palace and the palace economy. Since 1797 - specific lands. Palace peasants lived on them, bearing duties in their favor. Princes acquired lands through inheritance, purchase, barter, seizure, and so on. In the XVIII century. the replenishment of the palace peasants and lands was due to the confiscation of lands from the disgraced owners and the population of the newly annexed lands (in the Baltic states, in Ukraine, in Belarus).
PALACE COUPS - a change of government by seizing power in the history of Russia in the period 1725 to 1762. They were carried out by various noble groups. The military force of the coups was the palace guards regiments. For 37 years, 5 palace coups took place in Russia: on January 28, 1725, A.D. Menshikov enthroned Catherine I, in September 1727, the Dolgorukovs obtained from Peter II the deprivation of power and the exile of Menshikov's temporary worker. On November 9, 1740, the regent E.I. Biron was deposed, and Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed the ruler. On November 25, 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna became empress, having overthrown the infant emperor Ivan VI Antonovich. On June 28, 1762, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna overthrew her husband Peter III and became Empress Catherine II.
NOBILITY - the dominant, privileged class in Russia. It has gone through three stages in its development. The first - until 1714, when the upper ruling classes consisted of boyars who had hereditary land ownership ("fatherland and grandfather") and D. (service class), who received an estate for service and for the duration of service (they were left with part of the villages as a kind of pension provision ). At this time, the nobleman was in the ranks, as a serviceman and statesman. The second stage - the "Decree on Majorate" of Peter 1 (1714) equalized the nobles and boyars with the hereditary transfer of the estate, but they were obliged to serve. The third stage - the decree of Peter III "On the Liberty of the Nobility" (1762) and the "Charter to the Nobility" of Catherine II (1785) freed the nobles from duties, leaving only privileges. This turned D. into a dying class. Bodies of noble class self-government in the Russian Empire in 1785-1917. were provincial and district noble assemblies. They met every three years. They decided noble and general local affairs and elected leaders, police officers, etc. After the pt forms of the 1860s. they were mainly engaged in the affairs of D. In Belarus, a part of the gentry of the GDL was transferred to D., which received noble rights after the divisions of the Commonwealth. It retained its dominant position even after the abolition of serfdom; in the 1870-80s. in Belarus there were 14 magnate families, who owned a quarter of the total area of landed estates.
DECABRISTS - Russian noble revolutionaries who raised an uprising in December 1825 against autocracy and serfdom. Mostly officers, participants in the Patriotic War of 1812. The first organizations in 1816-1821: "Union of Salvation", "Union of Welfare". The Society of United Slavs and the "Northern Society" sought to carry out a military coup by the forces of the army, without the participation of the people. Program: the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of a unitary republic ("Southern Society") or a constitutional monarchy with a federal structure ("Northern Society"). With the strengthening of the republican wing in the "Northern Society", it was planned to develop common constitutional foundations. The interregnum after the death of Alexander I caused premature performances - the uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg and the Chernigov regiment in Ukraine (December 29, 1825 - January 3, 1826). After the defeat of the movement, 579 people were involved in the investigation. P.I. Pestel, S.I. Muraviev-Apostol, K.F. Ryleev, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P.G. Kakhovsky were hanged, 121 people were exiled to hard labor and to a settlement in Siberia. More than 3,000 soldiers were also repressed. The movement was the first armed action of the revolutionaries in Russia and had a great influence on the subsequent revolutionary movement.
DECLARATION (lat. declaratio - announcement, proclamation) - an official statement. Usually, the D. proclaims the basic principles of foreign or domestic policy of the state, the program provisions of political parties, the main provisions of the activities of international organizations in a specific area of international relations.
DECLARATION ON THE STATE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE BSSR.
Adopted at the 1st session of the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR of the 12th convocation on July 27, 1990. On August 25, 1991, the Declaration was given the status of a constitutional law. Belarus has been proclaimed a sovereign state, established on the basis of the right of the Belarusian people to self-determination, the statehood of the Belarusian language, and the supremacy of the people in determining their own destiny. The supreme goal of the sovereign Belarusian state is the free development of every citizen on the basis of ensuring the rights of the individual in accordance with the Constitution of the country and its international obligations. The Declaration formulates legal provisions that secure the citizenship of Belarus, the ownership of the Belarusian people to land, its subsoil and other natural resources, national cultural and historical values, the indivisibility and inviolability of its territory, the separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers, the right to voluntary alliances with other states , free exit from these unions.
DECLARATION ON THE FORMATION OF THE USSR. Adopted on December 30, 1922 by the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR. Along with the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR, the Declaration formed the constitutional basis for building the USSR as a multinational state.
DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLES OF RUSSIA is one of the first acts of the Soviet state. Approved by the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR on November 2 (15), 1917. It proclaimed the principles of equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia, their right to self-determination.
The Declaration of the Rights of the Working People and the Exploited People is one of the first constitutional acts of the Soviet state. Adopted on January 12 (25), 1918 by the 3rd All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Proclaimed Russia a Republic of Soviets. She defined as the main tasks of the Soviet state the destruction of all exploitation of man by man and the establishment of a socialist organization of society. Fully included (1st section) in the first Soviet constitution - the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918.
DECRETE (lat. decretum - resolution). In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, decrees were considered decrees of the Grand Duke or the highest spiritual authority, sentences and decisions of the tribunal, zemstvo courts in criminal or civil cases. In the USSR, before the adoption of the Constitution of 1936 - acts of the highest bodies of state power and administration (SNK, All-Russian Central Executive Committee).
DECREE ON LAND - one of the first laws of the Soviet government, written by V.I. Lenin, adopted on the night of October 26-27 (November 8-9), 1917 by the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets. It included a general peasant order on land, drawn up on the basis of 242 local orders. All landlord, royal, church, monastery lands were confiscated along with inventory and buildings and transferred to peasant committees and Soviets for distribution among the peasants.
DECREE ON PEACE - one of the first laws of the Soviet government, written by V.I. Lenin, adopted on the night of October 26-27 (November 8-9), 1917 by the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets. He called on the participants of the 1st World War to start negotiations on a just, democratic peace.
MONETARY REFORM - state legislative acts aimed at strengthening the country's monetary system. In the course of their implementation, devalued paper money is withdrawn from circulation, new ones are issued, the monetary unit or its gold content is changed, and a transition is made from one monetary system to another.
DEPORTATION (lat. deportatio) - in the legislation of some foreign states, exile, exile. During the period of mass repressions of the 1920-40s. D. were exposed to numerous peoples of the USSR. Illegal (without investigation and trial), forced eviction from their native places to Siberia, Kazakhstan, regions of the Far North, the Urals and other remote regions of the USSR of a large number of citizens who, in class terms, were recognized as enemies of the Soviet regime. In 1931-1934. about 250 thousand people were deported from the BSSR. (mainly peasants classified as kulaks). From February 1940 to June 1941, more than 125 thousand residents of Western Belarus were deported deep into the USSR. The barbaric actions of the Stalinist regime - the eviction of Balkars, Ingush, Karachays, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Turks, Meskhetians, Chechens from their homes during the Second World War. The policy of forced resettlement also affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds and other peoples. The forcible resettlement of entire peoples is a grave crime, contrary to the foundations of international law.
TITH - 1. A tenth of the income collected by the church from the population. It was established by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich shortly after the baptism of Russia (988) and was originally intended for the Kyiv Church of the Tithes, and then acquired the character of a widespread tax levied by church organizations. An emergency tax for military needs from the "belly and trades" of merchants, townspeople, hoarders and service people who had trade trades was called the "tenth of money". Charged "from the ruble to the hryvnia." In ON in the XV-XIV centuries. there was a "sheaf" tithe (peasants gave every tenth sheaf) and a common tithe (every tenth of grain, honey, etc.). 2. Russian land measure. Known since the end of the 15th century. Initially, D. was measured in two quarters and was a square with sides of one tenth of a verst. Later, she changed. Canceled after the October Revolution in connection with the transition to the metric system of measures in 1918.
DESYATSKY - an elected official from the peasants to perform police and various public functions. Usually elected from 10 households.
DICTATURE (lat. dictatura - unlimited power) - a term that characterizes the system of exercising power in the state. Means: 1. The essence of state power, providing political domination to a particular class (for example, D. bourgeoisie); 2. The exercise of state power by undemocratic methods, an authoritarian political regime (for example, personal D.).
DYNASTY - a number of ruling monarchs from the same clan, succeeding each other by inheritance (for example, Rurikovich, Rogvolodovichi).
DICTATORY OF THE PROLETARIAT - in Marxist theory, the power of the working class, established as a result of the socialist revolution and with the goal of building socialism. The highest principle of D.p. -leading position in society and the state of the working class, acting in alliance with the peasantry and other democratic forces. The power of the working class and all working people is embodied in the system of political and social organizations (state bodies, political parties, trade unions, youth organizations, etc.). - The Paris Commune of 1871, the Soviets, which were established as a result of the October Revolution (D.P. in the USSR lasted until the mid-30s), people's democracy, which arose during the revolutions in a number of countries in Europe and Asia after the 2nd World War . The historical experience of the USSR and some other socialist countries has shown the danger of outgrowing D. p. into authoritarian-bureaucratic power and related mass repressions, deformation of social structures. A guarantee against this threat is the development of democracy, the rule of law, and civil society.
DIRECTORATE ("Council of Five") - a board of five ministers of the Provisional Government (Minister-Chairman A.F. Kerensky, Minister A.I. Verkhovsky, Minister of Marine D.M. Verderevsky, Minister of Posts and Telegraphs A.M. Mikitin), formed by his decree 1 (14) September 1917 in search of a way out of the acute government crisis that arose in connection with the Kornilov rebellion. D. was entrusted with "managing the affairs of the state until the formation of the cabinet." On September 25 (October 8), with the formation of the third coalition government, D. ended its existence.
"DIRLEVANGER" is the code name for the punitive expedition of the Nazi invaders against partisans and civilians in the Smolevichi and Logoisk regions in March 1943. A special battalion of the SS Dirlewanger played an active role in the operation, which stood out for special atrocities, the mass destruction of civilians during punitive expeditions . During the punitive action "Dirlewanger", the Ukrainian police battalion burned down the village of Khatyn.
DISSIDENTS (lat. dissidere - disagree, disperse) - those who opposed injustice, violation of human rights. The official propaganda media of the USSR emphasized that dissent is not persecuted in the country and that any citizen has the right to have his own point of view on this or that problem, but in reality everything was different. D, became famous academician A.D. Sakharov, writer A.I. Solzhenitsyn and others. In Belarus, this movement was not so representative, but the opposition authorities expressed their views in different forms; among the dissidents were representatives of various social groups and categories of the population. This is described in the books "Inshadumites" (Mn., 1992), "Antysavets Rukh in Belarus: 1944-1956" (Mn., 1998), "Democratic Apocalypse of Belarus: 1956-1988" (Mn., 1999).
CONTRACT - in civil law, an agreement between two or more * persons (citizens or legal entities) aimed at establishing, changing or terminating civil rights or obligations. D. is often referred to as the legal relationship itself, which arose from D., and the document in which it is reflected. Depending on the number of participants, D. is divided into bilateral or multilateral. If D. gives rise to rights for one side, and only duties for the other, it is unilateral, but if, by virtue of D., both rights and obligations appear for each side, it is called bilateral. A loan agreement can serve as an example of a unilateral contract, while bilateral contracts are contracts of purchase and sale, deliveries, contracts, transportation, etc. Terms that encourage the parties to actually fulfill the obligations of the parties established by the contract are usually included in the contract: measures of property liability (sanctions ) for non-fulfillment of D. - compensation for damages, payment of a penalty, etc. The conditions established by the parties in a D. are referred to as its content. Those conditions of a property that are recognized as essential by law or necessary for a property of a given type are considered essential (for example, the subject and price in a property of purchase and sale), i.e. such conditions without which it is impossible to conclude a D., as well as all those conditions regarding which, at the request of one of the parties, an agreement must be reached (for example, conditions for the delivery of goods in a certain container or package). A contract is considered concluded when an agreement has been reached between the parties in the form required in appropriate cases on all its essential points.
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT - an agreement between two or more states or other subjects of international law, establishing their mutual rights and obligations in political, economic or other relations. By the number of participants D.m. divided into bilateral and multilateral. Multilateral treaties can be open (they can be acceded to in the manner provided for in the treaty itself) and closed (states that have not signed the treaty can accede to it only with the consent of the parties to the treaty). D. m., as a rule, is in writing and consists of a preamble (contains the motives and objectives of the agreement), specific decisions relating to the essence of the regulated relationship, and final decisions (on the duration of the contract, the procedure for its extension, a warning about the refusal of the contract , conditions of its entry into force, approval, etc.). The DM signed by the contracting states, as a rule, is subject to ratification (approval), which is usually carried out by the head of state after the official signing of the DM.
FRIENDSHIP AGREEMENT AND BORDER. It was concluded between the USSR and Germany on September 28, 1939. It consisted of 5 articles and a secret additional protocol. According to the latter, Lublin and part of the Warsaw Voivodeship, inclusive up to the Bug, were in the sphere of German interests in exchange for Germany's renunciation of claims to Lithuania.
AGREEMENT ON THE FORMATION OF THE UNION OF THE SSR - a document adopted on December 30, 1922 by the first All-Union Congress of Soviets and formalized, together with the Declaration on the Formation of the USSR, a voluntary association of independent Soviet socialist republics:
RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR and ZSFSR into a single federal union state - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. According to the agreement, the supreme body of the USSR was the Congress of Soviets of the USSR, and in the intervals between congresses - the Central Executive Committee of the USSR (CEC of the USSR). The agreement provided for the formation of people's commissariats, the establishment of the Supreme Court under the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and the United State Political Administration (OGPU) under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. The treaty was fully incorporated into the Constitution of the USSR in 1924.
AGREEMENTS OF RUSSIA WITH BYZANTIA - the first international treaties of Russia that have come down to us in the text of the oldest chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years". The terms of the treaties were not presented to the Russians, but achieved in the struggle against the greatest empire in the world. Treaty of 911 It was concluded after the successful campaign (907) of Oleg against Byzantium, established the rules of trade, the ransom of prisoners, the rules of the court, and the proceedings in case of shipwrecks. The treaty of 944 was concluded after the unsuccessful (941) and successful (944) campaigns of Prince Igor and, in addition to repeating the previous conditions, included the obligation of the Russians not to conquer the Crimean possessions of Byzantium and to provide mutual assistance with military forces. The agreement of 971 was concluded by Prince Svyatoslav with Emperor John Tzimisces after the famous siege of Dorostol, when the huge Byzantine army could not cope with the small Russian squad, which fought very bravely. Russia promised not to attack Byzantium. All D. talk about equality and independence of the parties.
DOLNIKI - peasants who settled with the landowner with a part of the harvest.
DOMOSTROY - a set of instructions and everyday rules of behavior for a city dweller, by which he should be guided in relation to secular authorities and the church, family and servants. In D. instructions are detailed on cooking, receiving guests, wedding ceremonies, raising children and housekeeping, needlework, trade, paying taxes, up to advice on treating the sick. D. is a valuable source of socio-economic and political history, culture and life of Russia, as well as economic and pedagogical thought. It reflected the changes in the socio-economic life of the XVI century. (development of commodity-money relations) and in the outlook of a prosperous city dweller. However, new elements in D. are closely intertwined with old ideas. The economy of the city dweller is already connected with the market, but large stocks are still being made for the future, it is said about the voluntary service of servants from among the former serfs released into the wild, but the use of servile labor is also envisaged. A wealthy city dweller, according to D., owes his position in society not to a noble birth, but to his work, his own initiative. At the same time, D. demands that I be subordinate to the head of the family - "master", and in public life - to the king and authorities. In the upbringing of children, there is a tendency to teach them "needlework"
those. craft and trade, while the famous advice is given about "crushing the ribs" of the slings
Here is all the terminology that will be needed when passing the story - there are questions on the terms in parts A and B.
The material is big. For convenience, all terms are arranged not only in alphabetical order, but also in accordance with the chronological period.
Empire - a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, Empire absorbed the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.
Anarchists are a political philosophy that embodies theories and views that advocate the elimination of any coercive control and power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different areas of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from secondary to fundamental ones (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, and the ethno-national question). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.
Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called "anti-revolutionary", starting with the third - "anti-Napoleonic". At various times, the coalitions included Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.
The Great Reforms of the 1860s and 1870s - bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856) that began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). The great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), urban (1870), judicial (1864), military (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the field of finance, education, the press and affected all spheres of life in Russian society.
Military settlements - a special organization of the armed forces in 1810-1857, combining military service with housekeeping. Part of the state peasants was transferred to the position of military settlers. The settlers combined agricultural labor with military service. It was supposed to eventually transfer the entire army to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment kits, save the mass of state peasants from recruitment, turning them into essentially free people. Alexander I thus hoped to take another step towards the abolition of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulation, turned into hard labor. Settlements and A.A. Arakcheev caused general hatred. The villagers rioted repeatedly. The largest performance was the uprising of the Chuguevsky and Taganrog settled regiments in 1819.
The Eastern question is the designation of international contradictions in the 18th - early 20th centuries, which was accepted in diplomacy and historical literature, associated with the emerging collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.
Temporarily liable peasants - peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to perform their former duties in favor of the landowner before switching to redemption.
Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906. redemption by peasants from landowners of land plots provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landlords the amount of redemption for the land, and the peasants, who were indebted to the state, had to repay this debt for 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of dues that the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. The collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to recover more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, having received about 700 million rubles. income.
Ghazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam, there is a holy war for faith, against the infidels (unbelievers in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).
The State Council is the highest legislative institution. Transformed in January 1810 from the Permanent Council in accordance with the "Plan of State Transformations" by M. M. Speransky. He did not have a legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted for consideration by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, budget, ministerial reports, some higher administrative issues and special court cases).
The Decembrists are participants in the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.
Clergy - clergy in monotheistic religions; persons professionally engaged in the administration of religious rites and services and constituting special corporations. In the Orthodox Church, the clergy are divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the XIX century - the privileged class of Russian society, freed from corporal punishment, compulsory service and poll tax.
Westerners - the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path, opposed the Slavophiles. The Westerners fought against the “theory of official nationality”, criticized serfdom and autocracy, put forward a project for the liberation of the peasants with land. The main representatives are V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin and others.
The zemstvo movement is a liberal-opposition public and political activity of zemstvo vowels and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and involving them in government. It manifested itself in the submission of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, the holding of illegal meetings and congresses, the publication of brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: “Conversation”, “Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists”, “Union of Liberation”. The most prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Petr D. Dolgorukov, P.A. Geiden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of political parties of the Cadets and Octobrists, the Zemstvo movement ceased.
Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the Zemstvo reform of 1864. They were in charge of education, health care, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of the Interior and the governors, who had the right to cancel the decisions of the Zemstvo.
Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of the crop shares. It was a form of transition from the feudal lease of land to the capitalist.
Imamate is the general name of the Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of the Murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in con. 20s 19th century during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonial policy of tsarism.
Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.
Counter-reforms in the 1880s - the name of the measures of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s: the restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), the introduction of estate principles in primary and secondary schools, the abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), the introduction of the institute zemstvo chiefs (1889), the establishment of bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.
The gendarme corps is a police force that has a military organization and performs functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. the gendarme corps served as the political police.
Philistines - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917 a taxable class of former townspeople - artisans, small merchants and homeowners. They united at the place of residence in communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, by law, they could be subjected to corporal punishment.
Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegiums. The aim of the reform was to reorganize the central authorities on the basis of the principle of unity of command. Initially, eight ministries were created: the Military Ground Forces (since 1815 - Military), Naval Forces (since 1815 - Naval), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also, under Alexander I, there was the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or more comrades (deputies).
Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the highlanders of the North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of Muridism was its combination of religious teachings and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against the “infidels” (i.e. non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism assumed complete and unquestioning submission of his followers to their mentors - murshids. Muridism was headed by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave greater organization to the struggle of the highlanders of the Caucasus.
Populists - representatives of the ideological trend among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the standpoint of "peasant socialism" against serfdom and the capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal populists). ). Ancestors: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of “peasant socialism”), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious trend), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda trend), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial trend). The revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the party of socialist revolutionaries (SRs).
Neo-Russian style is a trend in Russian architecture of the late 19th century. - 1910s, using the motifs of ancient Russian architecture in order to revive the national identity of Russian culture. It is characterized not by the exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by the generalization of motives, the creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style make it possible to consider it as a national-romantic trend within the framework of the Art Nouveau style. V. M. Vasnetsov (facade of the Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F. O. Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky Station, 1902-1904), A. V. Shchusev (Cathedral of the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent, 1908-1912) worked in this style.
Nihilism - in the 1860s. a trend in Russian social thought that denied the traditions and foundations of a noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.
The Patriotic War of 1812 is the liberation war of Russia against the army of Napoleon I. It was caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, Russia's refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.
Working off - in post-reform Russia, the system of processing landlords' land by peasants with their own inventory for rented land (mainly for sections), loans with bread, money, etc. A vestige of corvée economy.
Segments - part of the peasant allotments that went to the landlords as a result of the reform of 1861 (the reduction of allotments was carried out if their size exceeded the norm established for the given area).
Wanderers - artists who were part of the Russian art association-Association of traveling art exhibitions, formed in 1870. Turned to the image Everyday life and the history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, exposure of public order. I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov became the ideological leaders of the Wanderers. The main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; Among the Wanderers were also artists of Ukraine, Lithuania, Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Wanderers joined the AHRR.
Petrashevsky - participants in the evenings, held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, the problems of restructuring the autocratic policy and serfdom were discussed. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the participants of the circle were writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semenov-Tian-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to achieve the implementation of their plans by force, for which they create a secret society and arrange the issuance of proclamations. However, it was not possible to fulfill the intended. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of the execution, she was replaced by hard labor. The condemned Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.
Poll tax - in Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced the household tax. The poll tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age.
Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual labor to machine and, accordingly, from manufactory to factory. It requires a developed market of free labor, therefore, in a feudal country, it cannot be fully realized.
Raznochintsy - come from different classes: the clergy, the peasantry, the merchants, the bourgeoisie - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, carriers of revolutionary-democratic views.
Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality by specific means inherent in a particular type of artistic creativity. In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes concrete forms of certain creative methods (enlightenment realism, critical, socialist).
Romanticism is an ideological and artistic direction in the culture of the late XVIII - 1st half. 19th century Reflecting disappointment in the results of the French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism opposed the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with aspiration for unlimited freedom, a thirst for perfection and renewal, the idea of personal and civil independence. The painful discord between the fictional ideal and the cruel reality is the basis of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often - its idealization), traditions of folklore and culture of one's own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, fine arts).
Russian Empire - the name of the Russian state from 1721 to 09/01/1917.
The Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (in other words, neo-Russian, false Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and representing a synthesis of the traditions of ancient Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements of Byzantine culture. Russian-Byzantine architecture is characterized by the borrowing of a number of compositional techniques and motifs of Byzantine architecture, most clearly embodied in the “exemplary projects” of churches by Konstantin Ton in the 1840s. As part of this direction, Ton built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.
The Holy Alliance is an agreement concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative to create the Holy Alliance belonged to the Russian Emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states joined this agreement, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. The Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Alliance developed the principle of interference in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of forcibly suppressing any national and revolutionary movements.
Slavophiles are representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, proceeding from the position of the fundamental difference between Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia's mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They argued both with the Westerners and with the “theory of official nationality”. Unlike the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nikolaev autocracy, and others. The main representatives were the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, A. I. Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, A. S. Khomyakov.
Estates are social groups that have rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The estate organization of society, which usually includes several estates, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia since the second half of the XVIII century. the class division into the nobility, the clergy, the peasantry, the merchants, and the townspeople was established. Officially, estates in Russia were abolished in 1917.
The Social Democrats are a direction in the socialist and labor movement that advocates the transition to a socially just society by reforming the bourgeois one. In the Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. Marxism became the most popular. In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group (V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deich, V.N. Ignatov, G.V. Plekhanov) was created in Geneva, the main task of which was to considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the “Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class” was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. Ulyanov, G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, N.K. Krupskaya, Yu.O. Martov), which was engaged in illegal propaganda activities in the working environment, organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RKP(b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP(b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
The theory of official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education S. S. Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.
Appanage peasants - a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia in the late 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on appanage lands and belonged to the imperial family. Duties were carried mainly in the form of dues. In 1863, the main provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the appanage peasants, and they received part of the appanage lands as property for compulsory redemption.
A factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and the division of labor.
“Walking to the People” is a mass movement of radical youth of the populist persuasion in the countryside, aimed at propagating socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of “going to the people” belongs to A. I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the “Bell”, addressed this appeal to the student youth. It began in the spring of 1873, reached its greatest extent in the spring - summer of 1874 (it covered 37 provinces of Russia). The “Lavrists” set out to promote the ideas of socialism, the “Bakuninists” tried to organize mass anti-government demonstrations. By November 1874, more than 4 thousand people had been arrested, the most active participants were convicted.
Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and mass media in order to suppress undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, since 1804 it was regulated by censorship charters and temporary rules.
Menshevism - arose at the II Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after the opponents of the Leninist principles of building the party were in the minority in the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, they were formally together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the main part of the Mensheviks stood on the positions of social chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became participants in the struggle against Soviet power.
"World of Art" is a Russian art association. Formed in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers, headed by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the magazine "World of Art" in its original form existed until 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, - in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910, most of the masters of “M. and." was a member of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. and." included many St. Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya. Bilibin, A. Ya. Golovin, I. E. Grabar, K. A. Korovin, B. M. Kustodiev, N. K. Roerich, V. A. Serov and etc.). M. A. Vrubel, I. I. Levitan, M. V. Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists participated in the exhibitions of the World of Art.
Modernism (from the French “newest, modern”) is the general name for trends in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, avant-gardism, surrealism, dadaism, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to reflecting being.
Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.) that is privately owned (individual, group or joint-stock) and exercises control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital in order to establishing monopoly prices and extracting monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 d) in the mining industry. In total, about 200 monopolies existed in Russia during this period.
The Octobrists are members of the right-liberal party "Union of October 17". Formed by 1906. Name - from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. Demanded popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number, together with the affiliated groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper Slovo, Golos Moskvy, and others, more than 50 in all. The most numerous faction in the 3rd State Duma alternately blocked itself with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 ceased to exist.
Cut - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - a peasant economy, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.
The Progressive Bloc - was created in August 1915 from members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from the Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives) in order to put pressure on the government. The left-wing Octobrist S. I. Shidlovsky headed the association, but the actual leader was the leader of the Cadets, P. N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, the declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published demanding a renewal of the composition of local authorities, an end to persecution for faith, the release of certain categories of political prisoners, the restoration of trade unions, etc. The main goal of the bloc was to create a government of “public confidence” from among the representatives of the administration and Duma leaders in order to lead the country out of the difficult political and economic situation in which it found itself in the conditions of the First World War, to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.
A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of the socio-political conditions for a revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis of the upper classes”, that is, the impossibility of the representatives of power to maintain their dominance unchanged, while it is necessary that the “tops” themselves cannot live in the old way; exacerbation, above the usual, of the needs and calamities of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation in the late 50s and early 60s. 19th century was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the aggravation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. It culminated in 1880-1881. In the conditions of the reaction that followed the assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. Revolutionary situation at the beginning of the 20th century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution due to the outbreak of World War I. The revolutionary situation in 1916-1917. resulted in the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.
Russian Seasons Abroad - performances by Russian opera and ballet companies organized by S. P. Diaghilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. Contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term has taken root, has become a household name to denote the success of Russian cultural and art workers abroad.
Symbolism - a trend in European and Russian art of 1870-1910. Focused primarily on artistic expression through the symbol. In an effort to break through the visible reality to the “hidden realities”, the supertemporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the Symbolists expressed their rejection of bourgeoisness and positivism, a longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic foreboding of world social changes, trust in centuries-old cultural values as a unifying principle. main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valery, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M. K. Chyurlionis, M. Vrubel and others.
A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations, characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. The members of the syndicate retain their industrial independence, but lose their commercial independence.
Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council - in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies for directing and coordinating the struggle of workers for their rights in the field. The Soviets revived on an incomparably larger scale during the February (1917) revolution and until June 1917 acted as a “second” power opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, there were Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and Soviets of Peasants' Deputies. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were representative bodies of state power in the center and locally in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 - in Russian Federation(from 1936 to 1977 - Soviets of Working People's Deputies, since 1977 - Soviets of People's Deputies). Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies has become the supreme body of state power (until 1991). A distinctive feature of the Soviets was the inseparability of legislative and executive power.
The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land ownership, which marked a turn in the agrarian and political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of the Interior and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P. A. Stolypin (1862-1911) . Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of November 9, 1906), strengthening of the Peasant Bank, forced land management (laws of June 14, 1910 and May 29, 1911) and the resettlement policy aimed at eliminating land shortages while maintaining landownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, the creation among the wealthy stratum of peasants of an additional support of power. The reform was thwarted after the assassination of P. A. Stolypin by the Socialist-Revolutionary D. Bogrov.
A trust is a form of monopoly in which the participants in an association lose their industrial and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.
The third of June coup - the dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and a change in the electoral law. It is considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.
The Triple Alliance is a military-political block of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. In 1915, Italy and Turkey joined.
Trudoviks - a faction of peasant deputies and populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program is close to the program of the People's Socialist Party and included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of landowners' lands. The printed organ is the newspaper "Working people". In June 1917 merged with the Popular Socialists
Khutor - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - an economy that separated from the community along with land and a house. Was private property.
The Black Hundreds (from the old Russian “Black Hundred” - hard-working townspeople) were members of extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, speaking under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, “Unions of Russian people”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the years of the revolution of 1905-1907, they supported the repressive policy of the government, staged pogroms, and organized the murders of a number of political figures. After the February Revolution of 1917, the activities of Black Hundred organizations were banned.
Social Revolutionaries (Social Revolutionaries) - a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. Leader - V.M. Chernov. The tactic is political terror. Left SRs - a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917, the left wing of the SRs). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Natanson. Newspapers "Land and freedom" and "Znamya truda". Participated in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). Since the beginning of 1918, opponents of the Brest peace, the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918, an armed uprising was organized, which was suppressed. Separate groups of Left SRs operated in Ukraine, the Far East, and in Turkestan. In 1923 they stopped their activity.
1917–1920
Annexation (from lat. "attachment") - the forcible capture by the winner of part of the territory of the defeated state.
The White Movement is the collective name of the political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed the Soviet regime during the Civil War. The origin of the term is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of supporters of law and order. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M. V. Alekseev, P. N. Wrangel, A. I. Denikin, A. V. Kolchak, L. G. Kornilov, E. K. Miller, N. N. Yudenich).
White - the name of the opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the years of the Civil War.
The Military Revolutionary Committee is an organ of the Petrograd Soviet for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulation on the PVRK was approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrosoviet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks, but there were also Left Social Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the highest emergency body of state power. Disbanded December 1917.
The Provisional Government is the central body of state power, formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. It existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to October 25 (November 7), 1917. It was created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma in 1917 and the Social Revolutionary-Menshevik leadership of the Petrosoviet. It was the highest executive and administrative body, and also performed legislative functions. The local authorities of the provisional government were provincial and district commissars.
Second coalition. Provisional government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for the capitalists and 7 for the socialists) July 24 (August 6) - August 26 (September 8), 1917
Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government Prince. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) - May 2 (15), 1917
The first coalition Provisional Government of Prince. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for the capitalists and 6 for the socialists) May 5 (18) - July 2 (15), 1917
Third Coalition. Provisional government of A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for the socialists and 6 seats for the capitalists) September 25 (October 8) - October 25 (November 7).
After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the deputy capitalist ministers who remained at large, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. On the basis of a forged protocol dated August 17 (30), the self-appointed Provisional Government issued orders against the Soviet government, received up to 40 million rubles from the State Bank, of which it paid salaries to saboteur officials. The underground Provisional Government “operated” until November 16 (29), 1917
VTsIK - All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - Workers', Peasants' and Cossacks' Deputies) - a body that carried out general leadership of the councils during the break between congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the First Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee took shape at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, the Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 were Left Social Revolutionaries). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks were elected, 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Socialist-Revolutionaries). Since the 5th All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties have not been elected to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. From January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, People's Commissariats, to lead individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 - Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 - M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.
VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Crimes by Position; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (decree of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, “in connection with the transition to peaceful construction” V.I. Lenin proposed to reorganize the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By a decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into the State Political Directorate (GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.
Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. During the war, the problem of power is solved, which, in turn, should ensure the solution of the main vital issues facing the warring parties.
Dual power - the simultaneous existence of two authorities in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917. After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation developed in Russia: two authorities were created simultaneously - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Tips. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of the dual power. The period of the struggle of two dictatorships for autocracy.
Decree (from Latin “decree”) is a normative legal act issued by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees, adopted by the congresses of Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, “Decrees are instructions calling for mass practical work.”
The dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the liquidation of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, the necessary condition and the main result of its victory. The proletariat uses its power to crush the resistance of the exploiters and to destroy them completely; then the power is used for revolutionary transformations in all spheres of social life: the economy, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of workers and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry, with the leading role of the working class. In 1917, after the implementation of the October Socialist Revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in Russia in the form of Soviets.
Intervention (from Latin “invasion”) is the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Modern international law treats intervention as a crime. Intervention can be both military and economic, ideological, carried out in other forms.
“The Greens” is the name in Russia during the Civil War of persons hiding in the forests who evaded military service. Eliminated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.
Contribution (from Latin “to collect”) – money or other material values collected from the defeated state by the victorious state after the war, as well as forced monetary requisitions levied by the authorities from the population in the occupied territory.
Confiscation (from Latin “to take away to the treasury”) is the seizure by force, without compensation by the state of the property of a private person. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, landowners' lands, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.
The Kornilov revolt is an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander of the Russian Army of the General Staff, Infantry General L. G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.
The Red Guard attack on capital is a term that characterizes the methods of implementing the socio-economic measures of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of directly expropriating the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legalized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, the merchant fleet, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.
Reds - the generalized name of the supporters of the Bolsheviks, the defenders of Soviet power during the years of the Civil War and military intervention. In a broad sense, it is applied to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.
Likbez - the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Mass campaign to teach basic adult literacy in the 1920s and 1930s. As a result of the campaign by the end of the 30s. the literacy rate in the USSR reached 90%.
Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy to state ownership.
Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. They were created by the bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food (they were part of the Prodarmia), trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets (procurement, harvesting and harvesting, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; the governing body was the Military Food Bureau of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions). Conducted surplus appraisal in the countryside; acted jointly with committees, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the seized bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.
Prodrazvyorstka - the system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism", was established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory surrender by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. Caused the discontent of the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.
Rabfak - working faculty. In 1919-1940. a general educational institution in the USSR for preparing young people who did not have a secondary education for higher education; were created at universities (training for 3 years in the daytime, 4 years in the evening).
Reparations - compensation by the defeated state for damage to the victorious state.
Sabotage is the deliberate failure to perform duties or their negligent performance.
Council of People's Commissars - the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) is the highest executive and administrative body of state power, the government of the Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8), 1917. Until his death, he was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (in 1946 transformed into the Council of Ministers).
Subbotnik communist - voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday, April 12, 1919, at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first mass subbotnik on May 10, 1919 on the Moscow-Kazan railway. Spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, All-Union Leninist communist subbotniks have been held.
Terror (from Latin “fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to and including physical destruction.
The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, designed to establish a form of government and draft a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917. It met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd and after 13 hours of its work it was closed at the request of the guard.
Emigration (from Latin “to move, move out”) is a departure from the country associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of this state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, with the aim of temporary or permanent settlement in the territory of a foreign state. States may allow the restoration of citizenship to emigrants.
1920–1930
Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR as autonomies, which would violate their independence and equality.
Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is in the hands of one person or group of people. Authoritarianism is characterized by the complete or partial absence of political freedoms of citizens, the restriction of the activities of parties and organizations.
Antonovshchina - the peasant movement of 1920-1921. in the Tambov province, directed against the Soviet government and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the forces of the Red Army, sometimes even with the use of gas attacks. In June 1922 Antonov was killed. The abolition of food distribution in 1921 significantly reduced the number of disgruntled peasants.
“Great turning point” is Stalin's expression, which he used to characterize the policy of accelerated industrialization and collectivization of agriculture launched in the USSR in the late 1920s.
GOELRO (abbreviated from the State Commission for Electrification of Russia) is the first unified state long-term plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V. I. Lenin by the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years, provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy on the basis of electrification. Mostly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO is the Volkhovskaya HPP in the Leningrad Region.
GULAG - Main Directorate of Correctional Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Confinement), in 1934-1956 a division of the NKVD (MVD), which managed the system of corrective labor camps (ITL). Special departments of the GULAG united many labor camps in different parts of the country: Karaganda labor camp (Karlag), Dalstroy NKVD / USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs, Solovetsky labor camp (USLON), White Sea-Baltic labor camp and the NKVD combine, Vorkuta labor camp, Norilsk labor camp, etc. The hardest conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violations of the regime, mortality from starvation, disease and overwork is extremely high. The prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, the Far East and other regions.
Twenty-five thousand people are workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, who went to the countryside at the call of the Bolshevik Party for economic and organizational work in early 1930 during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. The resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks provided for sending 25 thousand people, in fact 27.6 thousand went.
Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has been successfully developing since the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (since the end of the 1920s), industrialization was forcedly carried out by the totalitarian regime by violent methods due to a sharp reduction in the standard of living of the majority of the population, and the exploitation of the peasantry.
Collectivization is the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a program setting for the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st five-year plan (1928/29 - 1932/33). By the end of 1932 it was basically completed. By 1936, the collective farm system was fully formed.
A collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the period of collectivization in the late 1920s and early 1930s. 20th century They farmed on state land assigned to K. for the so-called perpetual use. The supreme governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects the board, headed by the chairman, for the most part a protege of local party bodies, district committees and regional party committees. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the K. by that time had been transformed into state farms.
The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from various countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with a center in Moscow, essentially became an instrument for implementing the idea of a world revolution. Supreme bodies: Congress (the last 7th Congress took place in 1935), Executive Committee (permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor of the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the end of the 20s. The Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of carrying out a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, JV Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, “has fulfilled its mission.” In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.
Concession (from Latin “permission, concession”) - an agreement on the transfer to operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state; an agreement on the delivery of enterprises or land plots with the right to production activities to foreign firms, the enterprise itself, organized on the basis of such an agreement.
The cult of personality is a policy that glorifies one person, is characteristic mainly for a totalitarian regime and promotes the exclusiveness of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.
The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. XX century., an integral part of socialist transformations. The Cultural Revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.
The League of Nations is an international organization founded in 1919. The official goal is the development of international cooperation, a guarantee of peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. It was expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.
Peaceful coexistence - a type of relations between states with different social systems, involving the rejection of war as a means of resolving disputes, their settlement through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition of the right of each people to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.
NEP (new economic policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed by 1920 in the Soviet republic. The highest point of dissatisfaction with the current policy of "war communism" was the Kronstadt rebellion. At the X Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin, the food allocation was replaced by a smaller tax in kind. The main elements of this policy: a progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 tax in kind), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to rent and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, the abolition of the rationing system and rationed supply, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the new economic policy was rolled back.
The opposition is an organized group that opposes the ruling elite according to estimates, program, policy. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and intra-party.
Tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 instead of food requisitioning, was the first act of the new economic policy. Charged from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (much lower than the surplus appropriation), taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by a single agricultural tax.
The five-year plan is the period for which the central planning of the economy was carried out in the Soviet Union. The five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, at the XXI Congress of the CPSU, a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965 was adopted. Subsequently, five-year plans were again adopted. The last, thirteenth Five-Year Plan was designed for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a market decentralized economy.
Repressions are coercive measures of state influence, including various types of punishments and legal restrictions, applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of individuals. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (Red Terror, decossackization). With the beginning of the forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, repressions became widespread. They reached a special scope in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to Gulag camps on charges of political crimes. With varying degrees of intensity, political repression continued until Stalin's death in March 1953.
Socialist realism is a creative method of literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries of socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of a socialist conscious concept of the world and man, the depiction of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. Formed initially at the beginning of the 20th century. in the work of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, party spirit and humanism. The sculpture “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by V. Mukhina became a symbol of socialist realism.
The Stakhanov movement is a movement of workers in the USSR for increasing labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of the Donbass and then spread to other branches of industry, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A. G. Stakhanov.
Totalitarianism (from Latin “whole, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, the comprehensive control of the state over all spheres of society.
Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political currents in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, connected the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921. in the course of the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of “war communism”, stateization, militarization of trade unions. Much of what they propagandized was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion of 1923-1924. The Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of intra-party relations, the expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy, proclaimed the slogans of "dictatorship of industry", "super-industrialization". The 13th party conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP(b). The 15th Party Congress in 1927 declared belonging to Trotskyism incompatible with being in the Party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political trend in the RCP(b) ceased to exist in connection with the expulsion of L. Trotsky abroad, however, even much later, the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious during the years of Stalinist repressions.
The shock worker is a Soviet concept that originated during the first five-year plans, denoting an employee who demonstrates increased labor productivity. The shock movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the drummers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as an example to follow (miner Alexei Stakhanov, locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor driver Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies authorities, etc. The attitude towards shock work and shock workers among the Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activities aroused respect. On the other hand, an increase in the productivity of some workers soon had a negative effect on the earnings of others, since the established norms of output naturally increased, and wage rates decreased.
Federation (from Latin “union, association”) is a form of government in which the federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, unified federal (union) bodies of state power are formed, a single citizenship, a monetary unit, etc. are established.
Cost accounting (economic accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on measuring the costs of an enterprise for the production of products with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of expenses and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, everyone working in the implementation of targets, economical use of resources. In fact, it means the admission of the principles of a market economy into socialist planned regulated production.
1941–1945
The Anti-Hitler Coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against an aggressive bloc consisting of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The beginning of the creation of the coalition dates back to June 1941, when the governments of England and the USA made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by fascist Germany. By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, the USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, New Zealand, etc. participated in the common struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies. Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.
Blitzkrieg is a theory of short-term war with the achievement of victory in the shortest possible time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.
Blockade - the encirclement by the armed forces of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base from land, sea or air in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating any state politically or economically, to put pressure on him.
The Great Patriotic War - the war of the Soviet people with Nazi Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name "Great Patriotic War" began to be used in the Russian-speaking tradition after I. Stalin's radio message on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people during the battles, as well as the brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.
The second front is a front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was opened by the USA and Great Britain in June 1944 with a landing in Normandy (France).
Genocide is the destruction of certain groups of the population for racial, national or religious reasons.
Deportation (from Latin “exile”) - during the period of mass repression, the expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, and others were evicted.
The card system is a system of supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To purchase a product, one had to not only pay money for it, but also present a one-time coupon giving the right to purchase it. Cards (coupons) established certain norms for the consumption of goods per person per month, so this system was also called normalized distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917 they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the card system occurred in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The card system was introduced again in the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, finally canceled in December 1947. The new and last wave of rationed distribution in the USSR (coupon system) begins in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage . Has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, in connection with the "holiday" of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.
A radical change in the course of the war - strategic and political changes in the course of hostilities, such as: the transfer of strategic initiative from one belligerent to another; ensuring the reliable superiority of the defense industry and the rear economy as a whole; achieving military-technical superiority in supplying the army with the latest types of weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of power in the international arena.
Lend-Lease is a system of lending or leasing weapons, ammunition, food, medicines, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US spending on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 amounted to 46 billion dollars. The supply of the British Empire amounted to more than 30 billion dollars (% of the loan amounted to 472 million) to the Soviet Union 10 billion dollars (% of the loan amounted to 1.3 billion dollars).
Occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany following the results of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. The Soviet military administration in Germany was created to manage the Soviet zone. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.
Occupation (from Latin “capture”) is a temporary seizure of foreign territory by military force without legal rights to it.
The partisan movement is a type of struggle of the people for the freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformations, which is carried out on the territory occupied by the enemy, while the armed core relies on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. Manifested in the form of warfare, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded in the territory of the USSR occupied by the Nazis. Strategic leadership was carried out by the Headquarters through the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. There were more than 1 million people in partisan detachments and formations. The partisans liberated entire regions, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.
Underground - illegal organizations fighting the invaders in the occupied territories. "Young Guard" - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. V. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovskoye underground in 1941-1942. in the Kaluga region.
“Rail War” is the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy’s railway communications in the occupied territory of the Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and part of Ukraine.
Evacuation (from Latin “empty, remove”) - the withdrawal of troops, military property or population during the war, natural disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding of the area during hydro construction ).
1945–1991
Shareholding is a method of privatization of state and municipal enterprises by transforming them into open joint-stock companies. It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.
Lease contract - forms of organization and remuneration of employees of rental teams within enterprises. A work contract is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, under which the rental team undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise a certain amount of products at on-farm prices and tariffs. Products produced in excess of this volume, he has the right to dispose of independently. Form of lease. received significant distribution in the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).
The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in the history of mankind when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only individual, most often small and strategically insignificant states that declared their neutrality.
Military-strategic parity - equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.
Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and opportunities. Accusations of subjectivism and voluntarism were brought against N.S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, which led to his resignation.
VPK - military-industrial complex, designation (belongs to D. Eisenhower) formed in a number of countries (USA, USSR, etc.) during the 2nd World War and strengthened during the Cold War period of the alliance of the military industry, the army and related to them parts of the state apparatus and science.
Glasnost is a concept developed by domestic political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of state bodies.
GKChP - State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR, was created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of power structures who disagree with the reform policy of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of a new Union Treaty. The GKChP included: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasants' Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association of State Enterprises and Objects of Industry, Construction, Transport and Communications of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, Vice-President of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were brought into large cities, almost all television programs were stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations that were opposition to the CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the GKChP showed indecision. In this situation, the President of the Russian Federation Boris N. Yeltsin showed the greatest activity. He called on all citizens to disobedience and a general strike. The White House, the building of the Russian government, became the center of resistance to the GKChP. Within three days it became clear that the society did not support the performance of the GKChP (putsch). Members of the State Emergency Committee went to the Crimea to M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason against the Motherland) in the case of the GKChP. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt undertaken by the GKChP accelerated the process of the collapse of the USSR.
Demilitarization - disarmament, the prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, the withdrawal of troops and military equipment, the conversion of military industries.
Monetary reform - changes implemented by the state in the field of monetary circulation, as a rule, aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, a monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same coefficient. The monetary reform of 1991 in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - by the name of the Prime Minister of the USSR Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.
De-Stalinization is the debunking of the personality cult of Stalin and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of governing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the cult of personality I.V. Stalin. After the removal of Malenkov, the process of de-Stalinization continues N.S. Khrushchev, who delivered a report “On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences” at a closed meeting of the XX Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the process of rehabilitation fades. A new wave of de-Stalinization begins during the period of perestroika.
Dissidents are "dissenters". The name of the participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. Dissidents in various forms advocated the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights activists), against the persecution of dissent, protested against the entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were repressed by the authorities.
"Iron Curtain" - after W. Churchill's speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression "iron curtain" began to be used to denote the "wall" separating capitalism and socialism.
Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, covering approximately two decades (1964-1982). In the official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.
The Cuban Missile Crisis is an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment of American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as to the threat of an invasion of American troops in Cuba. The most acute crisis that brought the world to the brink of nuclear war was eliminated due to the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (headed by N. S. Khrushchev) and the United States (led by President John F. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles. weapons. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the lifting of quarantine and the refusal to invade Cuba; the withdrawal of US missiles from Turkey and Italy was also announced confidentially.
Cooperation is a form of labor organization in which a significant number of people jointly participate in one or different, but interconnected labor processes, as well as a set of institutionalized voluntary associations of mutual assistance of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas of the economy. Share based.
“Cosmopolitanism” (from the Greek “citizen of the world”) is the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of national patriotism. Rejection of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. "human values". The campaign against the cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in the postwar years. They were accused of being apolitical and lacking in ideas, of "servile worship of the West." It resulted in rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.
“Lysenkoshchina” is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, the denial of genetics and the temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from about the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I. V. Stalin, T. D. Lysenko (who eventually became a symbol of the campaign) and many other persons.
Multi-party system - a political system in which there can be many political parties, theoretically having an equal chance of winning a majority of seats in the country's parliament. It begins to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the III Congress of People's Deputies canceled Article 6 of the Constitution, which consolidated the leading role of the CPSU.
New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which included: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposite socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; the proclamation of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; declaring as a universal way to resolve international issues not the balance of power of the 2 systems, but the balance of their interests; the rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and the recognition of the priority of universal human values over class, national, ideological, etc. led to the end of the Cold War.
Nomenklatura - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum, dominating the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenclature: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.
Scientific and technological revolution (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces based on the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and a direct productive force. Started in the middle of the 20th century. Dramatically accelerates scientific and technological progress, has an impact on all aspects of society.
“Thaw” is a common designation for the changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that emerged after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term “thaw” goes back to the title of the story by I. G. Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of the victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin's personality cult. The “thaw” contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, positive developments in the mid-1950s have not been further developed.
The passport regime is one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons, in the form of state security protection. By monitoring their own subjects and arriving foreigners, the authorities may require them to provide identification, as well as proof that they are not a danger to the peace of the state. Official documents proving the identity of a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, place of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. The Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968 introduced new rules for registration and discharge of citizens in rural areas.
Perestroika - the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev and others) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, as a result of conflicting efforts, created the prerequisites for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.
Human rights activists - persons who criticized the vices of the socialist system in the USSR, opposed the violation of human rights, suggested ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system of the USSR. The human rights movement was active in the 60s and 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal bulletin in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. Members of the movement were subjected to severe repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of perestroika
A putsch is a coup d'état carried out by a group of conspirators, an attempt at such a coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term, the attempt by the State Emergency Committee to remove the President of the USSR M. Gorbachev from power, contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.
Detention of international tension - improvement of relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the years of the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-1970s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the USA, recognizing inviolable post-war borders in Europe, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed
Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) of rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform was aimed at getting rid of the excess money supply that was in cash circulation, and at least partially solving the problem of shortages in the USSR commodity market.
A market economy is a socio-economic system that develops on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. The market economy is based on the principles of freedom of enterprise and choice. The distribution of resources, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of the market economy, largely ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, a certain degree of state intervention is carried out in the economic systems of developed countries (ensuring the general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, the implementation of social protection measures, etc.).
Samizdat is a method of illegal distribution of literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge and permission of official bodies, as a rule, by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers, etc.
The CIS, the Commonwealth of Independent States is an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR ceases to exist in conditions of a deep crisis and collapse, declared their desire to develop cooperation in the political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan joined the Agreement, signing together with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine in Alma-Ata the Declaration on the goals and principles of the CIS. Georgia later joined the CIS. In 1993, the Charter of the CIS was adopted, which determined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Heads of Government, the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Interstate Economic Council, the Interparliamentary Assembly with the center in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordinating and Consultative Committee in Minsk.
Economic councils - territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of sectoral ministries.
The shadow economy is a term that refers to all types of economic activity that are not taken into account by official statistics and are not included in the GNP.
Commodity deficit - lack, shortage; goods that are not in sufficient quantity.
The Helsinki process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The Helsinki process was initiated by the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975)
The Cold War is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 1940s to 1991. The Cold War is characterized by the confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the USA, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres using psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.
The Sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the "sixties" were the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the "thaw".
1992–…
A share is an issuance security that gives the owner the right to receive income, a dividend, depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.
Exchange - an institution where the sale and purchase of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or bulk goods sold according to samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; the building where exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first exchange arose in 1703 in St. Petersburg.
The near abroad is a collective name for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltics) that arose in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR. The term is more historical and cultural in nature than geographical. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad, there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states that directly border it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, China, North Korea).
Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994 a state security (to bearer) of a designated purpose with a specified nominal value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other objects of property (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.
Devaluation is an official decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit or a depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or any national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.
Default - The economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the most severe economic crises in Russian history. The main reasons for the default were: the huge public debt of Russia generated by the collapse of Asian economies, a liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials that formed the basis of Russian exports, as well as populist economic policy of the state and the construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual default date is August 17, 1998. Its consequences seriously influenced the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The exchange rate of the ruble against the dollar fell more than 3 times in half a year - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The confidence of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. A large number of small enterprises went bankrupt, many banks burst. The banking system was in collapse for at least six months. The population lost a significant part of their savings, and the standard of living fell. However, the devaluation of the ruble allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.
Impeachment (from the English. “Censure, accusation”) is a special procedure for bringing to justice (through the lower house of parliament) senior officials.
Conversion - the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of civilian products.
Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and power opportunities entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and growth of resources of influence. The result of corruption is the degradation of power, increased crime.
Price liberalization is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted in the rejection of state regulation of prices for most goods (since 1992)
Nanotechnology is the technology of objects, the size of which is about 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes the atomic assembly of molecules, new methods of recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions at the molecular level, etc.
National projects - a program for the growth of "human capital" in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. The head of state singled out the following as priority areas for "investing in people": healthcare; education; housing; Agriculture.
A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, the supreme power belongs to the president. The president may be elected by popular vote, parliament, or some institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). After being elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled, re-elected without extraordinary circumstances provided for by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the president has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after the balance of power in parliament has changed in favor of opposition to the president, his election program and political course as a result of general elections or the prevailing political situation. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy proclaimed by him, the president, on the basis of the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures provided for by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government developed in the Russian Federation after the October crisis of 1993.
Privatization is the transfer or sale of part of state property into private ownership.
Separation of powers is a characteristic feature of the rule of law, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.
Referendum (lat. referendum - what should be reported) - a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.
Federation Council - according to the Constitution of 1993, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.
The Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, the parliament is a representative and legislative body. It consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.
“Shock therapy” is a course towards the recovery of the economy through its accelerated transfer to the rails of a market economy. Conducted by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N. Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar's reforms).
Assertiveness - self-promotion or promotion of one's will, the ability to insist on one's own, the ability to convince. The basis of the skill of assertiveness is the ability to freely express one's emotions, desires and needs.
An association is a connection between words, concepts, ideas, in which the perception or recall of one entails the extraction of another from the memory.
Communication barriers are such ways of behavior, forms of conversation that prevent people from understanding each other, worsen their relationships, cause negative emotions: anger, protest and irritation.
A life strategy is an individual life program, the concept of happiness, a system of values and goals of a person. Their implementation according to his ideas allows you to make life more successful.
A significant other is that person whose attention, approval, or disapproval is important to that person. The influence of the positive "significant other" is most noticeable - the person (or image) that this person wants to imitate and whose instructions and roles he is ready to accept.
Personal potential is a generalized systemic characteristic of the individual psychological characteristics of a person, which underlies its ability to proceed from stable internal criteria and guidelines in its life and maintain the stability of activity and semantic orientations under external pressure and in changing conditions. A complex of psychological properties that gives a person the opportunity to make decisions and regulate their behavior, taking into account and evaluating the situation, but primarily based on their internal ideas and criteria.
The personal growth of a person lies in the constant, steady development of his personal potential. With personal growth, changes occur both in the inner world of a person and in his relationship with the outside world. The essence of these changes is that a person is gradually freed from the distorting influence of psychological defenses, becomes able to trust the perceived information, and not “filter” it in order to protect his “I-image” and can live in the present. Personal growth is possible only if a person relies on the benevolent participation of others, if he achieves recognition and respect for his inner world by other people, at least “significant others”.
Personality - 1. An individual person as an individual, as a subject of relations and conscious activity, in the process of which he creates, reproduces and changes social reality. 2. A relatively stable system of socially significant and unique individual traits that characterize an individual, which is formed in the process of socialization and is a product of individual experience and social interaction. 3. A relatively stable system of ideological, psychological and behavioral characteristics that characterize a person. four.
The internal system of self-regulation of a person, which establishes a balance between the inner world (i.e. a person as a living being as a whole, with his needs, motives, emotions, etc.) and the environment, the outside world in a broad sense, including primarily others of people.
Manipulation is a type of psychological influence performed skillfully and covertly. The main characteristics of the manipulation:
leads to the excitation of desires, intentions or attitudes in another person (victim) that do not coincide with his actually existing ones;
is aimed at changing the direction of the victim's activity, performing certain actions by the manipulator;
creates a false impression in the victim of self-management of behavior.
Communication is the interaction of two or more people, which consists in the exchange of information of a cognitive or emotional-evaluative nature. When communicating, there is an influence and impact on the behavior, state, attitudes of the partner.
Memory is a collection of information acquired by a person and used to control behavior.
It includes the processes of remembering, storing and retrieving, as well as forgetting information.
Training Rules: I.
Be active, act, speak. II.
Think and talk only about what is happening "here and now." III.
Act and speak only on your behalf. IV.
Suggest, try, experiment, don't criticize. v.
Everyone deserves respect, respect others - they will respect you. VI.
Try to understand yourself and others. Tell me what you understand and feel.
Psychological impact - a type of communication, interaction between people, in which only one-sided influence is taken into account, as a result of which changes occur in the mental characteristics or state of the addressee of the impact.
Roles are stable places in the system of relations with other people (for example: student, teacher, wife, buyer, etc.). Ideas about the external manifestations of roles are based on socio-cultural norms, restrictions and expectations. In accordance with the social norms adopted in a given culture, each person who is in a certain role receives certain rights, certain restrictions are imposed on him, and appropriate behavior is expected from him.
Self-awareness - a person's awareness and assessment of himself as a person, his interests, values and motives of behavior.
Self-development is a conscious human activity aimed at the fullest possible realization of oneself as a person. Self-development presupposes the presence of clearly conscious life goals, ideals and personal attitudes. Resistance is overt or covert actions aimed at disorganizing and even disrupting classes.
Training (from the English train - to teach, educate) - a systematic training or improvement of certain skills and behavior of its participants. An intensive course of study that combines short theoretical seminars and practical processing of skills in a short time. There are business communication training, sales training, behavioral training, sensitivity training, role training, video training, etc.
psychological training concerns psychological skills: self-regulation, self-development, communication, etc., including professional skills, especially important for those who work with people;
personal growth training - group training, during which, with the help of various techniques, participants try to understand and overcome their psychological problems that prevent them from solving their life and professional tasks;
communication trainings are designed to teach group members effective behavior in various communication situations, to develop their appropriate skills;
business trainings are focused on solving specific professional problems. Most often there are trainings on sales of something, as well as trainings in negotiation, conflict resolution, team building, effective management, etc.
Character - the most pronounced, closely interrelated personality traits. Character is clearly manifested in various activities, is determined and formed throughout a person's life.
A personality trait is a person's predisposition to behave in a similar way in different situations. A personality trait is what determines the constant, stable, typical features of human behavior.
Effective listening is an active process of understanding and reflecting on what is heard.
“I-image” (“I-concept”) is how an individual sees himself and wants to see himself. "I-image" includes the idea of the individual about himself, his physical and psychological characteristics: appearance, abilities, interests, inclinations, self-esteem, self-confidence, etc. It includes ideas about his capabilities and self-esteem of the individual. Based on the "I-image" a person distinguishes himself from the outside world and from other people.
Abstractionism - direction in the art of the 20th century, which refused to depict real objects and phenomena.
absurdism(lat. "absurd") - a trend in European literature, mainly in drama and theater, which arose in the early 50s. XX century. Absurdist plays create a picture of the causelessness, aimlessness and illogicality of human words and actions.
Vanguard- Russian avant-garde(from French avant-garde - forward detachment). The term "avant-garde", denoting innovative phenomena that break with the classical continuity in art and literature, came into use in France in the middle of the 19th century.
avant-garde(French “advanced detachment”) is an artistic phenomenon of the 20th century, which united various schools and trends under a single slogan of a radical renewal of artistic practice.
Altar(lat. Altaria - altus - high) - the eastern part of the Christian temple, where the throne is located; in the Orthodox Church, the altar is separated from the rest of the temple by an iconostasis.
Empire(French "empire") – artistic style in architecture and applied art of late classicism, which is based on imitation of antique models.
Amphitheater- an auditorium for a theater, stadium, circus, located in stepped rows. Initially, the amphitheaters were open.
Antiquity- the history and culture of Ancient Greece and Rome, as well as the states that were under their cultural influence in the period from the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium BC. e. to 5th century AD e.
Apse- the ledge of the building, covered with a semi-dome or semi-arch; appeared in ancient Roman basilicas; in Christian churches it is located in the eastern (altar) part of the temple.
Arch - arcuate overlapping of openings in the wall between two supports, such as windows, doors, gates.
Architecture(Greek "chief builder") - 1. The system of buildings and structures that organize the spatial environment for the life and activities of people. 2. The art of shaping this spatial environment, creating a new reality that has a functional meaning, brings benefits to a person and delivers aesthetic pleasure.
Assist - golden rays covering the clothes depicted in ancient Russian painting, symbolically denoting heavenly light.
basilica- an oblong building consisting of several naves - parts of the room, separated by pillars or columns. In ancient times, the basilicas were used as market, judicial buildings, later they became the first Christian churches.
Baptistery- a special building that was built in ancient times exclusively for the sacrament of baptism.
Drum- the crowning part of the building, which has a cylindrical, and sometimes multifaceted shape; carries a dome (head) and rises above the main, wider part of the building; if there are windows, it is called light.
bas-relief- a type of sculpture where the image protrudes from the plane by less than half of its volume.
Baroque(Italian “artsy, strange”) - a style that was developed in the 17th and first half of the 18th century. The artistic features of the style were determined by a new (in comparison with the Renaissance) understanding of the place of man in the universe, the flowering of religious feelings, the restoration of the role of the church in shaping the spiritual world of man.
Household genre of painting dedicated to the events and scenes of everyday life.
vase painting - decorative painting of vessels, ornamental or pictorial. It is usually carried out in a ceramic way, that is, with special paints followed by firing.
Vignette - graphic decoration used in the design of books, magazines, invitation cards, greeting cards and other printed works as headpieces, endings, or as an addition to the initial letters (initials).
stained glass(French glazed windows or glass door, partition) - paintings or ornamental compositions made of glass or other material that transmits light, and are used for decorative purposes, mainly as filling window openings, less often doorways.
Renaissance (Renaissance)- an era covering in Italy the 14th-16th centuries; in countries north of the Alps (Northern Renaissance) - 15-16 centuries; is significant for the revival of interest in antiquity.
Volute- decoration in the form of a spiral, an indispensable accessory of the capitals of the columns of the Ionic order.
Himatius- cloak. Together with the tunic, it was interpreted as the clothes of wandering preachers, in which Jesus Christ is most often depicted in the events of his earthly life and the apostles.
Tapestry- fr. hand-woven carpet of very high artistic quality, made in Paris at the so-called tapestry manufactory and intended for wall decoration.
High relief- a type of sculpture where the image protrudes from the plane by more than half of its volume.
Gothic- a symbol of the style that dominated the art of the countries of medieval Europe from about the 12th to the 14th-15th centuries. The center of culture of this period is the city.
Engraving- a pattern carved on a smooth surface and its imprint.
Graphic arts(Greek “I write, draw”) is one of the types of fine arts, which has artistic features that determine its place among other arts and human life. Drawing is the main means of expressing graphics.
Graffiti(it. Graffiti - scratching) - the direction of painting of the twentieth century; flashy, vibrant spray-paintings in an avant-garde style.
Countess - a drawing scratched with a sharp tool on the ground.
Grisaille(French "gray") - monochrome (one-color) painting in gray tone, mainly for decorative purposes. In the form of a decorative wall painting or panel, it usually imitates a sculptural relief.
Ground - in painting covering canvas, wood, cardboard, etc. layer on which paint is applied.
Dadaism(French "skate, wooden horse", "baby talk") - a literary and artistic movement that took shape in 1916-1922. The Dadaists created compositions that were deliberately illogical, sometimes abstract, sometimes composed of real everyday objects.
Deesis(Greek "prayer") - a row of icons, in the center of which is a triptych: Christ, the Mother of God to his right, to the left - John the Baptist, prayerfully stretching out his hands to Christ.
Decadence(French "decline") - a term denoting a set of crisis ("decadent") phenomena in the art of the late 19th - early 20th century. The art of the decadents is characterized by emphasized individualism, indifference or rejection of life around, hopelessness, apathy.
Decor - decoration of an architectural structure or product.
Arts and Crafts(Latin “I decorate”) is a type of art that has its own special artistic meaning and its own decorative imagery, and at the same time is directly related to the everyday needs of people.
Doric order - marked by masculine simplicity. The column has no base. The capital consists of a semi-shaft - an echinus and an upper square plate - an abacus.
Genre(French Genre - genus, type) - 1. The division of each type of art according to certain characteristics: theme, structure, functions performed. 2. Historically developed, stable variety of a work of art.
Genre painting(the same as everyday painting) - paintings depicting the daily life of people.
Painting - one of the main types of fine arts; artistic representation of the world on a plane by means of colored materials.
Sketching - a drawing from life, made mainly outside the workshop, in order to preserve in memory the landscape, the appearance of a person, any motive that made a strong aesthetic impression on the artist; also for the purpose of collecting material for a more significant work or for the sake of an exercise.
Grain - jewelry technology; small gold, silver or copper balls are soldered onto a product decorated with filigree.
The aesthetic ideal outwardly, a sensual expression of the perfect state of the world and man, which the artist foresees in life and tries to embody by means of this or that art.
Tiles (tiles) - ceramic tiles for facing fireplaces, stoves, walls.
Icon(Greek “image”, “image”) - picturesque, cut relief images of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, saints, events of sacred history, serving as objects of religious veneration as images that elevate the feeling of those praying to the depicted prototype.
Iconography - a system of options for depicting a certain character, person, event, Christian holiday, interpretation of the plot. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, strictly defined iconographic canons developed, which were followed by artists.
iconographic canon. an example of the rules for depicting plots and images of Christ, the Mother of God, and other characters recorded in icon-painting drawings.
Iconography - the area of easel religious painting, whose works serve as an object of worship, worship, mainly in states where the eastern branch of Christianity (Orthodoxy) has established itself.
Iconostasis - a wall with icons installed in a certain order; in an Orthodox church separates the altar part from the premises for worshipers; developed from the altar barrier that existed in early Christian churches.
Impressionism(from fr . "Impression") - an artistic direction in the visual arts, which arose and flourished in France in the 1860s and early 1880s. One of the creators of the new trend was Manet, who rebelled against the official academic art. The Impressionists asserted a new vision of the world, based on direct visual impression, observation of nature.
Inlay - images made of wood, metal, mother-of-pearl, cut into the surface of the product.
Ionic order has a base. The fluted column tapers upward and ends with a capital, the main feature of which is large curls twisting on both sides of the upper part of the trunk - volutes.
Hesychasm(from the Greek "peace", silence") - inner peace, detachment - a mystical current that arose in Byzantium. In a broad sense, it is an ethical-ascetic teaching about the path to the unity of a person with God through the cleansing of the heart with tears and self-focusing of consciousness.
Art- a special form of consciousness and human activity, in which the artistic knowledge of the world is organically combined with creativity according to the laws of beauty.
historical genre- an image of any significant events that took place not during the life of the artist, but much earlier.
Canon(gr. kanon - norm, rule) – a set of strictly established rules that determine the main set of plots, norms of iconography, proportions, composition, sculpture, drawing, color for this type of work.
Capital- the final upper part of the column.
Caryatid(from the Greek. "Carian virgins") - a female statue that plays the role of a column, that is, it is a supporting part of the architectural structure.
Cinnabar - mineral paint of various shades of scarlet.
Kitsch(from German “hack”, “cheap” or English “kitchen”) - a specific phenomenon of mass culture, imitating art, but devoid of its artistic value.
Classicism(lat. Classicus - first-class, exemplary) - an artistic style in European art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to antique samples.
The ark - 1) a small recess in the board prepared for the icon for the main composition of the plot; 2) the shape of the temple, interpreted as a ship, a symbol of the salvation of believers from the abyss of sins.
Kokoshniki - in Russian architecture of the XVI-XVII centuries. decorative completion of walls and vaults, framing of drums and tents of churches; have the form of arches with a filled field, sometimes with a pointed top (keeled); often arranged in tiers.
Color - combination of colors in a work of art; by nature it can be cold (blue, green shades predominate) or warm (red, yellow, orange tones predominate), calm or tense, light or dark; according to the degree of saturation and color strength - bright, restrained, faded, etc.
Conha - a semi-dome, which serves to cover the semi-cylindrical parts (apses, niches) of the building; often shaped like a shell.
Corinthian order has the form of a capital in the form of a basket of stylized leaves and curls - volute.
Cross-domed church a type of Christian temple that arose in the architecture of Byzantium: a dome on sails (elements of a dome structure in the form of spherical triangles) rests on four pillars in the center of the building, from where mutually perpendicular passages diverge.
Cubism- art direction beginning of the 20th century, which became widespread in Europe. In this direction, the forms of objects of the real world are interpreted in an emphatic volume and are reduced to simple geometric bodies.
culture- a set of material and spiritual values created by man in the process of socio-historical practice.
Dome- a convex floor of the building, installed on a round or polygonal base with a central axis.
Levkas- the ground covering the board on which the icon is written.
Chronicle - a consistent description of historical events by their witness or participant; the oldest type of narration in ancient Russian literature.
Mannerism - artistic movement in Italian art of the 16th century, which marked the decline of the Renaissance.
Mass culture - a kind of culture focused on the "average" mass consumer, on commercial success and actively replicated by the mass media.
Maforius - a long veil to the knees, an obligatory accessory for the clothes of Palestinian and Syrian women. In the maphoria, the Mother of God and the holy women are always depicted.
Meander - a long-standing and widespread variety of geometric ornament, formed by a continuous line broken at a right angle and having the appearance of a narrow strip as a whole.
mentality - a deep level of collective and individual consciousness, a set of attitudes and preferences of an individual or a social group that determines the actions, thoughts and feelings of people, as well as their perception of the world.
Miniature(from the name of the red paint - minium, which was used to color capital letters in handwritten books) - a) picturesque images decorating and illustrating medieval manuscripts; b) a painting of a small size, as well as a small piece of music or literature.
Myth(gr. mythos - legend) - a legend as a symbolic expression of some events.
Mythology(gr. "tradition" and "word", "knowledge") – a set of legends expressing the worldview and worldview of people of antiquity. A holistic “picture of the world”, which tells how an ordered cosmos arose from some initial undifferentiated state; about the deeds of the gods and heroes that caused the present state of the world.
Modern(from the French "modern", the same - "art nouveau") - a trend in European and American art of the late 19th - early 20th century. The priority importance of architecture in the formation of the stylistic features of other types of art, as well as the creation, by means of various arts, of a refined aesthetic ideal.
Modernism - many relatively independent artistic movements of the 20th century, a common feature of which is a decisive departure from the traditions of classical art.
Mosaic- a kind of monumental painting, a picture or an ornament, recruited from individual small particles. These particles can be marble, precious and ornamental stones, smalt cubes.
monumental art- art designed for mass perception and, unlike easel art, acquiring final figurative completeness in the appropriate ensemble - architectural or natural.
Museum(from the Greek "Temple of the Muses", a place dedicated to the Muses) - an institution in which works of various types of art are collected, stored, exhibited, studied, as well as monuments and documents related to other areas of spiritual and material culture, samples of natural wealth and etc.
Sketch - in fine arts a work of small size, fluently and quickly executed by the artist in order to fix individual observations.
Folk art - a type of synthetic art, originally associated with human labor activity, representing both material and spiritual culture.
Rock carvings, petroglyphs - images made by an ancient man on the rocks and walls of caves in the places of his settlements in Europe, Africa, North America, Siberia, etc. during the late Paleolithic period (about 40-30 thousand 10-8 thousand BC).
Still life(fr. Nature morte - inanimate nature) - in the visual arts - the image of inanimate objects, in contrast to portrait, genre, historical, landscape themes.
Nave(lat. "ship") – elongated part of a basilica or temple separated by pillars or columns.
Nimbus - a circle surrounding the head of the Savior, the Mother of God and the saints in their images, as a sign of the eternal light emanating from them, and therefore having a round, “beginningless” shape, light.
Salary - decorative covering of an icon or book cover. It is made of gold, silver, gilded or silver copper, decorated with embossing, granulation, filigree, niello, enamels, pearls, precious stones or their imitation.
Op art(English abbreviated "optical art") - a trend in European and American art - painting and graphics of the 1940s. (founder V. Vasarely, France). Rhythmic combinations of homogeneous geometric shapes, lines and colors that create the illusion of movement are used as a neo-avant-garde variety of abstract art or as a purely decorative effect - in applied and design art, industrial graphics, and posters.
Architectural order(from Latin "system", "order") - certain combinations of load-bearing and carried parts of the structure, their structure and artistic processing. Classical Greek orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian.
Ornament(lat. Ornamentum - decoration) - a pattern consisting of rhythmically ordered elements.
Etching - a) an engraving method in which in-depth printing elements are obtained by multi-stage etching with nitric acid. Previously, a copper or zinc plate is covered with a protective primer, on which strokes of the image are scratched; b) a print from the board, engraved in the specified way.
Ocher - mineral paint yellow in various shades, from brown to pink.
Pavoloka - fabric pasted on a board on which the icon is written. A gesso is applied over the canvas.
Palladium - a shrine, which is a guarantee of public happiness and well-being, under the protection and patronage of which there is a certain human community and the area inhabited by this community.
Papyrus - a scroll of glued strips of the stem of a perennial herbaceous plant called papyrus. The ancient Egyptians and some other ancient peoples wrote on this type of paper. So the manuscripts on such scrolls are also called papyri.
Landscape(French "area, country") - a genre of painting dedicated to the depiction of natural or human-modified nature.
perspective(from Latin “penetrate”, “see through”) – such an image of space and objects on a plane, which gives a sense of depth and volume.
Pilaster(from Latin "pillar") - a flat vertical ledge of a rectangular shape on the surface of a wall or pillar, resembling a flattened column; has the same parts and proportions as the column. It serves to divide the plane of the wall in order to decorate it and reveal the tectonic features of the building or furniture.
Pysanka - painted egg, a common type of folk decorative art, dating back to ancient pagan rites, later included in the celebration of Christian Easter.
Poster(from Latin “testimony”) is a widespread type of graphics, the artistic features of which are determined by its propaganda and explanatory function.
Plastic - a) sculpture, creation of three-dimensional images; b) expressiveness.
Plein air(fr. "open", lit. "full of air"); the work of the painter "in the open air" - work on sketches and landscapes directly from nature, in contrast to work in the studio.
Pop Art(English abbreviated "public art") - an art movement that arose in the 2nd half of the 1950s in the USA and Great Britain. Rejecting the usual methods of painting and sculpture, pop art cultivates a deliberately random combination of finished household items, mechanical copies, fragments of mass printed publications.
Portico- a gallery on columns, usually in front of the entrance to the building.
Portrait- a genre dedicated to the image of a person.
Primitivism(from the Latin “original”) is one of the artistic trends in the art of the 20th century, whose representatives, in their desire to restore the immediacy of perception and naive reflection of the world to art, turn to folk art - to “primitives”.
Prophet - a biblical term for special heralds of the will of God.
Pointillism(from the French "point") - an artistic movement that arose with the aim of developing the achievements of impressionism in the field of light and color. Guided by the law of spectral analysis, representatives of this trend decomposed color into its constituent parts, covering their canvases with separate dotted strokes of pure paint, based on their optical mixing in the process of visual perception.
Rationalism - a) a philosophical direction that recognizes reason as the source of true knowledge; b) the architectural trend of the 20th century, whose representatives use modern building materials and industrial construction methods to create the most rational (expedient, economical) architectural and artistic solutions.
Realism -(from Latin "real", "real") - a term that has two main meanings in art history: 1. - an artistic direction that replaced romanticism and prevailed in European and Russian art of the middle and second half of the 19th century. Realism presupposes "truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances" (F. Engels). 2. - a synonym for truthfulness in art, its ability to display something that really exists both in the human soul and in the outside world.
Religion(lat. relegio) - one of the forms of social consciousness - a set of spiritual ideas based on the belief in the existence of a god or gods, in supernatural forces, as well as appropriate behavior and specific actions.
Relief(from Italian “protrusion”, “bulge”; from Latin “I raise”) – a sculptural image on a plane that serves as its background. In relation to the plane of the background, a deep relief (counter-relief) and a convex relief are distinguished, subdivided into low (bas-relief) and high (high relief).
Reproduction(from Latin “again”, “again” and “production”, from French “reproduction”) - as applied to the fine arts, the mass reproduction of an artistic original by printing means, mainly on a reduced scale.
Rococo(fr. "pattern of stones and shells") - a direction in art, a characteristic feature of which was the departure from real life to a fictional world. It is characterized by the strengthening of the decorative principle in all types of art, primarily in architecture.
Romanticism - a trend in art of the late 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries, opposing the canons of classicism and characterized by a desire for national and individual originality, for the depiction of ideal heroes and feelings.
Sarcophagus- an artistically designed coffin made of stone or other materials.
Sentimentalism(from French “feeling”, “sensitive”) - a trend in European art of the second half of the 18th century, named after L. Stern’s novel “Sentimental Journey” (1768), which describes in detail the subtle, deeply intimate experiences and impressions of the hero. Sentimentalism took shape in opposition to classicism. The pathos of this direction is the sympathetic poeticization of the spiritual life, fate, appearance, and everyday life of an ordinary person.
Symbolism(from the Greek “symbol”, “sign”, “identifying sign”) - a trend in European art of the late 19th - early 20th century. For symbolists, the surrounding world is significant not in itself, but as a symbol of another reality, invisible and unknowable by reason.
Scan - from the old Russian "skat" - to twist, twist, a type of jewelry technology; the same as filigree. Often used in the manufacture of gold and silver salaries for icons.
Sculpture(from Latin “sculpt”, “carve”) - a type of fine art. A sculpture is also called the work of this art itself - a bust, a statue, a bas-relief, etc.
Smalta - cubes of special, opaque glass.
socialist realism - from the mid-1930s to the early 1980s. was the official theoretical principle and artistic direction in Soviet art. Its main principles were: communist ideology, party spirit and nationality, which determined the range of plot-thematic compositions, typified portraits, thematic landscapes, paintings, etc.
easel art - a kind of fine art that combines works of painting, sculpture, graphics that have independent artistic value (not being elements of any complex, part of the decor of a building, etc.).
A statue - a significant piece of circular sculpture, usually depicting a human figure, less often other real or imaginary beings.
Suprematism(from Lat. "highest") - a kind of abstractionism, founded in 1913 by Malevich. Rejecting the image of the surrounding world and any association with it, Suprematism was looking for a figurative expression of higher-order patterns with the help of simple geometric figures.
Sphinx - a fantastic creature with the body of a lion and the head of a man, especially common in the art of ancient Egypt.
Surrealism(French "super-realism") - an artistic movement that arose in France after the First World War. Based on the doctrine of the subconscious, the representatives of surrealism sought to get rid of the pressure of logic, reason, various norms and traditions that "fetter" creativity.
Tablet - the modern name accepted in science for the small icons that existed in Ancient Russia, written not on a board, but on a primed fabric (the old Russian name is “towel”).
Tempera(from Italian “to mix paints”) - painting with paints, the binder in which are emulsions of water and egg yolk, as well as vegetable or animal glue diluted in water, mixed with oil (or oil and varnish).
transept - a transverse nave or several naves crossing the main longitudinal nave at right angles.
Triptych(from the Greek. "folded in three") - a work of painting (occasionally graphics or sculpture in the form of a relief), consisting of three independent parts and dedicated to a common theme.
Facade - outside, usually the front side of a building.
Fayum portrait- funeral picturesque portraits in ancient Egypt in the technique of wax painting on a board, then inserted into the bandages of mummies in place of the face of the deceased.
Fauvism(French Fauves - wild) - the first, definitely declared itself, direction in the fine arts of the 20th century; The period of the highest activity of Fauvism refers to 1905-07. Headed the direction of Matisse. The paintings of the Fauvists are defiantly bright, sonorous in colors.
Folklore(English folklore - folk wisdom) - the name of folk art accepted in international scientific terminology.
Fresco(Italian “fresh, damp”) - painting on damp, not yet set and easily absorbing paint plaster.
Gable- the triangular completion of the Greek temple, later - the palace facades, doors and windows of other buildings.
Futurism(from Latin "future") - a direction in the art of the 20th century, whose adherents sought to create a new dynamic style that destroys all the traditions, canons and techniques of the old art.
Heaton - loose-fitting clothing. In conjunction with the himation, it was interpreted as the clothes of wandering preachers, in which Jesus Christ in the events of his earthly life and the apostles were depicted in iconography.
Expressionism(from Lat. "expression") - a direction in European art of the first third of the 20th century. Expressionism is dominated by the desire of the artist to express himself, his inner world with maximum nakedness and sharpness.
Elite art - art that consciously focuses on the "elite of society": on a narrow circle of readers, viewers, listeners, who, unlike most others, are considered capable of understanding and appreciating works of such art.
Hellenism- a period in the history of ancient culture from the 4th to the 1st centuries. BC e., from the word "Hellenes" - Greek.
Encaustic(from the Greek. "I burn") - wax painting; done hot with paints mixed with melted wax.
Epoch (gr. eposhe)- a point in time from which a new development or a certain period of time begins.
print(French “imprint”) – this is usually the name of a signature print of easel graphics, made by the author himself.
aesthetic ideal- the idea of perfect beauty, the highest criterion for aesthetic evaluation.
Paganism- a religious belief that denies a single god and adheres to polytheism.
Admiral- the highest of the naval ranks, 1st class in the "Table of Ranks".
Academy of the Three Most Noble Arts (Russian Imperial Academy of Arts)- a higher educational institution founded in 1757 in St. Petersburg, leading training in the field of plastic arts. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. played a progressive role in the training of domestic architects and artists. Abolished in 1918
actuary in 18th century Russia clerical employee in state institutions, registering acts or compiling them.
Altyn- a fraction of the ruble, a monetary unit that contains 6 money or 3 kopecks. From 1654 it was minted from copper, from 1704 - from silver, from 1814 to 1916 - copper and silver.
Amir- one of the highest officials in Safavid Iran.
Lectern- a high stand in Orthodox churches, on which church books are placed for reading during worship, icons and a cross are placed.
Artillery and Engineering gentry corps- a noble educational institution, which in 1756 united artillery and engineering schools, which received the name of the gentry corps in 1762.
Archimandrite- the head of a monastery of outstanding significance or antiquity.
Assessor- from the Latin "assesor" - an assessor in central government institutions.
Assembly- meetings and balls held in the homes of noble people.
Banknotes- paper money, equated to metal money.
Astrolabe- a goniometric device that served in the 18th century. to determine latitudes and longitudes in astronomy, as well as horizontal angles in land surveying.
Ataman - the highest head of the Cossack army, initially elected. In the 40s of the XVIII century. the election of military chieftains was canceled.
Baroque- from the Italian "barocco" - pretentious. In European architecture - a special artistic style of the 16th-18th centuries, distinguished by grandeur, massiveness, and luxurious decorativeness of buildings.
Bastion- from the French "bastion" - a pentagonal fortification in the form of a ledge of a fortress fence for shelling the area in front of and along the fortress walls and ditches, as well as a separate fortification.
Batogi- sticks used for corporal punishment in Russia until the 18th century.
Timeless Investigation- a detective, not limited in time.
Belomestsy- persons whose yards (places) were exempted from the tax.
Whites (settlements, peasants, etc.)- Exempted from bearing the tax.
Birichi- officials in the Gubnaya hut.
Middle thought- the council of especially trusted persons of the king, who received from the middle of the 17th century. official status, similar in function to the Boyar Duma.
Near office- a state body that arose in 1699 and exercised direct control over the administrative bodies of the country. In November 1708, the Near Office was transformed into the Council of Ministers.
Bobyl- A person who does not own land.
bombardier school- a school opened in 1698 under the Preobrazhensky Regiment for the training of artillerymen.
boyar- the first, highest rank of the Boyar Duma.
Boyar Duma- the highest body of state power in Russia XVI - early. 18th century
Boyar books- paintings of representatives of the upper stratum of feudal lords with data on local and monetary salaries, service activities, etc., compiled by the Discharge Order in the 16th-17th centuries.
fireman- from the German "brander" - a ship loaded with explosives, which was set on fire and launched towards the enemy or used to barricade in the harbor.
Brigantine- from the Italian "brigantino" - in the XVII-XIX centuries. in the Navy of European states - a sea sailing two-masted vessel with straight sails on the front mast (fore mast) and oblique on the back (main mast). In the XVIII century. in Russia - a sailing and rowing vessel for transporting troops and cargo in coastal areas, which had 2-3 guns.
Burmese Chamber (City Hall)- a self-government body of the urban population, created in 1699, responsible for the collection of direct taxes, customs and tavern money, which contributed to the centralization of tax collection. In 1708–1710 with the creation of the provinces, the Town Hall turned into a Moscow institution.
Burgher- from the German "burger" - a city dweller.
Bureaucracy- from the French "bureau" - bureau, office, and the Greek "kratos" - strength, power, domination; for the XVII-XVIII centuries. - professional bureaucracy, the main source of income of which is the salary received for service to the state (sovereign).
vassal state A state dependent on another state. The terms "vassal" ("servant"), "vassalage" originated in the Middle Ages in Western Europe and meant a system of relations of personal dependence of some feudal lords - vassals from others - seniors.
Upper Zemsky Court- according to the reform of 1775, one of the three judicial instances of the provincial city, which was in charge of the court in relation to the nobility.
Upper Zemstvo massacre- according to the reform of 1775, one of the three judicial instances of the provincial city, which was in charge of the court in relation to the peasantry.
Supreme Privy Council ("high leaders")- the highest advisory state institution in Russia in 1726–1730. Included 7-8 people. Created by Catherine I, dissolved by Anna Ioannovna.
Owner- Ruler of Moldavia, Wallachia.
Governor- a representative of the central government in local government with military-administrative powers.
Voivodeship- in the 17th century. in Ukraine, a unit of territorial-administrative division corresponding to counties in Russia.
military circle- a combined-arms meeting among the Don, Volga, Yaitsky, Grebensky and Terek Cossacks in the 16th-18th centuries; the supreme body of power that elects officials.
parish- the unification of villages, villages and camps in areas that did not have urban centers.
"Free Economic Society"- the first Russian scientific society, founded in 1765 in St. Petersburg and stopped working in 1915, published the first statistical and geographical study of Russia, which contributed to the introduction of new agricultural technology into agriculture.
Votchina- land ownership that is inherited.
Choice- the top of the service city.
Vymorochny lands- lands left without heirs.
Vytny collection- collection of money in the worldly budget.
Galley- from the Italian "galera" - a wooden rowing military vessel.
Midshipman- from the French "garde-marin" - a rank in the Russian Navy, established in 1716 for students of the senior companies of the Naval Academy, and later the Cadet Naval Corps when sent to the fleet for practice.
Howitzer- from the German "Haubitze" - an artillery gun for mounted firing at covered targets.
Guard- from the Italian "guardia" - selected, privileged part of the army. Appeared in Italy in the 12th century, in European countries - in the 15th-17th centuries, in Russia - the guard (life guard) was created by Peter I in the 90s of the 17th century.
Admiral General- the highest naval rank in Russia of the XVIII century. until 1908, corresponding to the rank of field marshal in the ground forces.
Governor General- the head of a metropolitan or strategically important province, sometimes several provinces.
Generalissimo- from the Latin "generalelissimus" - "the most important" - the highest military rank in the Armed Forces. In Russia, it was introduced by Peter I in the 18th century.
Lieutenant General- (in 1730 - the end of the XVIII century - lieutenant general) - the third army rank in the "Table of Ranks".
Major General- the fourth army rank in the "Table of Ranks".
Attorney General- the head of the Senate Chancellery, independent of the Senate, subject only to the court of the king (emperor), whose official duty was to monitor the legality of the state apparatus.
Requetmaster General- an official under the Senate, who collected complaints against decisions of other institutions, including collegiums, personally investigated them, and compiled reports for the Senate.
Field Marshal General- the highest military rank, the first rank in the "Table of Ranks".
Feldzeugmeister General- chief artillery commander in the Russian, French and Prussian armies.
Coat of arms- a distinctive sign of the state, city, estate, clan, depicted on seals, coins, flags, etc.
heraldry- Heraldmaster's Office, Department of Heraldry - in the Russian Empire, a body within the Senate (1722–1917), which was in charge of registering nobles in the public service, guarding their class privileges, keeping genealogical books, and compiling coats of arms.
Hetman- Polish "hetman" from the German "Hauptmann" - chief. Poland in the 16th-18th centuries army commander; since 1539 in the Commonwealth - 2 hetmans: grand crown– in Poland and his deputy full hetman- in Lithuania. In Ukraine XVI - the first half of the XVII century. hetman - the head of the registered Cossacks; since 1648 - the ruler of Ukraine and the head of the Cossack army; since 1657 there were Hetman Pravoberezhna(before 1704) and Hetman of the Left-bank Ukraine; from 1708 he was appointed by the tsarist government; in 1722–1727 and 1734–1750 not assigned; in 1764 they were abolished.
Gymnasium- middle School of General education. The first gymnasium in Russia appeared in 1726 in St. Petersburg.
Main public schools- educational, four-class institutions, organized since 1786 in the provinces, providing education in primary literacy, the basics of the Orthodox faith, general and natural history, geography, mechanics, physics, architecture.
Golutvenye Cossacks- the lower classes of the Cossack society.
upper room- heated building, built on the basement.
city clerk- an institution of local government, known since the 15th century, a permanent and widespread institution with wide competence (military-administrative, financial-tax, land, etc.).
city head- in pre-revolutionary Russia since 1785 - the head of the city government.
Knight Marshal- a court rank and a 3rd class position in the "Table of Ranks", whose duty is to manage the court household (supply, receptions, etc.).
grenadiers- type of infantry in European armies in the 17th-20th centuries.
Grandmaster of the Order- Grand Master - the head of the Catholic spiritual and knightly order, elected by the members of the order for life and approved by the pope.
Governor- from the Latin "gubernator" - "ruler". In pre-revolutionary Russia - the highest government official in the province, the main territorial and administrative unit of the state.
Province- a unit of territorial and administrative division in Russia in the 18th - early 20th centuries.
Lip hut- local estate-representative body of government.
Lip warden- an elected official in the local government, elected from the nobility.
double-fingered- the custom of being baptized with two fingers (fingers), common in the Russian Orthodox Church before being adopted in the second half of the 17th century. innovations of the Nikon reform.
The Butler- the head of the palace administration in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries, in the XVII century. - court title.
Den (s) ha- a fraction of the ruble, a coin equal to 0.5 kopecks; in the ruble - 200 money.
Cash salary- the amount of monetary payment of service people in accordance with the position held.
Decimal tax
Tithe arable land- natural service in favor of the state of the Russian peasants of Siberia.
Boyar children - the lowest rank of the service nobility, small landowners. Distinguished children of Moscow boyars (assigned to Moscow), policemen (assigned to cities), tsaritsyn rank (serving the queens), heads of church dioceses.
District in 18th century Russia the lowest territorial-administrative unit.
sentinel books- official documents drawn up on the basis of the results of patrols.
Watcher- participant of patrols aimed at resolving controversial issues.
Household Cossacks- Prosperous part of the Cossacks.
Dragoons- a type of cavalry in European states and Russian armies of the 17th-20th centuries, intended for military operations on horseback and on foot; appeared in France in the 16th century.
Duma nobleman- the third rank of the Boyar Duma.
Theological Seminary- a secondary educational institution that trains ministers of religious cults and provides a theological education.
Theological schools- spiritual educational institutions, open since the 20s of the XVIII century. in all dioceses, the curricula of which, along with theology, included a number of secular subjects (languages, mathematics, history, geography, etc.).
clerk- "servant", head of local institutions (moving huts), head of central institutions - orders or his assistant. From the 16th century the most senior of the clerks are the Duma clerks (the lowest rank of the Boyar Duma).
Chasseur regiments- a type of light infantry and cavalry in the European and Russian armies of the 18th-19th centuries. Until the middle of the XIX century. formed from the best shooters and acted in loose formation.
unanimous singing- in Russian worship, the consistent performance of various chants.
Diocese- territorial-administrative unit of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Esaul- from the Turkic "head", from the 16th century. position, from the 18th century. - a rank in the Cossack troops, equated in 1798 with the rank of captain in the cavalry.
Efimok- Polish "joachymik" - the Russian name for the Western European silver thaler, from which in Russia in the 17th-18th centuries. silver coins were minted; in 1704 it was adopted as a weight unit of the silver ruble.
Letter of Complaint- a certificate that provides various benefits.
lodger- a nobleman of the Moscow rank, who stood on the service ladder above the county nobleman, whose duties included duty at the royal court. Also served in the initial men in the cavalry and infantry.
Girondins- a political grouping of the period of the Great French Revolution, representing mainly the republican commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. The name comes from the name of the Gironde area, where many of the group's leaders were from. On August 10, 1792, after the overthrow in France, the monarchies came to power; opposed the further development of the revolution. They lost power as a result of the uprising on May 31 - June 2, 1793. Some of the Girondins were executed, others in 1794 joined the counter-revolutionary forces.
Zhuz- Horde of Kazakhstan. In the second quarter of the XVIII century. Kazakhstan was divided into three zhuzes: Small, Middle, Senior.
check in- tax collection in favor of the head of the diocese.
Zaporizhzhya Sich- the organization of the Ukrainian Cossacks in the XVI-XVIII centuries. beyond the Dnieper rapids. The name comes from the name of the main fortification (Sich - the island on which the first settlements of the Cossacks were located). Until 1654, the Cossack "republic", the main body of power - the Sich Rada, headed by the ataman. In 1709, the Old Sich was liquidated, in 1734 the New Sich was created by the Russian government, which was liquidated in 1775 after the suppression of the uprising led by E. Pugachev.
Request money- a type of emergency fees, including for salaries of service people.
Zemskaya hut- local elective government.
Zemstvo judges- zemstvo judicial institutions operating in the northern territories.
Zemsky Sobor- the central estate-representative body of government.
Zemsky headman- an elected official who led the Zemsky hut and was elected from the townspeople.
Zipun- a short peasant caftan.
hegumen- from the Greek "hegumenos" - "leading", rector of an Orthodox monastery.
Isograph- icon painter
Eminent citizens- according to the "Charter to Cities" (1785) - one of the six official categories of the urban population, which included merchants with a capital of more than 50 thousand rubles, bankers with a capital of at least 100 thousand rubles, as well as urban intelligentsia (architects, painters, scientists) .
Nominal decree- a legislative act drawn up only by the tsar, without the participation of the Boyar Duma.
cabal- the conclusion of an agreement on admission to the serfs.
Cabinet of Ministers- in Russia in 1731–1741. the supreme state body consisting of three cabinet ministers, the official council under Tsaritsa Anna Ioannovna.
Cadet gentry corps- an educational institution founded in 1731, intended exclusively for teaching noble children military and partly civil sciences (geography, jurisprudence, etc.), later called "Land".
Treasury Chamber- the provincial body of the Ministry of Finance in the Russian Empire in 1775–1917, which was in charge of tax collection, state property, wine farming and other financial affairs; according to the provincial reform of 1775, which was part of the provincial government.
Treasurer- Head of the Treasury.
Camisole- from the French "camisole" - tight-fitting men's clothing knee-length.
Chancellor (Active Privy Councilor)- the highest of the civil ranks, 1st class in the "Table of Ranks".
Police Captain- according to the provincial reform of 1775, the head of the county administration, elected by the nobles of the county and approved by higher authorities.
Corporal- from the French "caporal" - the military rank of junior officers in some foreign armies. In the Russian army, the rank of corporal existed in the 17th-19th centuries.
caftan- a type of oar men's clothing, cut to the waist.
Cuirassiers- a type of heavy cavalry in European armies of the late 16th - early 20th centuries. (in Russia - since the 18th century). They had a cuirass (consisting of 2 metal plates, curved in the shape of the back and chest and connected with buckles on the shoulders and sides) and a helmet, weapons - a broadsword, a carbine and a pistol.
Classicism- from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary, style and direction in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries.
crate- an obligatory element of the peasant household, where the family property (clothing, dishes), as well as grain was stored; built on a basement.
Kokoshnik- in architecture, more often - church, XVI-XVII centuries. semicircular or keeled zakomara - the completion of a part of the outer wall of the building, repeating the outlines of the vault, having a decorative purpose, often located in tiers.
Boards- in Russia in the 18th - early 19th centuries. central institutions in charge of individual branches of government. Established by Peter I in 1717–1721. instead of orders, abolished with the formation of ministries.
Collegiate Registrar- the lowest of the civil ranks, 14th grade in the "Table of Ranks".
Collegiate Counselor- civil (state) rank, 8th class in the "Table of Ranks", the receipt of which served as the basis for obtaining personal (not inherited) nobility.
Commission in Moscow- a temporary body of the 16th-17th centuries, which coordinated the activities of state structures during the absence of the king in the capital.
Conditions- the conditions for the accession to the throne of Empress Anna Ioannovna, put forward in 1730 by the Supreme Privy Council in order to limit the monarchy.
Council of Ministers- the supreme body created in 1708 from the members of the Near Office and ruled Moscow and the country in the absence of the tsar.
Consulate- a special political regime in France, established since 1799, when three consuls acted simultaneously, the first of which was Napoleon. Since August 1, 1802, Napoleon has been consul for life with the right to appoint his successor. After a royalist conspiracy uncovered in February 1804, Napoleon was proclaimed emperor and crowned on December 1–2, 1804.
Conference at the Imperial Court- a state body established on May 14, 1756 to discuss the problems of international politics, gradually concentrating internal management in its hands, having the right to send its instructions to the Senate (in the form of "protocols", "extracts").
confession- from the English "confess" - "religion", church organization. Christian organizations that build their doctrine and confession of the Bible on the same creed belong to the same denomination.
cordon system- the European system of military formation of the army, according to which troops were distributed evenly along the entire front line on the battlefield.
Feed- regular offerings, gifts to representatives of the central authorities in the field.
feed money- a type of monetary allowance that went to ensure service in the regiments formed by the government in the 17th century.
Kravchey- palace (court) rank - the position of Moscow Russia; chief of stewards.
Peasant quitrent- a serf, released by the owner to work out quitrent, who entered into a relationship of free employment with the employer (in particular, with the owners of manufactories).
Single Palace Peasant- from 1714-1718 - personless and without peasants, expelled from the noble class, who became peasant landowners, personally free, paying a poll tax.
elector- from the German "kurfursten" - in the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation - the princes (spiritual and secular) who elected the emperor. Brandenburg - originally a mark county of medieval Germany, became an elector from 1356, from 1618 united with Prussia into the Brandenburg-Prussian state, which became a kingdom from 1701 (capital - Berlin).
Landrichter Judge, one of the provincial officials of the XVIII century.
legitimacy- from the Latin "legitimus" - legal, legality.
Letnik- women's clothing with wing-sleeves hanging from the shoulders and leaving the sleeves of the "red" shirt open.
Bream- parquet made of oak, sometimes painted boards.
Battleship- in the sailing navy of the 17th - first half of the 19th centuries. a large-sized three-masted warship with 2-3 decks (decks), which had from 60 to 130 guns and up to 800 crew members.
Stalker- court (palace) rank - position of the XVI-XVII centuries, in the XVIII century. - Jägermeister.
Magistrate- since 1720, the self-government body in charge of the city, consisting of elected representatives of the urban estates; since 1775 (provincial reform) - one of the three judicial instances of the county town, which ruled the court in relation to the urban population. Abolished by judicial reform of 1864
Tycoons- large feudal lords of Poland and Hungary, well-born and wealthy nobility. In modern Russian, the term is also used in a figurative sense, to refer to representatives of large industrial and financial capital.
Madrigal- from the French "madrigal" from the 17th century. - a small complementary poem.
Major- military rank, 8th class in the "Table of Ranks", the award of which served as the basis for obtaining personal (not inherited) nobility.
Majorat- the system of inheritance from father to eldest son (power, land allotment), established in Western Europe in the Middle Ages.
Small public schools- two-class educational institutions, organized since 1786 in the counties.
Order of Malta- a spiritual and knightly order founded in Palestine by the crusaders at the beginning of the 12th century. The original residence of the Joannites (Hospitallers) is the Jerusalem hospital (house for pilgrims) of St. John. At the end of the XIII century. left the East. In 1530–1798 settled on about. Malta (Order of Malta). Since 1834, the residence of the Johnites has been in Rome.
Manifesto- from the late Latin "manifestum" - an appeal, a special act of the head of state or the highest body of state power, addressed to the population in connection with important events.
Manufactory- a large enterprise based on the division of labor, using manual labor.
Mercantilism- economic policy aimed at creating an active trade balance (the predominance of exports over imports).
Localism- the system of distribution of official places among the feudal lords in the Russian state from the XIV-XV centuries. until 1681-1682, when the appointment to the service (military, administrative, court) took into account the origin, official position of the ancestors and personal merits.
Philistines– in Russia 1775–1917. taxable class, consisting of urban artisans, urban old-timers, small merchants, homeowners, hired workers, etc., united at the place of residence in communities with some self-government rights.
Min- a dynasty of Chinese emperors that ruled the country from 1368 to 1644.
Midshipman- the lowest of the naval ranks, 14th class in the "Table of Ranks".
polyphony- in Russian worship, the simultaneous performance of several different chants, introduced in the 16th century. to shorten the church service, which finally went out of use in the 1st half of the 18th century.
Naval gentry corps- a closed educational institution for noble children, established in 1752.
Mortar- from the Dutch "mortier" - an artillery gun with a short barrel for mounted shooting, intended mainly for the destruction of especially strong defensive structures. It was used from the 15th to the middle of the 20th century.
Moscow Theological Academy- a higher theological educational institution that trains ministers of religious cults and provides a theological education.
Murza (mirza)- “prince”, “prince”, junior khans, major military commanders, who came from the feudalizing tribal aristocracy of the Turkic nomadic peoples.
order- government instruction to newly appointed officials, indicating their powers.
Viceroy- in the XII-XVI centuries. - an official who headed the local government and exercised power in the territory under his jurisdiction in the name of the Grand Duke; in the 16th - early 18th centuries. - a title given to a person performing diplomatic missions.
Naryshkin baroque- the architectural style of the 17th century, the hallmarks of which are splendor, elegance, the use of a tower-type building, a frequent combination of red brick for the main masonry and white for decoration.
Irregular (mean) citizens- in the XVIII century. (since 1720) a category of citizens (personally free, without property, living by selling their labor force) who do not have voting rights to city governments.
Non-judgmental letter
Netchik- being "in the net" - on the run.
Lower Zemstvo massacre- according to the reform of 1775, one of the three judicial instances of the county town, which was in charge of the court in relation to the peasantry.
Newly placed charter- a certificate issued at the time of appointment to the priesthood.
Chief Chamberlain- Head of the court stables and hunting.
Oberproviantmeister- one of the provincial officials of the 18th century, responsible for collecting food for the needs of the army.
Chief Prosecutor- a secular person who headed the Synod.
General city council- according to the "Letter of Letters to Cities" (1785) - the establishment of a system of urban self-government, whose members were elected at meetings of citizens of each of the 6 categories of the urban population. The most important duty of the General City Duma is the election of members of the Six-voice Duma.
Restrictive (cross-kissing) entry- a document containing any obligations, in the fulfillment of which the person who imposes them on himself swears, while kissing the cross. The cross-kissing records of the elected kings of the Time of Troubles are evidence of the incompleteness of their power.
gumennik- area for storage of grain crops.
Oh yeah- from the Greek "ode" - a song, a genre of lyrical poetry and music, a solemn, pathetic work.
okolnichiy- the second rank of the Boyar Duma.
Oligarchy- from the Greek "oligarhia" - a regime in which political power belongs to a narrow group of people.
Opashen- women's swing clothes made of colored cloth (velvet, brocade) with long sleeves and an extensive collar, worn both buttoned up and saddle.
Gunsmith- Head of the Arms Department.
consecrated cathedral- the highest collegiate governing body in the Russian Orthodox Church, the first curia of the Zemsky Sobor.
Prison- fortified settlements of Russian settlers in Siberia. In the future, administrative centers, many of which grew into cities.
Reply Chamber- a diplomatic body that conducts negotiations in Russia (usually in Moscow) with representatives of foreign powers.
Otkhodnichestvo- the right of the peasant to go to work and enter into contractual relations with the employer.
Boarding house- a type of educational institution for noble children, which spread in the second half of the 18th century.
Parsuna- from the distorted word "persona", the conventional name for the works of Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian portraiture of the late 16th-17th centuries, which retains the techniques of icon painting.
Passport (holiday passport)- from 1724, a newly introduced document - "vacation", which made it possible for the peasant to go to work in another area; signed by the landowner or clerk, when leaving the county - by the zemstvo commissar, certified by the regimental seal.
foam money- fines.
Passable letters permission for a priest to move to another church.
Scribe- a participant in censuses that record the current state of affairs.
Scribe books- official documents compiled as a result of censuses.
Pishchal- in Europe - an arquebus, a heavy matchlock muzzle-loading gun, one of the original examples of handguns, known since the 15th century. It was loaded from the muzzle initially with stone, then with lead bullets. The powder charge was ignited by hand through a priming hole in the barrel. Also an artillery gun of the 15th-17th centuries.
anonymous letter- anonymous, secret denunciations, propaganda leaflets, a means of social struggle in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries.
Poll tax- a unit of taxation per male soul, introduced during the census activities in 1718-1722. Significantly influenced the evolution of serfdom in Russia in the direction of strengthening the personal dependence of the peasants on the landowner.
clerk- an official in the congress hut and central institutions.
Regiments of the "new (foreign) system"- military units formed in the 17th century. in Russia from free people, Cossacks, foreigners, later - dependent people on the model (organization, training) of Western European armies.
Poltina (fifty dollars)- a fraction of the ruble, a coin worth 50 kopecks. First issued in 1654. Initially minted from copper, in 1699-1915. - from silver, in 1756, 1777-1778. - from gold.
Polushka- a fraction of the ruble, the smallest coin of Moscow Russia, equal to / kopeck, since 1700 - the smallest denomination of the Russian monetary system, minted from copper until 1916
local salary- the amount of payment for service people in the form of land holdings in accordance with the position held.
Estate- until 1714 - conditional land ownership, which is a means of paying for service, from 1714 (decree on uniform inheritance) - remained as a household concept, in a legal sense, transformed into hereditary possession, previously designated by the term votchina.
commemoration- gifts, offerings as a token of gratitude. In international relations - an annual tribute to the Crimean Khan.
Poneve- women's peasant clothing, reminiscent of modern skirts, worn over a shirt.
Posad- part of the city in which the trade and craft population lived; was divided into hundreds and settlements, including the place of residence of artisans engaged in one type of activity.
Possession peasants (workers)- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. category of peasants who belonged to private enterprises.
Fimble- fabrics from hemp fiber.
Embassy Congress- the most significant and responsible form of negotiations between Russian and foreign diplomats. The 17th century was characterized by congresses with Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish representatives. In the local era, participation in the embassy congress is a privilege of the most well-born part of the aristocracy.
Bedding- palace (court) rank - the position of Muscovite Russia, the bearer of which was responsible for the royal treasury, the internal routine of the royal chambers, was in charge of the Master's Chamber, kept the royal seal.
Promise- a gift, a present brought before the decision of cases, a bribe.
Ensign- the lowest of the military ranks, 14th class in the "Table of Ranks".
Marshal of the nobility- the head of the noble assembly of the province or district (respectively - the provincial marshal of the nobility or the district marshal of the nobility), elected with the knowledge and permission of the governor-general (governor) once every three years.
lovely letters- documents that, as a rule, come from the camp of the rebels in the 17th-18th centuries, containing the main requirements of their program. It comes from the word "to seduce".
aisle- in an Orthodox church, a small pillarless extension from the southern or northern facade, which has an additional altar for worship.
Order- in the XVI - early XVIII century. central executive and judicial institution, eventually replaced by collegiums, later by ministries.
Order of public charity- according to the provincial reform of 1775 - the establishment of the provincial administration system, which dealt with the affairs of schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.
Ascribed peasants- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. - state and palace peasants, instead of paying a feudal tax, they worked in state and private factories.
Provinces- an administrative-territorial unit in Russia 1719–1775. as part of the province, divided into shares and districts.
prosecutor- in the XVIII century. - an official at each collegium, who supervised the rule of law and was subordinate to the prosecutor general.
Simple cooperation (of labor)- a form of labor organization that ensures the consistency of joint actions of workers in the production process, in which workers perform homogeneous work, in contrast to complex cooperation based on the division of labor.
Protectorate- one of the forms of colonial dependence, in which the protected state retains only some independence in internal affairs, and its external relations, defense, etc. are carried out by the metropolitan state.
Protectionism- patronage, stimulation of domestic trade and craft activities, including by restricting the trading rights of foreigners.
Protestantism- one of the directions in Christianity, which broke away from Catholicism in the 16th century. Protestantism is characterized by the rejection of a complex spiritual hierarchy, a rigid opposition of the clergy to the laity, the absence of monasticism, the absence of a requirement for the celibacy of the clergy, a simplified cult, etc.
archpriest- the everyday name of the archpriest - a senior Orthodox priest. In the 17th century - Pastor of the Cathedral.
Spotted money- a type of emergency collections from the population, made in the 10-30s of the XVII century.
glad- the historical name of the people's assemblies and councils of representatives in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland.
bit books- sets of records (ranks), appointments for military, civil and court services in the 16th - early 18th centuries, which were under the jurisdiction of the Discharge Order.
reprisal chamber- an official state body created during the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich for a preliminary discussion of issues submitted to the Boyar Duma. Considered controversial civil cases on requests from orders and complaints from citizens.
Loose system- dismembered along the front formation of infantry units and dismounted cavalry in the offensive at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. In the Russian army, P.A. was first used. Rumyantsev during the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763.
Ratgauz- the city board of the provincial city, which appeared in the Pavlovian era, part of which was appointed by bureaucratic means, the rest were elected by the merchants with subsequent approval by the governor and the Senate.
Audit soul- in the XVIII century. a male person bearing a poll tax and listed in the list of taxes, from which he could be excluded only during the next census (audit) of the population.
Regulations- legislative acts of the Russian state in the first quarter of the 18th century, drawn up on the initiative and with the personal participation of Peter I; determined the states, structure, functions, procedure for the activities of central state institutions, the organization of the army and navy, the procedure for passing military and civil services.
Regular citizens- in the XVIII century. (since 1720) a category of townspeople (merchants, small traders, artisans, etc.) who enjoy voting rights in city government bodies.
Redoubt- from the French "redoute" - a field fortification in the form of a square, rectangle or polygon, prepared for all-round defense; stronghold in a system of fortified positions.
Registry- Polish "rejestr" - list, list, inventory. Registered Cossacks - part of the Ukrainian Cossacks in the 16th - first half of the 17th century, accepted into the service of the Polish government and included in a special list - the register.
Reiters- from the German "Reiter" - "horseman", a type of heavy cavalry in Europe of the 16th-17th centuries, in Russia of the 17th century. - the first regular cavalry.
Recruitment duty (recruitment)- the method of manning the Russian regular army in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Recruitment duty was subject to tax-paying estates (peasants, philistines, etc.), who nominated a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874, it was replaced by military service.
Riga- outbuilding for threshing.
Riksdag riksdag is the parliament in Sweden.
Rhetoric- the science of oratory.
Ruga- the maintenance of churches and monasteries at the expense of the state treasury, which included funds for food and the minimum needs of a certain number of monks.
Sacralization- endowing the character of royal power with elements of Divine origin.
Svetlitsa- originally a room for needlework, which eventually turned into a living room, an obligatory feature of which were windows, into the windows of which pieces of mica were inserted, and later - glass.
Holy Tribute- a complex of tax collections in favor of the head of the diocese.
Secularization of culture- the acquisition of a secular character, liberation from the influence of the church.
Secularization of church lands- from the late Latin "saecularis" - worldly, secular; - Conversion by the state of church property to secular property.
Saltpeter plant- a factory that produced gunpowder.
Senate- in Russia 1711-1917. - the highest state body subordinate to the emperor. Established by decree of Peter I on February 22, 1711 as an emergency and temporary body. From 1719 included the presidents of all colleges, from 1722 - only the presidents of the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Colleges. The next highest judicial body after the king, the highest court of appeal. From the 1st half of the 19th century. - the highest judicial body that oversees the activities of state institutions and officials. According to the judicial statutes of 1864 - the highest instance of cassation.
Sentimentalism- from the French "sentiment" - a feeling, a trend in European and American literature of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. He proclaimed the cult of natural feelings, nature, paid attention to the feelings and experiences of an ordinary person.
Safavids- a dynasty of Iranian shahs that ruled in Persia from 1501 to 1722.
Syllabic system of versification- in poetic lines containing the same number of syllables, there is no periodic repetition of stressed syllables.
Synod- from the Greek "synodos" - "assembly" - the highest body of church administration in Russia, created during the Peter's reforms instead of the institution of the patriarchate. It marked the final subordination of the church to the state.
Osprey- organized action of the masses of people against the king and representatives of the royal administration.
Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy- the first higher educational institution in Moscow, founded in 1687 under the name of the Hellenic-Greek Academy. In 1701–1775 - Slavic-Latin Academy - a training center for the needs of the state and the church, teachers of educational institutions, students for medical schools and universities. In 1814 it was transformed into the Moscow Theological Academy and transferred to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.
verbal teaching- an educational course that was widespread in the first half of the 17th century. and included teaching literacy, writing, counting, hook musical notation.
Serving people in the fatherland- representatives of estates accepted for public service, exempted from state taxes.
Service people on the instrument- recruited representatives of the taxable estates.
Smolny Institute- an educational institution for women of noble and petty-bourgeois ranks, established in 1764, leading training in general subjects, home economics and needlework.
Meeting of the city society- according to the "Letter of Letters to Cities" (1785), the main body of city government, convened once every three years and elected responsible persons (mayor, mayors, assessors of the magistrate and assessors of the conscientious court).
conscientious court- the provincial court in Russia in 1775–1862, which considered civil cases (as a conciliation procedure) and some criminal cases (juveniles, insane, etc.).
Council at the High Court- the highest deliberative body of Russia in 1769-1801, consisting of close associates of the emperor. Discussed reform projects for local government institutions in 1775–1785.
Falconer- Head of the Falconry Order.
Soldier- an ordinary regiment of an infantry soldier's system.
sleeping bag- palace (court) rank - a position in Moscow Russia, the immediate duty of the sleeping bag is to be on duty in the king's rooms.
Old Believers- a set of religious groups and churches in Russia that did not accept the church reforms of the middle of the 17th century, which became oppositional or hostile to the official Orthodox Church.
Stolbunets- women's high fur hat.
Stolnik- palace (court) rank - a position in Moscow Russia, the direct duty of the steward is to serve the princes (kings) during meals; when endowing the patriarch with the title of great sovereign, the category of patriarchal stolniks arises.
Streltsy money- a single tax, introduced in the reign of Fedor Alekseevich and going to various state needs, first of all - the maintenance of the army.
Solicitor- palace (court) rank - a position in Moscow Russia, the direct duty of the solicitor is to accompany the king during his trips and exits.
schema- monastic vows.
Scholasticism- from the Greek "sholastikos" - "school", "scientist" - a type of religious philosophy, characterized by a combination of theological and dogmatic premises with a rationalistic methodology and an interest in formal logical problems. In a figurative sense - fruitless philosophizing divorced from life.
moving out hut- local government, which included representatives of the central government.
Tariffs- the system of rates at which fees are charged for services; for customs tariffs - for the transportation of goods across the border.
Tarkhan- Exemption from the jurisdiction of local authorities.
Tat- thief.
Terlik- maid men's clothing, a short caftan made of light fabric, tightly fitting the figure, sewn from colored smoothly dyed, most often silk fabrics.
Title- translated from Latin "titulus" - an honorary title; in Muscovite Russia in the 17th century. distinguished royal titles (his formulas included - the great sovereign, the great prince, etc.); patriarchal (great lord); titles of representatives of the tribal aristocracy (prince; from the 18th century - baron, count); vicegerent titles, i.e., titles assigned in connection with the fulfillment of diplomatic missions (viceroy of Vladimir, governor of Kazan, etc.).
Tiun- head of the Tiun hut in Moscow.
Tonic system of versification- built on the periodic repetition of stressed syllables, is the basis of modern versification, the founders of the system - M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky.
Treatise- an international treaty.
Treba- liturgical rite.
three-fingered- the custom of being baptized with three fingers, which spread in the Russian Orthodox Church after Nikon's reform.
tax- a complex of taxes and duties in favor of the state.
heavy yard is the unit of taxation.
Ubrus- a special head towel that covered the head, part of the face and shoulders, worn by married women.
county- a territorial-administrative unit of the 17th century, uniting the city and the territories adjacent to it.
county court- according to the reform of 1775, one of the three judicial instances of the county town, which was in charge of the court in relation to the nobility.
Uniates- supporters of the Uniate (Greek Catholic) Church - a Christian association created by the Union of Brest in 1596, subordinate to the Pope, recognizing the basic dogmas of the Catholic Church while maintaining Orthodox rites.
Unification- from the Latin "unus" - one, a rational reduction in the number of objects of the same functional purpose, the creation of a more uniform system.
Teaching grammar- an educational course that involved teaching seven free arts (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, music, geometry, astrology).
field marshal- the highest military rank in the armies of some states. in Russia in the 18th century. - 1st class in the "Table of Ranks". In the XVI century. in the German states, in the 17th century. in Austria, later in Russia, a higher rank of field marshal was introduced.
Enlightenment philosophers- representatives of the progressive ideological current of the era of transition from feudalism to capitalism (second half of the 17th-18th centuries), who advocated the establishment of a "kingdom of reason" based on "natural equality", for political freedom and civil equality. Great importance was attached to the dissemination of knowledge in achieving a new social order. The largest representatives: J. Locke in England; Voltaire, J.J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, P.A. Golbach, K.A. Helvetius, D. Diderot in France; G.E. Lessing, I.G. Herder, F. Schiller, I.V. Goethe in Germany; T. Jefferson, B. Franklin, T. Payne in the USA.
Fiscal- in Russia 1711–1729. a civil servant to oversee the activities of state institutions and officials, whose most important function is to combat malfeasance (fiscals were headed by the chief fiscal - a member of the Senate Chancellery, subordinate to the prosecutor general).
Flagship- the ship on which the flagship is located (commander of the fleet or the formation of ships - squadron, etc.). The flagship itself is also called the flagship for short. On the flagship, the flag assigned to this flagship is hoisted.
Frigate- from the Dutch "fregat" - in the sailing navy - a three-masted warship (the second largest after the battleship), which had up to 60 guns.
Khlebnya- an outbuilding, in the middle of which stood a large baking oven.
serf- in the XV - early XVIII century. a legal term meaning a person who was in the personal possession of a landowner who did not pay taxes. According to the Petrine law on the poll tax, they became a taxable unit, drawing closer to the peasantry. The concept of "serf" has lost its legal meaning.
Tselovalnik- an elected official in the local government system, according to tradition, "kissing" the cross when assuming certain functional duties.
church cathedral- in the Orthodox and Armenian-Gregorian churches - meetings of pastors and teachers of the church, compiled, in accordance with the church rules and laws of the state, to affirm the truths of the faith, to improve the affairs of the church, to establish, maintain and develop order and discipline in the church. In the 17th century under the patriarchs, there were great church councils and "from the adopted" bishops in Moscow; under Peter I, instead of temporary church councils, a permanent Consecrated Cathedral was established under the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, in 1721 - the Holy Governing Synod, after which the meeting of temporary church councils ceased.
Workshops- associations of urban artisans (of one or related specialties), which appeared in Western Europe in the 13th-14th centuries. to protect against the encroachment of the feudal lords and to ensure the monopoly for the members of the guild on the production and sale of handicrafts; in Russia - a workshop device was introduced in 1722.
Qing- a dynasty of Chinese emperors of Manchu origin, who ruled the country from 1644 to 1912.
digital school- in 1714-1744. in Russia there are state primary general education schools for boys of all classes, except for the peasantry. They taught literacy, writing, arithmetic with the beginnings of geometry. Transformed into garrison, episcopal and mining schools.
petition, petition- Appeal to resolve various issues.
Black (volosts, hundreds, peasants, etc.)- bearing the burden.
Quarter (half-fifty, half-fifty)- a fraction of the ruble, a silver coin of 25 kopecks. Periodically minted from 1701 to the beginning of the 20th century.
honor- the main unit of taxation in the 17th century, which included a certain number of peasant and bobyl households, depending on the location of the county.
Six-voice thought- according to the "Charter to the cities" (1785) - the main executive, permanent body of power in the city.
School of "mathematical and navigational arts"- opened in 1701 in Moscow in the Sukharev Tower for training personnel for the army and navy.
nobility- from the Polish "szlachta" - the name of secular feudal lords, of Polish-Lithuanian origin, corresponding to the nobility.
gentry in Poland and Russia in the 18th century. - one of the names of the nobility.
Stadtholder- Head of the Netherlands
Yuft- top quality leather.
Safe houses from dinners- collection in favor of the head of the diocese when priests perform one-time services.
Yamsky money- a tax that ensures the maintenance of public transport facilities.
Janissaries- regular infantry in the Turkish army, created in the XIV century. and liquidated in 1826.
Yasak- fur tax from the local population of Siberia and the Far East.
Yaselnichiy- in the XVI century. - assistant equestrian boyar - head of the stable order, in the XVII century. - Head of the Stable Department.
