The most striking events in history can rightfully be considered the campaigns of the Vikings, just as they themselves would rightly be called very interesting figures in the period from the 9th to the 11th century. The very word "Viking" roughly means "sailing in the sea." In the native language of the Normans, "vik" means "fjord", which in our opinion will be "bay". Therefore, many sources interpret the word "Viking" as "man from the bay." A common question is "Where did the Vikings live?" would be as inappropriate as the assertion that "Viking" and "Scandinavian" are one and the same. In the first case, we are talking about a person, in the second - about belonging to a particular people.
As for belonging to a certain ethnic group, it can be difficult to identify it, since the Vikings settled in the occupied territories, soaking in all the local “benefits”, as well as saturating the culture of these lands. The same can be said about the titles that were awarded to the "people of the fort" by various peoples. It all depended on the place where the Vikings lived. Normans, Varangians, Danes, Russes - such names were received by the "sea army" on more and more new shores, where it landed.
A lot of myths and misconceptions hover around the bright historical characters, which were the Vikings. Where the Norman invaders lived, what they did, besides their campaigns and raids, and whether they did anything other than them at all, are very delicate questions that torment the heads of historians to this day. However, at least seven misconceptions about the "Scandinavian barbarians" can be deduced today.
Cruelty and thirst for conquest
In most films, books and other entertainment resources, the Vikings appear before us as bloodthirsty barbarians who cannot imagine their life without daily sticking their ax into someone's skull.
The initial reason for military campaigns among the Normans was the overpopulation of the Scandinavian lands where the Vikings lived. Plus constant strife of clans. Both forced a large part of the population to go in search of a better life. And the river robbery was nothing more than a bonus to their hard way. Naturally, poorly fortified European cities became easy prey for sailors. However, as for other peoples - the French, the British, the Arabs and others, who also did not disdain bloodshed for the benefit of their pockets. Suffice it to recall that all this happened in the Middle Ages, and this way of making money was equally attractive to representatives of various powers. And the national propensity for bloodshed had nothing to do with it.
Hostility
Another claim that the Vikings were hostile to everyone but themselves is also a delusion. In fact, foreigners could both take advantage of the hospitality of the Normans and join their ranks. Many historical records confirm that French, Italians and Russians could meet among the Vikings. An example of staying in the Scandinavian possessions of Ansgar - the envoy of Louis the Pious - is another proof of the hospitality of the Vikings. You can also remember the Arab ambassador ibn Fadlan - the film "The 13th Warrior" was shot based on this story.
Natives of Scandinavia
Although, contrary to the above remark, the Vikings are equated with the Scandinavians, this is a deep delusion, which is explained by the fact that the Vikings lived on the territory of Greenland, Iceland, as well as France and even Ancient Rus'. In itself, the assertion that all the "people of the fiord" are from Scandinavia is a mistake.
Where the Vikings lived at the beginning of the Middle Ages is an inappropriate question, since the “marine community” itself could include various nationalities, from various lands. Among other things, it is worth noting the fact that the French king freely gave part of the land to the Vikings, and in gratitude they stood guard over France when it was attacked by an enemy “from outside”. It is not uncommon that this enemy was the Vikings from other lands. By the way, this is how the name "Normandy" appeared.
Dirty heathen savages
Another oversight of many narrators of bygone years is the depiction of the Vikings as dirty, unscrupulous and wild people. And again, this is not true. And the proof of this is the finds that were extracted during excavations in various places where the Vikings lived.
Mirrors, combs, baths - all these remnants of an ancient culture found during excavations confirmed that the Normans were a clean people. And these finds were extracted not only in Sweden, Denmark, but also in Greenland, Iceland and other lands, including the Sarskoye settlement, where the Vikings lived on the banks of the Volga, which was located on the territory of Ancient Rus'. In addition to everything else, it is not uncommon for the remains of soap made by the hands of the Normans themselves to be found. Once again, their cleanliness is proved by the joke of the British, which approximately sounded like this: “Vikings are so clean that they even go to the bathhouse once a week.” It does not hurt to recall that the Europeans themselves visited the bathhouse much less often.
Two-meter blondes
Another false statement, as the remains of the bodies of the Vikings say otherwise. Those who are presented as tall warriors with blond hair, in fact, reached no more than 170 centimeters in height. The vegetation on the head of these people was of different colors. The only thing that is indisputable is the preference for this type of hair among the Normans themselves. This was facilitated by the use of a special coloring soap.
Vikings and Ancient Rus'
On the one hand, it is believed that the Vikings were directly related to the formation of Rus' as a great power. On the other hand, there are sources that deny their participation in any event in history. Historians perceive Rurik's affiliation with the Scandinavians, and vice versa, are especially controversial. However, the name Rurik is close to the Norman Rerek - this is how many boys were called in Scandinavia. The same can be said about Oleg, Igor - his relative and son. And wife Olga. Just look at their Norman counterparts - Helge, Ingvar, Helga.
Many sources (almost all) unanimously state that the possessions of the Vikings extended to the Caspian and Black Seas. In addition, in order to reach the Caliphate, the Normans used crossings across the Dnieper, Volga and many other rivers flowing on the territory of Ancient Rus'. The presence of trade deals in the area of the Sarsky settlement, where the Vikings lived on the Volga, was repeatedly noted. In addition, raids were often mentioned, accompanied by robberies in the region of Staraya Ladoga, the Gnezdovsky mounds, which also confirms the presence of Norman settlements on the territory of Ancient Rus'. By the way, the word "Rus" also belongs to the Vikings. Even in the "Tale of Bygone Years" it was said that "Rurik came with all his Rus."
The exact location where the Vikings lived - on the banks of the Volga or not - is debatable. Some sources mention that they were based right next to their forts. Others argue that the Normans preferred a neutral space between water and large settlements.
Horns on helmets
And another misconception is the presence of horns on the top of the military vestments of the Normans. For all the time of excavations and research in the places where the Vikings lived, no helmets with horns were found, with the exception of the only one that was found in one of the Norman burial grounds.
But a single case does not give grounds for such a generalization. Although this image can be interpreted differently. It was in this way that it was beneficial to represent the Vikings to the Christian world, which classifies them as the offspring of the devil. And everything that has to do with Satan, Christians for some reason necessarily have horns.
On one of the summer days of 789, an event occurred on the coast of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, which only local chroniclers paid attention to. To the shore of the island of Portland, in the era of the Roman Empire, called Vindelis in Latin, three long boats landed, capable of going both at oars and under sails. Bearded, fair-haired strangers disembarked from the ships, speaking a language vaguely similar to Old English - at least the roots of most words were understandable to the inhabitants of Wessex. Thane Beochtrik came out to meet the shipmen with his men. We don’t know what the conversation was about, but it ended in a quarrel: the aliens killed Beochtrik, slaughtered his small detachment, took the trophy weapons, plunged into the boats and disappeared into the ocean.
In general, this story at that time was not something out of the ordinary - it was a matter of everyday life. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain diligently fought among themselves, and when closely related swarms got bored, they began to shove the Celts in Wales or Scotland, got back and returned to the usual civil strife. The war was the most common thing, and if you pay attention to every minor skirmish in the annals, you won’t get enough parchment. So why did such an insignificant incident on Vindelis attract the attention of the chronicler, and in our times is considered almost the key event of the 8th century in Europe, which launched a new era?
Scheme of Scandinavian expansion in VIII –XI centuries. Green indicates areas that were attacked by the Vikings, but not colonized by them
It should be noted here that the Anglo-Saxons have been Christians for more than two hundred years - as well as all their neighbors without exception: the Franks and Bretons across the English Channel, the Irish, the Scots and the Welsh. Relics of polytheism, if preserved, were at the household level or in very remote and inaccessible mountainous regions. The ill-mannered bearded men who landed in Wessex turned out to be real pagans - which in itself was extremely unusual.
The story of Tan Beochtrik is the first documentary evidence of the appearance of the Vikings. The sacking of Lindisfarne and Yarrow, the raids on Ireland, the landings on Orkney and Shetland - all this will happen later. In 789, none of the British or Franks could even imagine that Christian Europe was faced with a force that over the next three centuries would change not only the borders, but also the demographic situation, culture, and even cause a new prayer: “A furore Normannorum libera nos Domine!” - "From the fury of the Normans, save us, Lord!"
So let's try to figure out where the Vikings came from, who they are and why their invasion took place at all.
Scandinavia in the Dark Ages
People on the Scandinavian Peninsula appeared long before the birth of Christ. The earliest cultures (Kongemose, Nöstvet-Lihult culture, Ertebölle culture, etc.) date back to the Mesolithic and around the sixth millennium BC. For two or three thousand years BC. in southern Scandinavia, carriers of the “Culture of Battle Axes and Corded Ware” appear, which, presumably, become the core of the emergence of the Germanic peoples - they migrate north from the Jutland Peninsula and begin to populate the territories of present-day Sweden and Norway.
However, these are very old cases, and we are interested in the period after the fall of the Roman Empire, when a group of North Germanic tribes began to separate from the rest of Europe. The great migration of peoples, the collapse of Rome, the adoption of Christianity by the Goths, Franks and other Germans - in a word, all the grandiose changes in the middle of the first millennium of our era practically did not affect Scandinavia: too far. In the Dark Ages, no one showed interest in Scandinavia: the Franks had something to do on the continent, the introduction of Christianity proceeded, albeit confidently, but slowly: the church first had to establish itself in the new barbarian states. The inhabitants of the peninsula, located beyond the North and Baltic Seas, have been "boiling in their own pot" for many centuries, knowing practically nothing about the turbulent events in Europe. If Christian missionaries appeared there, they were isolated and incapable of achieving serious success: the old Germanic gods were revered, as they were centuries ago, and nothing threatened their cult.
Wendel style helmet,
8th century (from the collection of the Stockholm Museum of Antiquities)
Here it is necessary to make a lengthy digression and talk about the climatic features of those times - otherwise it will not be clear why all of a sudden, starting from the 8th century, the Scandinavians rushed to look for new lands for settlement. Over the centuries, the climate changed more than once, optima (warming) and pessimum (cooling) alternated - the so-called Roman climatic optimum, which lasted from the time of Julius Caesar until about 400 AD, contributed a lot to the prosperity of the Roman Empire. The average temperature then was higher by an average of 1-2 degrees, Roman authors tell us that in Britain and Germany they even began to grow grapes - approximately from 280 AD.
In turn, the climatic pessimum of the early Middle Ages, which occurred during the Great Migration, exacerbated the already not the most prosperous military-political and demographic situation in Europe - the cooling that began around the 5th century reduces the sown area, especially goes to the northern regions in general and, of course, Scandinavia in particular. St. Gregory of Tours in the extensive work of the VI century "History of the Franks" notes: " At that time, there were heavy rains, there was a lot of water, it was unbearably cold, the roads were limp with mud and the rivers overflowed their banks.". In 535–536, an unprecedented climatic anomaly occurs. Let's give the floor to the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea ("War", IV, 14. 5-6):
“... And this year the greatest miracle happened: the whole year the sun emitted light like the moon, without rays, as if it was losing its strength, ceasing, as before, to shine purely and brightly. From the time this began, neither war, nor pestilence, nor any other calamity that brings death has ceased among people. Then was the tenth year of the reign of Justinian.
Other authors claim that even at noon the sun looked "bluish" and objects did not cast shadows - this means that for almost a year and a half there was a dust suspension in the atmosphere caused by a supervolcano eruption or a large meteorite fall, and most likely both factors. The German scientist Wolfgang Behringer, in his book Kulturgeschichte des Klimas, cites archaeological data - in Norway in the 6th century, about forty percent of the farms were abandoned, that is, their owners either died out or migrated south. In general, in Old Norse mythology, cold, frost and ice have eschatological properties, being a symbol of death and chaos – remember the ice giants…
Nevertheless, by the 8th century, the climate begins to stabilize - warming sets in, crop areas expand again, grain crops can be harvested at latitudes adjacent to the Arctic Circle, and the quality of life rises sharply. The result is quite natural - explosive population growth.
However, here one should take into account not only climatic features, but also the geographical specifics of the Scandinavian Peninsula. If in eastern Sweden there are vast plains suitable for agriculture, then in mountainous Norway it is possible to grow bread and graze herds only on narrow strips of land along the coast and in river valleys. It is impossible to endlessly divide allotments between sons - the earth will not feed them anyway. In the bottom line: excess (and passionate) population, lack of food. Scandinavia is not rubber. What to do?
The way out was found quite quickly - since there is no fertile land, it means that one must be sought overseas. Given the fact that the ancient Scandinavians knew how to build excellent ships a long time ago, the solution to the issue lay in the palm of their hand. The first "prototype" of the drakkar, the "Hjortspring Boat", found by archaeologists in Denmark, on the island of Als, dates back to the 4th century BC. - the boat could accommodate up to 20 rowers. Moreover, the Scandinavian boats, having a minimum draft, could walk in any shallow water and penetrate into narrow rivers.
Hjortspring boat - the ship of the ancient Germans, ca.4th century BC National Museum of Denmark
It was then that the first forays of the ancient Scandinavians towards the continent and the British Isles begin - for starters, for more reconnaissance purposes than conquest. It was necessary to get acquainted with the situation, and this clearly testified: there is a lot of land there, the density of the local population is extremely low, such a population is unusual for lightning raids from the sea, and in general is not aware that they are possible. There is also documentary evidence - let's quote the scientist, theologian and poet of the 8th century Flaccus Albinus (Alcuin):
“Three hundred and fifty years we and our fathers have lived in this beautiful land, and never before has Britain known such horror as it has known now, after the appearance of the Gentiles. No one suspected that robbers could come from across the sea.”
Nobody suspected. And Europe has paid a huge price for its ignorance.
They came!
In the light of the foregoing, the question remains open - how did the European kings and bishops, who played an increasingly important political role, miss such an incredible danger? Where did the great historical figures of that era look? In the end, the emperor Charlemagne cannot be called an incompetent loafer, and the former barbarians quite successfully adopted such an important tool for the state as intelligence from Rome that had gone into oblivion! It is quite obvious that at least some connections existed between the Frankish Empire and Scandinavia - the northern borders of Saxony and Frisia adjoined the territory of present-day Denmark, the inhabitants of which will also take a lively part in the coming atrocities of the Vikings.
No answer. Perhaps the growing cultural and civilizational differences played their role - let us recall the words of Alcuin, in which the key is the concept of "pagan", which is opposed to "Christians". Europeans were then united not by ethnicity, but by religion: any non-Christian was a stranger, be it a Spanish Moor-Muslim or a Scandinavian who worshiped the gods of Asgard. For the time being, the Franks and the kingdoms of Britain treated the unwashed pagans from the distant northern fjords with disdain, sincerely believing that the Lord was on the side of the Christians (then - who is against them?!).
Vikings. Old English miniatures
Now we need to explain what we generally mean by the term "Viking". The word itself is formed from two parts: “vik”, that is, “bay, bay”, and the ending “ing”, denoting a community of people, most often generic - compare: Caroling, Capet, etc. We get the "man from the bay"! Initially, the Viking squads were made up of those very surpluses of the population - the younger sons who did not inherit the allotment, people who left the clan themselves or were expelled from it, or even just seekers of adventure, wealth and glory. That is, not settled Scandinavian landowners. However, why only the Scandinavians? Anyone could be in the crew of the ship - a Norwegian, a Wend, a Ruyanin, a Ladoga Krivich. After the Scandinavians began to master the “Road from the Varangians to the Greeks” through the Neva, Ladoga, Volkhov and further to the Volga basin, many Slavs began to appear in the squads, especially since the polytheistic pantheons of Scandinavia and Ancient Rus' were very close, and on this basis it was possible to find a common language very quickly.
So, Viking is not a profession, not a nationality and not an occupation. This is a social status, a marginal social group, something between a soldier of fortune, a person without a fixed place of residence and a bandit as part of an organized group of people of Scandinavian (and not only) nationality. Such good fellows, without any unnecessary reflection, could easily rob the neighboring fjord, their own relatives, Norwegians or Swedes - the precedents are known. For the most part, they were not limited by the obligatory system of moral taboos for settled Scandinavians and gradually began to believe that they were superior to boring farmers, if only because the sacralization of war began in the religious sphere - it is enough to recall the cult of the warrior gods, Odin, Thor and others.
Thor with the hammer Mjollnir. Statuette dating from about 1000 AD.
If a social group has appeared, then its own subculture, its own ethics and its own religious views will certainly arise in such a group - especially in the conditions of the tribal system that dominates around. You don’t need to go far for examples - the functions of the priesthood, godi, are gradually transferred to military leaders: if you are a successful king, it means that you are close to the gods, they favor you - therefore, you send the necessary rituals and make sacrifices. There is only one way to be guaranteed to get to Valhalla after death - to die heroically in battle. One of the first places is given to personal prowess and glory, of course, obtained in a fair battle.
Finally, it is the Vikings who "invent" the marines in the form in which we know it - there was nothing to oppose them to unprecedented tactics before the European Christians. The scheme worked out by the ancient Scandinavians was simple, but incredibly effective: a sudden raid at almost any point of the sea or river coast (again, recall the ability of drakkars to walk in shallow water), and after a successful attack, an equally lightning-fast retreat, until the enemy managed to pull up any significant strength - then look for fistulas of these robbers on the high seas. It is only later that the Vikings will engage in respectable trade, for the sake of curiosity they will open Iceland, Greenland and America and go to serve in the “Varangian squad” to the Byzantine emperors, and at the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th centuries they were engaged exclusively in the most egregious robberies, seizing land in England, Ireland and on the mainland, the slave trade and other equally interesting things ...
Old Norse ships, modern reconstruction. Drakkar in the foregroundislandingur("Icelander"), who in 2000 sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. Currently in the Njardvik Museum, Iceland
To tell here about the first major raid of the Vikings - the attack on the monastery of St. Cuthbert on the island of Lindisfarne on June 8, 793 - does not make sense, this story is well known. Suffice it to say that this unfortunate event took place only four years after the first appearance of the Vikings off the coast of Wessex; Scandinavians very quickly realized that Christian monasteries and cities store a lot of wealth, which should have been put to more reasonable use. From Lindisfarne, the Vikings dragged even the coffin of the founder of the monastery, St. Cuthbert, and it was found only three hundred years later, in 1104, fortunately, slightly damaged. Since then, Europe no longer knew peace - they appeared almost every year, here and there. It was absolutely impossible to predict the direction of the next blow, as well as to seriously resist the Scandinavians by military force - they slipped out of their hands like drops of mercury; the armies of the heirs of Charlemagne or the British kings simply did not have time to approach the site of the next attack.
However, we will tell about the further history of the Viking campaigns some other time - this text was intended to explain how the climatic and geographical features of the early Middle Ages predetermined the beginning of the era of the Norman conquests, which lasted more than three hundred years.
The Vikings or Normans are northern peoples who came from Scandinavia from the territory of modern Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The Vikings lived, as a rule, in coastal areas, and their life was closely connected with the sea. To date, there is no consensus on the origin of the name "Viking". According to one theory, the name "Vikings" (from the Old Norse vik - bay) means the inhabitants of the coast of the bay. The Vikings often went on campaigns for the purpose of robbery and robbery, which earned them the fame of cruel warriors. Medieval period from the 8th to the 11th centuries. sometimes called the Viking Age - because of their frequent raids on the countries of Europe.
At the end of the 8th century, the first detachments of the Vikings left their homeland in search of new lands. At first, they attacked foreign countries, killing people, robbing and burning cities, stealing livestock, food and other property, which is why they were known as ruthless and cruel robbers. For several years, the Vikings carried out raids on the vast territories of the British Isles and the northern coast of France, and over time they began to increasingly attempt to conquer other countries. In the ninth century many Viking settlements appeared on the coast of England, Scotland and Ireland (it was thanks to the Vikings that Dublin flourished, a Celtic settlement conquered in 830, the modern capital of Ireland). A huge army of Vikints invaded eastern England with 350 ships, but King Alfred the Great managed to stop the invaders and protect the southern part of the country. However, after the campaigns of two great leaders - Sven Forkbeard in 1013 and Knut the Great in 1016, the Scandinavian warriors captured all of England for a while.
Courage and resourcefulness
The success of the campaigns and conquests of the Vikings was largely determined by the appropriate equipment. Unexpected attacks from the sea became possible thanks to the long boats (langskip) invented by them - fast and light wooden ships that "flowed" from wave to wave. They were equipped with a sail and several pairs of oars, at which strong warriors sat. The Vikings also built smaller boats (knorr) used to transport goods. Brutal warriors have invented new battle tactics. To frighten the enemies, berserkers were the first to rush into battle - warriors drunk with magical brews, seized with a thirst for blood and attacking with screams that made the blood run cold.
Viking ships were called drakars. They were about 30 meters long and could hold up to 80 soldiers.
Fearless travelers
Brave sailors, the Vikings made long journeys. Floating in rivers, they went far into the depths of the continents. Several times they attacked Paris, reached Rus' (where they were called Varangians) and Constantinople. The Vikings founded settlements on many islands, incl. in Iceland. Based solely on observations of stars and birds, they were able to cross the stormy Atlantic Ocean. The Vikings visited Greenland many times, and in 1000 even sailed to North America long before Columbus, although they did not establish settlements there.
The Vikings were skilled craftsmen and gifted bards. A testament to their craftsmanship is the magnificent finish of household items. The artistic inclinations of the Vikings were reflected in music and poetry. The Vikings composed long sagas - unusual stories about heroes, great friendship and hatred, revenge and traditions. Some sagas have survived to our times, but history has not preserved the names of their authors.
Viking women usually took care of the house, although they had much more rights than women in other societies of that time.
The Vikings were famous for their fine armor. They especially prized elaborately decorated swords and formidable axes, although they also used metal-pointed spears and bows. Many Vikings had round, light, but very strong shields made of several layers of leather and characteristic helmets. Leaders sometimes wore metal chain mail.
gods and heroes
The beliefs of the Vikings corresponded to their warlike character. They believed that the end of the world would come in the great battle of the gods and giants, and courageous warriors after death ended up in a country called Valhalla, where time passed in battles and feasts. The dead Vikings were buried along with their weapons, and the bodies of the most courageous warriors were placed in ships that were buried in the ground or burned. Some elements of the beliefs of this people can still be found in European culture today. For example, in English the word Thursday, i.e. "Thursday", comes from the name of Thor - the deity of the Vikings, the powerful lord of the storm and war.
Vikings- early medieval predominantly Scandinavian sailors, in the VIII-XI centuries, made sea voyages from Vinland to Biarmia and from the Caspian Sea to North Africa. For the most part, these were free peasants who lived on the territory of modern Sweden, Denmark and Norway, who were pushed outside their native countries by overpopulation and a thirst for easy money. Religiously, the vast majority are pagans.
Swedish Vikings and Vikings from the Baltic Coast, as a rule, traveled to the east and appeared in ancient Russian and Byzantine sources under the name of the Varangians. Norwegian and Danish Vikings moved mostly to the west and are known from Latin sources under the name of the Normans. A look at the Vikings from within their society is provided by the Scandinavian sagas, but this source should be approached with caution due to the often late date of their compilation and recording. Other non-Scandinavian peoples of the Baltic were also seen to be involved in the Viking movement. The Vikings included the Baltic Slavs (Vends), in particular, the Vagrs and Ruyans became famous for their pirate raids on Scandinavia and Denmark. This information is also preserved in the sagas. In the “Saga of Hakon the Good” it is written “Then King Hakon sailed east along the banks of the Skani and ravaged the country, took ransoms and taxes and killed the Vikings, where he only found them, both Danes and Wends.”
Lifestyle. Abroad, the Vikings acted as robbers, conquerors and traders, and at home they mainly cultivated the land, hunted, fished and raised cattle. The independent peasant, who worked alone or with relatives, formed the basis of Scandinavian society. No matter how small his allotment was, he remained free and was not tied like a serf to the land that belonged to another person. In all strata of Scandinavian society, family ties were strongly developed, and in important matters its members usually acted together with relatives. The clans jealously guarded the good names of their fellow tribesmen, and trampling on the honor of one of them often led to cruel civil strife. Women in the family played an important role. They could own property, decide on their own about marriage and divorce from an unsuitable spouse. However, outside the family hearth, women's participation in public life remained negligible.
Food. In Viking times, most people ate two meals a day. The main products were meat, fish and grains of cereals. Meat and fish were usually boiled, rarely fried. For storage, these products were dried and salted. From cereals, rye, oats, barley and several types of wheat were used. Usually porridge was cooked from their grains, but sometimes bread was baked. Vegetables and fruits were rarely eaten. From the drinks consumed milk, beer, fermented honey drink, and in the upper classes of society - imported wine.
Cloth. Peasant clothing consisted of a long woolen shirt, short baggy trousers, stockings and a rectangular cape. Vikings from the upper classes wore long pants, socks and capes in bright colors. Woolen mittens and hats were in use, as well as fur hats and even felt hats. Women from high society usually wore long clothes, consisting of a bodice and a skirt. Thin chains hung from buckles on clothes, to which scissors and a case for needles, a knife, keys and other small items were attached. Married women put their hair in a bun and wore conical white linen caps. Unmarried girls had their hair tied up with a ribbon.
Dwelling. Peasant dwellings were usually simple one-room houses, built either from tightly fitted vertical beams, or more often from wicker wicker coated with clay. Wealthy people usually lived in a large rectangular house, which housed numerous relatives. In heavily forested Scandinavia, such houses were built of wood, often in combination with clay, while in Iceland and Greenland, in conditions of a shortage of wood, local stone was widely used. Walls 90 cm thick or more were folded there. The roofs were usually covered with peat. The central living room of the house was low and dark, with a long hearth in the middle. They cooked food, ate and slept there. Sometimes inside the house, along the walls, pillars were installed in a row to support the roof, and the side rooms fenced off in this way were used as bedrooms. 
Literature and art. The Vikings valued skill in combat, but they also revered literature, history, and art. Viking literature existed in oral form, and only some time after the end of the Viking Age did the first written works appear. The runic alphabet was then used only for inscriptions on tombstones, for magic spells and short messages. But in Iceland, a rich folklore has been preserved. It was written down at the end of the Viking Age using the Latin alphabet by scribes who wanted to perpetuate the exploits of their ancestors. Among the treasures of Icelandic literature stand out the long prose narratives known as sagas. They are divided into three main types. In the most important, the so-called. family sagas describe real characters from the Viking Age. Several dozen family sagas have survived, five of them are comparable in volume to large novels. The other two types are the historical sagas, which deal with Norwegian kings and the settlement of Iceland, and the adventurous fictional sagas of the late Viking Age, reflecting the influence of the Byzantine Empire and India. Viking art was primarily decorative. The predominant motifs - whimsical animals and energetic abstract compositions of intertwining ribbons - were used in wood carvings, fine gold and silver work, and decorations on runestones and monuments that were placed to commemorate important events. 
Religion. In the beginning, the Vikings worshiped pagan gods and goddesses. The most important of these were Thor, Odin, Frey and the goddess Freyja, of lesser importance were Njord, Ull, Balder and several other household gods. The gods were worshiped in temples or in sacred forests, groves and near springs. The Vikings also believed in many supernatural creatures: trolls, elves, giants, water and magical inhabitants of forests, hills and rivers. Bloody sacrifices were often made. Sacrificial animals were usually eaten by the priest and his entourage at feasts held in temples. There were also human sacrifices, even ritual killings of kings to ensure the welfare of the country. In addition to priests and priestesses, there were sorcerers who practiced black magic. The people of the Viking Age attached great importance to luck as a type of spiritual power inherent in any person, but especially leaders and kings. Nevertheless, that era was characterized by a pessimistic and fatalistic attitude. Fate was presented as an independent factor standing above gods and people. According to some poets and philosophers, people and gods were doomed to go through a powerful struggle and cataclysm, known as Ragnarök (Isl. - "end of the world"). Christianity slowly spread to the north and presented an attractive alternative to paganism. In Denmark and Norway, Christianity was established in the 10th century, the Icelandic leaders adopted the new religion in 1000, and Sweden in the 11th century, but in the north of this country pagan beliefs persisted until the beginning of the 12th century.
military art
Viking expeditions. Detailed information about the campaigns of the Vikings is known mainly from the written reports of the victims, who spared no colors to describe the devastation that the Scandinavians carried with them. The first campaigns of the Vikings were made on the principle of "hit and run". They appeared without warning from the sea in light, high-speed vessels and struck at weakly guarded objects known for their riches. The Vikings cut down a few defenders with swords, and the rest of the inhabitants were enslaved, seized valuables, and everything else was set on fire. Gradually, they began to use horses in their campaigns.
Weapon. Viking weapons were bows and arrows, as well as a variety of swords, spears and battle axes. Swords and spearheads and arrowheads were usually made of iron or steel. For bows, yew or elm wood was preferred, and braided hair was usually used as a bowstring. Viking shields were round or oval in shape. Usually, light pieces of linden wood, upholstered along the edge and across with iron stripes, went to the shields. In the center of the shield was a pointed plaque. For protection, warriors also wore metal or leather helmets, often with horns, and warriors from the nobility often wore chain mail. 
Viking ships. The highest technical achievement of the Vikings was their warships. These boats, kept in exemplary order, were often described with great love in the poetry of the Vikings and were a source of their pride. The narrow frame of such a vessel was very convenient for approaching the shore and quickly passing through rivers and lakes. The lighter vessels were especially suited to surprise attacks; they could be dragged from one river to another to bypass rapids, waterfalls, dams and fortifications. The disadvantage of these ships was that they were not sufficiently adapted for long voyages on the high seas, which was compensated by the navigational skill of the Vikings. Viking boats differed in the number of pairs of rowing oars, large ships - in the number of rowing benches. 13 pairs of oars determined the minimum size of a warship. The very first ships were designed for 40-80 people each, and a large keel ship of the 11th century. accommodated several hundred people. Such large combat units exceeded 46 m in length. Vessels were often built from boards laid in rows with overlapping and fastened with curved frames. Above the waterline, most warships were brightly painted. Carved dragon heads, sometimes gilded, adorned the prows of ships. The same decoration could be on the stern, and in some cases there was a wriggling dragon's tail. When sailing in the waters of Scandinavia, these decorations were usually removed so as not to frighten the good spirits. Often, when approaching the port, shields were hung in a row on the sides of the ships, but this was not allowed on the high seas.
Viking ships moved with the help of sails and oars. A simple square-shaped sail, made of coarse canvas, was often painted in stripes and checks. The mast could be shortened and even removed altogether. With the help of skillful devices, the captain could navigate the ship against the wind. The ships were steered by a paddle-shaped rudder mounted on the stern on the starboard side. 
Vikings in England
8 June 793 CE e. The Vikings landed on the island of Lindisfarne in Northumbria, destroying and devastating the monastery of St. Cuthbert. This is the first Viking attack clearly recorded in written sources, although it is clear that Scandinavians have visited British shores before. Since at first the Vikings used the tactic of pinstrikes, the chroniclers did not attach much importance to their raids. Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions a raid by pirates of unknown origin on Portland in Dorset in 787. The Danish Vikings were a serious success in conquering the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and occupying the western and northern parts of England. In 865, the sons of the Danish king Ragnar Lothbrok brought a large army to the shores of England, christened by the chroniclers "the great army of the pagans." In 870-871. the sons of Ragnar subjected the kings of East Anglia and Northumbria to cruel execution, and their possessions were divided among themselves. Following this, the Danes set about conquering Mercia.
King Alfred the Great of Wessex was forced to conclude a truce with the Danes, and then a full-fledged peace treaty, thereby legitimizing their possessions in Britain. Jorvik became the English capital of the Vikings. Despite the influx of fresh forces from Scandinavia in 892 and 899, Alfred and his son Edward the Elder successfully resisted the Danish conquerors, clearing the territory of East Anglia and Mercia by 924. Scandinavian dominance in remote Northumbria continued until 954.
A new wave of Viking raids on British shores began in 980. It culminated in the conquest of England in 1013 by the Danish Vikings of Sven Forkbeard. In 1016-35. Canute the Great was at the head of the united Anglo-Danish monarchy. After his death, the Wessex dynasty, in the person of Edward the Confessor, regained the English throne. In 1066, the British repulsed another Scandinavian invasion, this time led by the Norwegian king Harald Severe.
Scandinavian influence on the political culture, social structure and language of Ireland and other Celtic lands was much more significant than in England, but the chronology of their invasions, due to the scarcity of sources, cannot be reconstructed with the same accuracy. The first raid on Ireland is mentioned in 795. With the advent of the Vikings, the foundation of Dublin is connected, which the Scandinavians owned for two centuries. Their Scandinavian kings were in Limerick and Waterford, while the Dublin kings extended their power even to Northumbria at the beginning of the tenth century. 
Viking relations with the Frankish Empire were complex. During the time of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, the empire was relatively immune from the onslaught from the north. Galicia, Portugal and some Mediterranean lands suffered from episodic Norman raids in the 9th and 10th centuries. Viking leaders such as Rorik of Jutland entered the service of the Frankish rulers in order to protect the borders of the empire from their own tribesmen, at the same time controlling rich markets in the Rhine delta, such as Walcheren and Dorestad. King Harald Klak of Jutland took an oath of allegiance to Louis the Pious back in 823.
The penetration of the Vikings into the Finnish lands began in the 2nd half of the 8th century, as evidenced by the oldest layers of Staraya Ladoga. At about the same time with them, these lands were inhabited and mastered by the Slavs. In contrast to the raids on the coasts of Western Europe, the Viking settlements in Eastern Europe were more stable. The Scandinavians themselves noted the abundance of fortified settlements in the east of Europe, christening Ancient Rus' the "country of cities" - Gardami. Evidence of forcible Viking penetration in the east of Europe is not as plentiful as in the west. An example is the invasion of the Swedes into the lands of the Curonians, which is described in the life of Ansgar. The main object of interest of the Vikings was the river routes, through which it was possible to get to the Arab Caliphate through a system of portages. Their settlements are known on the Volkhov, Volga and Dnieper. The places of concentration of Scandinavian burial grounds, as a rule, are several kilometers away from the city centers where the local population, mainly Slavic, settled, and in many cases even from the river arteries themselves.
In the 9th century, the Vikings ensured trade with the Khazars along the Volga with the help of a proto-state structure, called by some historians the Russian Khaganate. Judging by the finds of coin hoards, in the 10th century the Dnieper became the main trade artery, the main trading partner instead of Khazaria was Byzantium. According to the Norman theory, from the symbiosis of the newcomer Varangians with the Slavic population, the state of Kievan Rus was born, headed by the Rurikovichs, the descendants of Prince Rurik. 
In the lands of the Prussians, the Vikings held in their hands the trading centers of Kaup and Truso, from where the “amber route” began in the Mediterranean. In Finland, traces of their long presence have been found on the shores of Lake Vanajavesi. In Staraya Ladoga, under Yaroslav the Wise, Jarl was Regnvald Ulvson. The Vikings traveled to the mouth of the Northern Dvina for furs and explored the Zavolotsky path. Ibn Fadlan met them in the Volga Bulgaria in 922. Through the Volga-Don portage at Sarkel, the Rus descended into the Caspian Sea. For two centuries they fought and traded with Byzantium, concluding several treaties with it.
Termination of sea voyages. The Vikings curtailed their conquest campaigns in the first half of the 11th century. This is due to the decline in the population of the Scandinavian lands, the spread of Christianity in northern Europe, which did not approve of robberies and the slave trade. In parallel, the tribal system was replaced by feudal relations, and the traditional semi-nomadic way of life of the Vikings gave way to a settled one. Another factor was the reorientation of trade routes: the Volga and Dnieper river routes were steadily losing importance to the Mediterranean trade, which was revived by the Venetian and other trading republics. Individual adventurers from Scandinavia in the 11th century were still employed by the Byzantine emperors and ancient Russian princes. Historians refer to the last Vikings on the Norwegian throne as Olaf Haraldson and Harald the Severe, who laid down his head while trying to conquer England. Ingvar the Traveler, who died during the expedition on the shores of the Caspian Sea, was one of the last distant overseas trips in the spirit of the ancestors. Having adopted Christianity, yesterday's Vikings organized in 1107-1110. own crusade to the Holy Land.
Weapons and armor
Horned helmet- in the mass consciousness is considered almost an obligatory attribute of the Viking, which was worn by all without exception. However, not a single horned helmet has been found in the entire history of the excavations. They found thousands of different ones - pointed and blunt, decorated and not, even dug up a couple of helmets with wings, like Hermes, but not a single horned one. Different peoples had such helmets, but it is assumed that primarily for ritual and decorative purposes. The fact is that a sword can slip along a pointed helmet, and catching on a horn, it either tears the helmet off the head, or turns it 90 degrees, or cuts it along with the head. In fact, the most common among the Vikings was a helmet similar to the "St. Wenceslas", that is, conical, with a nose and aventail. At that time - a sickly innovation. 
Shield- it was he who was the main defense of the Viking, round, with a umbon, about a meter in diameter, in the simplest case, stupidly knocked together from boards, sometimes covered with leather and bound with metal for reinforcement, but still - a consumable. It is he who holds most of the blows, there are a number of cunning and not very tactics to take him aside, and the one left in the notch without a shield is almost guaranteed not to be a tenant if he does not have time to jump behind his comrades. During hiking, the shield was hung on the back, and at sea they were attached to the sides of the drakkar. Shields were also used as a signal flag: a white shield raised on a mast meant peaceful intentions, a red one meant “someone will be killed now.”
Armor- depending on wealth: from a leather jacket or a bearskin sleeveless jacket for ordinary warriors to chain mail with scales additionally worn over it or a lamellar vest for a jarl or an experienced fighter.
Sword is the most popular weapon. The classic Viking sword - straight, double-edged, with a rounded end and a spherical pommel - is designed only for slashing. In the 10th and 11th centuries, swordsmanship as a discipline did not yet exist, and sword fighting included such elements as "swing harder", "fucking with all the dope" and "take a hit on the shield." They did not practice stabbing blows, they did not parry the sword with a sword - the iron of rough forging from such disrespect was easily jagged and could easily break. Actually, the main purpose of the sword is cutting a weakly protected enemy or beheading extra limbs from armored ones. 
Ax / ax- the second most popular and the first most important weapon. When they hear the word "Viking", most often a hefty kingpin in a horned helmet, chain mail and with a double-sided ax appears. In fact, the latter was used by the ancient Greeks and all sorts of Asians, and the Vikings preferred one-sided axes, the reason for which is quite simple: they fought in close formation, making up a wall of shields, and in such conditions, when swinging, you can easily hurt your own neighbor. In general, an ax is not only a weapon, but also a universal tool of that time - you can fix a longship, chop firewood, break the gate, break the skull, and cook porridge. And when robbing civilians, the ax is more convenient due to its versatility. To cut doors with a sword - a toad will strangle, but an ax is not a pity for such a thing, because high-quality steel was used only for the manufacture of the blade, and the butt and other parts were made of ordinary iron. In battle, it is much more practical to break shields and cut through armor with an ax, plus the ax continues to chop tolerably, even if it has lost its sharpening, while the sword turns into useless scrap. Well, you shouldn’t write off the economic aspect: an ax is easier to manufacture ⇒ cheaper, and therefore more accessible for a rogue, and it’s easier to straighten a chipped blade.
Brodex- an ax with a 45 cm blade, sitting on a meter-long ax handle with a two-handed grip. Priceless for crumbling into a fine vinaigrette. It is no coincidence that fighters with Brodex were placed on the edge of the wedge of the attacking Scandinavian stealth infantry.
Hammer- less common, but the most respected type of weapon. Could be both combat and throwing. The hammer of the Scandinavian God Thor Mjolnir is known, which was homing, caused lightning upon impact, and after hitting the target returned back to the hand. Accordingly, the Vikings, who respected their god, wore pendants in the form of a hammer. From a practical point of view, it is good because it misses such flexible armor as chain mail.
Spears- were used by the Vikings on an equal basis with all neighbors, throwing and combat differed. Fighting usually had a long leaf-shaped tip, which could not only prick, but also chop, and the shaft was bound with metal.
Viking ships
Drakkar- Terrifying Viking ships. A dragon's head was always placed on the bow of the ship, at the sight of which the civilian population soiled their pants and fled in horror. The ship worked on a manual drive, by rowing with oars on the water. With a fair wind, a square sail added speed. Thanks to the cunning design, these ships were versatile, all-terrain and invisible.
For a Viking, a drakkar meant more than a family castle for a knight, and it was a great shame to fuck up a drakkar - the whole squad could easily scatter with such a leader. Contrary to popular belief, only free Vikings could be rowers on a drakkar, and if for some reason a slave was put behind the oars, then after that he received freedom. Drakkar rowers had different status depending on their location on the ship. The most honorable places were at the bow of the ship. This was due to the fact that the speed and efficiency of moving the ship depended on the rowers, at the same time they were also warriors, and when moving into hand-to-hand combat, the units sitting on the bow were the first to engage in battle.
What do we know about Vikings? In the minds of most people, these are mighty warriors who lived somewhere in the north. They made brutal raids, traveled the seas, wore horned helmets and heavy weapons. But what does official history say about the Vikings?
Many historical documents, chronicles and archaeological finds have been preserved that can tell about the Vikings in sufficient detail.
First of all, you need to understand that Viking is a self-name, that is, the word that the ancient Scandinavians themselves called themselves. More precisely, those people who abandoned their habitable places and went on long voyages in search of new lands of habitation.
The Vikings were sailors, people from the tribes that inhabited modern Scandinavia. The Vikings made their travels and conquests in the 8th-11th centuries. This was a period when the decomposition of the tribal way of life took place in Northern Europe and early feudal relations were formed.
Other peoples called the Vikings in different ways. In Europe they were called Normans (literally - "northern people" ), and the Russians called them Varangians. Thus, in the Russian tradition, the Viking and the Varangian are about the same thing.
How and why did the Vikings appear?
The Vikings left their native lands and embarked on risky campaigns not from a good life. The tribal system was shattered, the power of the emerging nobility increased, and many free people simply did not have enough resources to exist.
Since ancient times, the Scandinavians lived by the sea, had excellent sailing skills, knew how. It is not surprising that the most active and courageous people began to unite and embark on travels. It is known that the Vikings sailed not only in the North and Baltic Seas: they went to the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea.
Viking character
According to contemporaries, the Vikings were distinguished by militancy, cruelty, and determination. They hunted by raids on the coastal lands of other peoples, piracy, and the capture of entire regions. At the same time, the Normans very quickly mixed with the enslaved peoples, mastered their language and way of life. 
Initially, the Vikings were pagans, worshiped the ancient pan-Germanic deities. But gradually many of them adopted Christianity and assimilated in the conquered territories. The Christian religion, the establishment of rigid feudal relations, as well as a favorable economic situation contributed to the fact that the violent temper of the Vikings was gradually pacified, and in the 11th century the Norman conquests ceased.
viking conquests
The Vikings made their raids throughout Northern Europe, but also visited other, more remote regions. Two major Norman conquests are known: England and France.
In the 10th century, the Normans conquered northern France, which is still called Normandy to this day. As for the British Isles, Viking attacks here occurred in waves over several centuries. At the beginning of the 11th century, the King of Normandy, William the Conqueror, reigned on the English throne.
In their campaigns of conquest, the Vikings reached Ireland and Sicily. Completely colonized Iceland, left their traces on the American continent.
Varangian trace in Russian history
Relations between the Slavs and the Vikings developed more peacefully. There were periods when the ancient Russians fought with the Scandinavians, at other times alliances were concluded. The ancient Novgorodians invited the Vikings as military mercenaries, providing them with land to live in and a special status. Numerous Scandinavian burials are found on the territory of our country, indicating that the Vikings lived among the Slavs, but until some time they did not assimilate with them.
Many historians are adherents of the "Norman theory", according to which the Vikings were the founders of princely power and the state itself in Ancient Rus'.
viking culture
An amazing fact: severe in temper, unpretentious in everyday life, accustomed to difficult conditions, the Vikings created a unique cultural tradition. 
We are talking about skaldic poetry and ancient sagas, which in many ways became a source of information about the Normans.
